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NAVIGATION
for the
COMMERCIAL PILOT LICENCE

CONTENTS
COMMERCIAL PILOT LICENCE
CHAPTER PAGE SUBJECT
THE MATHEMATICS OF NAVIGATION

THE EARTH
CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION
ANGLE
DEPARTURE
Questions
Answers
AVIATION CHARTS
Questions
Answers
RADIO BEARINGS
THE MERCATOR CHART
Questions
Answers
THE LAMBERTS CHART

Questions
Answers
RELATIVE VELOCITY
Questions
Answers
THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND TIME

Questions
Answers
NAVIGATION QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
I Commercial Pilot Licence

INDEX
Page (i)
ABBA formula ................................................................................................................................ 7-4

Anti-meridian .................................................................................................................................. 2-2
Aphelion ................................ . . ....................................................................................................
10-1
Apparent solar day ........................................................................................................................ 10-3
Arc to time .....................................................................................................................................10.5
Arc to time table
. . . f~nder ............................................................................................................................
. 10-6
Automat~cd~rect~on (ADF) ....................................................................................................6-1
Basic trigonometry ......................................................................................................................... 1-1
Calculating distance
. . flown .............................................................................................................. 1-7
Calculating flymg tlme ..................................................................................................................... 1-7
Cardinal points................................................................................................................................. 2-1
Chart convergency factor ................................................................................................................ 8-2
Civil twilight ................................................................................................................................
. . 10-16
Compass dev~at~on ..........................................................................................................................
2-5
Compass north ................................................................................................................................ 2-5
Constant of the cone ...................................................................................................................... 8-1
. . . .................................................................................................................................. 2-3
Converaencv
Conversion angle.............................................................................................................................2-4
Conversion ang.e . formula ............................................................................................................... 3-4
Convergency formula ...................................................................................................................... 3-2
Co-ordinated universal time (UTC) ............................................................................................... 10-7
Declination ..................................................................................................................................... 10-3
Departure formula............................................................................................................................ 4-1
Direction .................................. ......................................................................................................
2-4
Distance ...........................................................................................................................................
2-6
Double the angle on the bow ........................................................................................................ - 6
Earth's orbit .................................................................................................................................. 10-2
Equator .............................................................................................................................................
2-2
Equatorial. diameter
. . . ....................................................................................................................... 2-1
Evening c~vlltwlilght .................................................................................................................... 0-16
First point of aries ......................................................................................................................... 10-3
Graduated scale line ................................................................................................................... 5-2
Great circle.......................................................................................................................................
. . ......................................................................................................................2-1
Greenwich mer~d~an 2-2
International date line .................................................................................................................. 10-12
Isogonal............................................................................................................................................
2-4
Lamberts conformal conic projection.............................................................................................8-2
Lamberts chart - plotting radio bearings ....................................................................................... 8-4
Lamberts chart . properties ............................................................................................................8-3
Local mean time (LMT) ................................................................................................................. 10-4
Longitude
. .........................................................................................................................................
2-2
Mean solar day ............................................................................................................................. 10-4
Mercator chart . properties ............................................................................................................. 7-1
Mercator . plotting radio bearings ................................................................................................. 7-4
Mercator . scale ............................................................................................................................... 7-3
Meridians ..........................................................................................................................................
.. 2-2
Morning civil twilight .................................................................................................................... 10.16
Nautical mile .................................................................................................................................... 2-6
One in sixty rule .............................................................................................................................. - 4
Orthomorphism................................................................................................................................ 5-1
. . .......................................................................................................................... 2-2
Parallel of latitude
Parallel of orlgln............................................................................................................................... 8-2
Perihelion .......................................................................................................................................
. . 10.1
Plane of the echpt~c....................................................................................................................10.2
Planetarv orbits .............................................................................................................................. 10-1
Polar
. . diameter .................................................................................................................................2-1
Posltlon.............................................................................................................................................2-2
Prime meridian ................................................................................................................................. 2-2
) Commercial Pilot Licence

INDEX
Page (ii)
Q codes ........................................................................................................................................... 6-1

Representative fraction.................................................................................................................... 5-2
Rhumb line ....................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Scale ............................................................................................................................................... 5-1
Scale factor .................................................................................................................................. 5-2
Seasons ....................................................................................................................................... 10-2
Sidereal day ...................................................................................................................................
. . 10-3
Simple conic pro]ectlon.................................................................................................................. 8-1
Small circle ...................................................................................................................................... 2-2
Solar system .................................................................................................................................. 10-1
Speed calculations.......................................................................................................................... 1-6
Speed of closing .................................... . ....................................................................................
9-1
Speed of opening ............................................................................................................................ 9-1
Speed reduction .............................................................................................................................. 9-2
Standard parallel ............................................................................................................................. 8-1
Standard time ................................................................................................................................ 10.8
Standard time factor ...................................................................................................................... 10-8
Statute mile ...................................................................................................................................... 2-6
Sunrise and sunset ..................................................................................................................... 10-13
Topographic maps .......................................................................................................................... 5-1
Triangles .......................................................................................................................................... 1-1
Trigonometric ratios......................................................................................................................... 1-2
Trigonometry calculations.............................................................................................................- 3
Tropical year ................................................................................................................................ 10-4
Tropic of capricorn ........................................................................................................................ 10-2
Tropic of cancer ............................................................................................................................ 10-3
True bearing .................................................................................................................................... 2-4
True. north
. ........................................................................................................................................
2-4
Varlatlon ........................................................................................................................................ 2 4
VDF .................................................................................................................................................6-2
VOR .................................................................................................................................................. 6-2
Zone time ....................................................................................................................................... 10-8
i
Commercial Pilot Licence
Page 1-1
A. INTRODUCTION
A working knowledge of elementary mathematics is essential for this subject and the purpose of this
chapter is to highlight certain of the more pertinent functions. It is impossible to provide every conceiv-
able variation of question which can be presented in an examination, and therefore the student must
develop the ability to recognise, from the information provided in a question, the ingredients required
for its solution.
One of the items that will be required is a suitable electronic calculator which includes trigonometric
functions, along with the ability to use it. Bear in mind that programmable calculators or calculators
with an alpha-numeric keyboard are not allowed in the CAA examinations. Our recommendation is the
Casio FX82, since it is user friend? and relatively inexpensive, but whichever calculator you use it is
advisable to spend time becoming am~harw~ththe various functions before commencing this subject.
B. TRIANGLES
DEFINITION
A triangle is a shape created by three straight lines joining each other. The lengths of these lines may
be the same or completely different; the same holds true of the angle created by the joining of two of
the three lines. A knowledge of the various types of triangles and their properties is important for navi-
gation.
1. The sum of all the angles of a triangle is 180".
2. If the length of two sides of a triangle are of equal length it is called an isosceles triangle.
3. If all three sides of a triangle are equal in length it is called an equilateral triangle. It follows that all
three angles will also be the same.
4. A triangle where all the angles are less than 90" is called an acute triangle. This would also apply
to an equilateral triangle.
5. A triangle which has one angle greater than 90" is called an obtuse triangle.
6. A triangle where one angle is 90" is called a right angled triangle. If two sides of this triangle are of
equal length, it follows that the two remaining angles will each be 45" and it can also be an
isosceles triangle.
Isosceles Equilateral Obtuse Right Angled
Figure 1-1: Types of Triangles
C. BASIC TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry means "the measuring of triangles", and the principles of trigonometry allow us to deter-
mine the lengths of the unknown sides, or the anales, from aiven trianale Darts. This subiect is oerti-
nent to navigation since rhe trigonometric function's an inteGal part of-the various formuiae required
lo calculate the distance on the earth's surface covered bv a aiven number of dearees of latitude or
longitude, or the value of convergency between selected meridians. The application 5 f the formulae will
be covered in the relevant chapters.

Page 1-2
In the right angled triangle, ABC below, the following sides are relative to angle A:
b - hypotenuse
c - adjacent
a - opposite
Figure 1-2: The Right Angled Triangle

Relative to angle A, the following ratios apply:
TRIG FUNCTION RATIO ABBREVIATION
SlNE A -
- op~osite a
- SIN
hypotenuse = b
COSINE A - adiacent c
- COS
hypotenuse = b
TANGENT A -
- o~~osite a
- TAN
adjacent -
- c
COSECANT A = hv~otenuse b
- COSEC
opposite = a
SECANT A = hvpotenuse b
- SEC
adjacent = c
COTANGENT A = adiacent c
- COT
opposite -
- a
The COSECANT is the inverse of the SINE COSEC A = 1
sin A
The SECANT is the inverse of the COSINE = I
cos A
The COTANGENT is the inverse of the TANGENT COTA = 1
tan A
The three functions most commonly used are sine, cosine and tangent, and students are urged to try
and mernorise their definitions. Very simply, if two of the three components have been provided, the
third can be found.

Page 1-3
D. TRIGONOMETRY CALCULATIONS
Most calculators provide the SIN, COS and TAN functions. Should you require the inverse of these
functions, then, using the Casio FX82 for example, you must use the (llx) key.
SHIFT
E l
p q mmpq
1lx
Figure 1-3: Calculator keyboard

EXAMPLE 1
Find the sin of 30".
SOLUTION 1
1. Enter 30 on the keypad, then push the (SHIFT) key, followed by the degree, minute and second
key (" ' "):
30"0'OUappears.
2. Now push the (sin) key:
0.5 appears. The sin of 30" is 0.5.
Now, if we want to know the Inverse or Cosecant of sin 30", continue as follows:
3. Push the (SHIFT) key again, followed by the (llx) key:
2 appears. The cosec of 30" is 2.
Trigonometry can be used to find the angles and the lengths of the sides of a triangle. Remember, if
two of the three components are provided, the third can be found.
EXAMPLE 2
In the following triangle determine the angle A.
c=8cm
Figure 1-4
1 Commercial Pilot Licence

Page 1-4
SOLUTION 2
Side a = opposite
Side c = adjacent
Therefore angle A = a
C
this is a tan function, so using the calculator enter the following:
5 t 8 = 0.625, then push (SHIFT), followed by the (tan) key. Angle A = 32". If you need proof,
figure 1-4 is drawn to scale, use a protractor to measure angle A.
EXAMPLE 3
Using the previous example, calculate the length of side b.
SOLUTION 3
Side b = hypotenuse
In this case the length of side b can be found by using sin or cos, because the lengths of the
other two sides are known.
Write out the formula first.
Sin A = 3
b
Or, Sin A =5
b
Therefore b = 3_
sin A
Using the calculator:
Enter 5 t 32, then (SHIFT) and ' "), to convert 32 to 32" , followed by (sin) (0.5299192 appears)
now push the (=) key and 9.4353996 appears. The length of b = 9.4 cm.
By cos:
cos A = adjacent
hypotenuse
or cos A = 8
b
Therefore b = 8
cos A
= 9.4 cm
Measure it for proof.
E. THE ONE IN SIXTY RULE

The one in sixty rule can also be used to calculate angles, but it is really only usable for angles up to
20" and is generally used as a quick method of calculatin approximate track error. The one in sixty
rule states that if an aircraft flies a distance of 60 nm and k d s itself 1 nm off track, the angle of error
is 1".
Figure 1-5: One in Sixty Rule

It follows that if, after 60 nm, the aircraft is 5 nm off track the angle of error is 5". To resolve the track
error for distances other than 60 nrn it is necessary to create a formula:

Page 1-5
Track error (TE) = Distance off

Distance flown x 60
EXAMPLE 1
After flying for 135 nm an aircraft is 9 nm left of track. The track error is:
If the aircraft now alters heading by 4" it will only parallel the original track. If the track error is doubled
then theoretically the aircraft would regain the track. However, this would only work if the aircraft is
less than halfway. A second one in sixty rule calculation is therefore required, which must be added to
the original track error. The formula now becomes:
-.Distance ott Distance off

Distance flown x 60 + Distance to go x 60
Assuming that the remaining distance to destination is 45 nm, the total heading change will be:
9
45 x 60 = 12" + 4" = total heading change of 16"
Figure 1-6: Calculating Total Heading Change

EXAMPLE 2
After flying 154 nm an aircraft is 18 nm left of track. If the remaining distance to destination is 216
nm, the total heading change required Is:
SOLUTION 2
3
154 x 60 + 1-216 8x 60 = 7" + 5" = 12" total heading change.
EXAMPLE 3
An aircraft is flying from A to B, track 213" 0 ,variation 18" W. Distance A to B = 244 nm. After
flying for 155 nm a fix places the aircraft 12 nm left of track. The new track (M) to B is:
SOLUTION 3
Read the question carefully. The initial track error is not required because the total heading change
is not required. We need the track from the fix to B. So only the second part of the formula need
be applied. The distance to go will be 244 - 155 = 89 nm.
Since the aircraft is left of track the new track to B will be 213" m + 8" = 221" m + 18" W = 239"
(M).
The one in sixty rule can also be used to calculate the distance that the aircraft is off track if the angle
of error and distance flown are known. Simply re-arrange the formula:

Page 1-6
EXAMPLE 4
After flying for 105 nm an aircraft is 7" off track. The distance off track is:
SOLUTION 4
7"
-
60 x 105 = 12 nm
F. DOUBLE THE ANGLE ON THE BOW

This is another method of using the properties of a triangle to calculate an aircraft's distance from a
reference point, preferably a radio beacon. Remember that an isosceles triangle has two sides of the
same length. If the distance of one leg is known or can be calculated, then the length of the other
equal leg is known.
EXAMPLE
At 0925 an aircraft obtained a relative bearing of 315" from an NDB. At 0940 the same NDB bears
270" relative. The aircraft's ground speed is 160 kt. The distance of the aircraft from the NDB at
0940 is:
I-\
SOLUTION
.....
...,
,;:;.
.:.. B 0940 NDB bears 27V relative
A to B = 15 minutes at GS 160 = 40 nm
therefore B to NDB = 40 nm.
Figure 1-7: Double the Angle on the Bow
G. SPEED, DISTANCE AND TIME CALCULATIONS

For Plotting, the use of either the Pathfinder CXlaICX2 or Sporty's E6B electronic navigation calculator
)
is recommended for speed, distance and time calculations. The Casio FX82 can also be used.
SPEED
Very simply, speed is distance per hour. If we travel 100 nm in 60 minutes the speed can be
expressed as 100 kt (nautical miles per hour). To calculate the speed, therefore, we need to know
the distance travelled and the time taken.
WMPLE
An aircraft travels 220 nm in Ihour 25 minutes. Determine the ground speed.
SOLUTION
Time is entered in the calculator using the (" ' ") key.
Using the calculator enter:
220 then push ifollowed by 1 then the (" ' ") key followed by 25 and the (" ' ") key (1.416667)
appears) then the SHIFT key and the (" ' ") key, (1" 25" 0 appears), followed by the = key. The
speed is 155 kt.

Page 1-7
The time taken to fly between two points is a function of distance and speed. If we fly a distance
of 60 nm at a speed of 120 kt the flying time will obviously be 30 minutes.
EXAMPLE
An aircraft flies a distance of 230 nm at GS 140. Determine the flying time.
SOLUTION
230 (distance) then the (+) key followed by 140 (speed) and the (=) key (1.6428571 appears),
now push the (SHIFT) key followed by the (" ' ") key, the answer is 1 hour 38 minutes 34
seconds.
DISTANCE
The distance flown by an aircraft is a function of time and speed. If we fly for 30 minutes at GS
100 we will have covered 50 nm.
EXAMPLE
An aircraft flies for 1 hour 40 minutes at GS 170. Determine the distance flown.
SOLUTION
170 (speed) then the (+) key and 60 (1 hour) followed by the (x) key (2.8333333 appears) then
1 followed by the (" ' ") key, 40 and the (" ' ") key (1.6666667 appears) then the (=) key then
the (x) key and the (=) key. Distance covered = 283.33333 nrn.
The time must be entered as minutes or decimal minutes. Another way of calculating the answer
is:
170 + 60 x 100 (1 hour 40 minutes converted to minutes) = 283.33333. Use whichever way is
easiest to remember.
' Commercial Pilot Licence

THE EARTH
CHAPTER 2 Page 2-1
A. INTRODUCTION
Many of the terms associated with the theory of navigation are probably well known to the student.
However, a general review of the terms and definitions is in order as they form a very important and
integral part of this subject.
B. THE FORM OF THE EARTH

Although the earth is assumed to be round, it is in fact slightly flat at the poles and is thus not the
perfect sphere portrayed in model globes. The earth should correctly be referred to as an oblate
spheroid. This flattening of the poles is called compression and results in the earth's polar diameter
being approximately 23 nautical miles shorter than the equatorial diameter. This difference is referred
to as the Compression Ratio of the earth and may be expressed as follows:
Equatorial diameter: 6883.7 nm
Polar diameter: 6860.5 nm
Difference: 23.2 nm
COMPRESSION = Eauatorial Diameter - Polac Diameter
Equatorial Diameter
However, for all practical purposes and for calculations the earth is assumed to be a perfect sphere.
C. CARDINAL POINTS AND DIRECTION

North, South, East and West are known as Cardinal Points. The Earth's axis is defined by a straight
line joining the North and South poles and the earth spins around this axis from West to East.
Direction on the Earth is measured clockwise from True North, 000" - 360". A three figure group is al-
ways used.
N = 000" m, E = 090" 0 ,s = 180"0 ,w = 270" m
The 45" positions, ie 045", 135",225" and 315" are called the Quadrantal Points.
D. CIRCLES ON THE EARTH

1. THE GREAT CIRCLE (GC) or ORTHODROME
A Great Circle is a circle drawn on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are those of the
sphere itself. A great circle, therefore, divides the sphere into two equal halves. The significance of a
great circle is that its shorter arc represents the shortest possible distance betiyeen two polnts on
the Earth's surface. This translates to the shortest time taken between two polnts, but there is a
disadvantage to this which will be discussed later.
Only one great circle can be drawn between two positions unless they are diametrically opposite, in
which case any number of great circles can be drawn, eg between the North and South poles.
Radio waves follow a GC path over the Earth's surface and, therefore, if we are to plot radio
bearings on a chart we must be able to plot GC bearings.

THE EARTH
Page 2-2
2. THE SMALL CIRCLE

A Small Circle is any circle drawn on the surface of the Earth, whose centre and radius are not
those of the Earth. The only small circles of any significance in terms of navigation are Parallels of
Latitude, used for position finding.
E. POSITION
To define position accurately on the earth, a system of lines running northlsouth and eastlwest is used.
These lines are defined as follows:
1. LONGITUDE
Lines of Longitude, or Meridians, are lines joining the north and south poles. It follows that a
meridian is half a great circle and together with its exact opposite or anti-meridian forms a great
circle. Lines of Longitude or Meridians are measured up to 180" east or west of the prime
meridian, perhaps more commonly known as the Greenwich Meridian which runs throughout the
Greenwich ObSe~atoryin England.
2. LATITUDE
Latitude is measured up to 90" north or south of the Equator, which is therefore 0".The Equator
is also a great circle because it cuts the earth exactly in half. Parallels of latitude are in fact small
circles, progressively reducing in size as they move away from the equator until they reach the
poles.
Earth's &is
I
Meridians
of
Longitu
South Pole
Figure 2-1: Latitude and Longitude

By using a combination of lines of latitude and longitude we are able to express our position on
the earth, for example 26" S 28" E . This position can be made more accurate by dividing the
degrees into minutes and the minutes into seconds, ie one degree equals 60 minutes and one
minute equals sixty seconds. Our position can now be expressed as: 26" 08' 0 2 S and 28" 14' 34"
E. Remember that latitude is always given first.

THE EARTH
Page 2-3
With the introduction of computerised navigation equipment, the minutes and seconds are
decimalised. Popular practice also places the S and E before the respective co-ordinate. The
position would now be expressed as S 26" 08.0 E 28" 14.6.
Remember:
Latitude is measured north and south of the equator along a meridian.
Longitude is measured east and west along a parallel of latitude.
F. CONVERGENCY
Earlier we said that although the shorter arc of a great circle was indeed the shortest distance between
two points, there was a disadvantage. If we refer to Figure 2-2, we can see that over a long distance
the direction of the great circle will vary. The cause of this is convergency. Remember that when we
measure the bearing of a track, we measure the angle between the track and a meridian relative to
True North.
\ Convergency
Figure 2-2: Convergency, Great Circle and Rhumb Line Tracks

From Figure 2-2,we can observe that as the meridians move towards either pole they converge on
each other. Convergency is zero at the equator and increases towards the pole.
Convergency is expressed as the angle of inclination between two particular meridians at a particular
latitude.
So although the great circle track is the shorter distance, as we cross successive meridians we will be
continually altering heading to maintain track.
A solution to this is the Rhumb line, or Loxodrome, which by definition is a c u ~ e dline on the earth
which cuts each meridian at the same angle. The disadvantage of this is that we will of course fly a
longer distance. However, whether we decide to fly the great circle or Rhumb line track will depend on
the length of the route and our latitude. At South African latitudes and the relatively short distances
from east to west, we tend to fly great circle tracks.
The following points should be remembered:
(i) Although meridians are great circles, they also qualify as Rhumb lines since they possess
constant direction (NIS).
(ii) The equator is a great circle, but it cuts every meridian at the same angle so it too qualifies as a
Rhumb Line.
Commercial Pilot Ucence

THE EARTH
Page 2-4
(iii) A parallel of latitude also cuts each meridian at the same angle and so it is also a Rhumb Line.
(iv) When drawing, or imagining, these lines on the earth's surface, remember that the Great Circle
will always be nearer to the pole and the Rhumb line nearer to the equator.
(v) The angular difference that exists between the Rhumb Line and the Great circle is known as the
conversion angle. Logically so, since the Rhumb line is a requirement because of convergency.
The conversion angle will be used to convert a Great Circle track into a Rhumb Line track. Or
vice versa.
Convergency and the calculations associated with it, will be covered more fully in the next chapter.
G. DIRECTION MEASUREMENT
It was stated earlier that the purpose of a meridian was to help fix position on the earth. It is, of
course, a readily available reference for true north since all meridians link the poles.
When measuring a track, the angle of the track relative to a meridian and thus true north, is deter-
mined. The bearing obtained is referred to as a true bearing and may be written as, for example,
090"m. The obviously meaning true north. Bearings are always measured clockwise from true
north. But as we know, a true bearing is of little use to us in an aeroplane since we have no true refer-
ence. We use magnetic bearings to navigate. Magnetic bearings are referenced to Magnetic North,
which, sadly for us, is not in the same place as true north1 Magnetic north may be either to the west
or to the east of true north, depending on your position on the earth's surface. The angular difference
between true north and magnetic north is referred to as variation. When magnetic north is to the west
of true north, variation is expressed as being west, and obviously east when the magnetic pole is east
of the true pole. The diagram in Figure 2-3 clearly illustrates this point.
Mao North True North
\ I TRACK = 11fffTJ +
Figure 2-3: Variation
Fortunately, variation does not require a calculation. The value of variation at a particular place on the
earth can be determined by reference to an isogonal, a curved broken line, drawn on a chart.
Variation in Southern Africa is west.
Students will no doubt be familiar with the following rhyme as a method of remembering how to apply
variation:
Variation West: Magnetic Best (true plus variation = magnetic)
Variation East: Magnetic Least (true minus variation = magnetic)
J Commeroial Pilot Licence

THE EARTH
Page 2-5
A further consideration of direction is the effect of compass deviation.

Deviation is caused by the magnetic fields which are present in an aircraft as a result of the moving
parts of an engine, the radios and electrical circuits. The combined effect of these magnetic fields is to
deflect the compass away from indicating magnetic north to what we might call compass north. As
these magnetic fields are relative to the aircrafl itself, the deviation is not constant and varies from
heading to heading. Students will no doubt be familiar with the compass correction card. However,
from an examination point of view we must be able to apply the deviation in a calculation. Deviation
can be expressed as either east or west, and it is easy to build a rhyme to remember how to apply it:
Deviation east: compass least
Deviation west: compass best
However, a more popular method of expressing deviation is either as a (+) or a (-):
Deviation east: t
Deviation west: -
The diagram in Figure 2-4 should clarify the effect of deviation
Compass Magnetic True North

NO~I, r t
TRACK = 110"m + 20"W
....
Figure 2-4: Compass Deviation

If we remember that deviation is the distance in degrees between magnetic north and compass north,
it is easier to work with the +
or - sign than with rhymes.
EXAMPLE 1:
Heading 230" (Compass), deviation 2" east (+), variation 16"W
The true heading is:
230" (C) + 2" = 232" (M) - 16"W = 216" 0
EXAMPLE 2:
Heading 114"(T), variation 2I0W, deviation 3" west (-)
The Compass heading is:
114.0 + 21"W = 135"(M) + 3" = 138"(C)
J Commercial Pilot Licence

THE EARTH
Page 2-6
H. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
(i) THE NAUTICAL MlLE
The nautical mile is the standard unit of distance used in navigation. But where does it come from?
It is defined as the average length of the arc of one minute of latitude measured at the earth's
surface.
-----
One
NauticalMile
Figure 2-5: 1 Minute of Latitude = 1 Nautical Mile

Due to the earth's compression the length of the nautical mile is not constant, but varies with
latitude. Since a standard unit of length is required for navigation, an average or standard nautical
mile is used and is assumed to be 6080 feet in length. The International nautical mile as used by
ICAO and in the USA is 6076 ft. The Pathfinder CXla, CX2 and Sporty's E6B electronic navigation
calculators use 6076 ft as well.
If one minute of latitude is one nautical mile, then obviously one degree of latitude is 60 nm. Worth
remembering.
(ii) THE KILOMETRE
Although not really used in aviation, the origin of the kilometre is interesting. One kilometre is one
ten thousandth of the distance from the equator to either pole. In other words the distance from
equator to pole is 10, 000 km.
(iii) THE STATUTE MlLE
This is a fixed unit of length created by royal statue, hence the name, and is 5280 feet.
The following conversions should be useful:
1 nautical mile = 6080 feet
1 statute mile = 5280 feet
1 kilometre = 3280 feet
1 nautical mile = 1853 metres

CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE
CHAPTER 3 Page 3-1
A. INTRODUCTION
Convergency is the angle of inclination between two selected Meridians measured at a given latitude.
The conversion angle is the difference between the Great Circle direction and the Rhumb line direc-
tion.
B. CONVERGENCY
Meridians are semi-great circles joining at the poles. It follows that because the earth is a sphere the
meridians converge as they run towards the poles.
@$ ff long = 50"
S Equator
Figure 3-1: Convergency

Figure 3-1 shows that two meridians diverge from the North pole until they cross the equator, where
they are parallel and thus there is no convergency. As they approach the South pole they start to con-
verge until finally meeting at the pole. The change in longitude (d' long) between the two selected me-
ridians is 50", therefore the angle of inclination at the poles must equal the change of longitude. In this
particular case, the convergency at intermediate latitudes will be between 0" and 50". Remember: con-
vergency is zero at the equator and maximum at the poles.
Figure 3-2: Convergency

Figure 3-2 shows the angle of convergency (C) between positions A and I3 in the Northern Hemi-
sphere. The direction of a meridian passing through A is transferred to B to show the angle of conver-

Page 3-2
gency. The angle of convergency between positions X and Y in the Southern Hemisphere is con-
structed in a similar manner.
Convergency increases away from the equator towards the poles with the sine of the latitude. If the
convergency between two positions other than at the pole is required, then provided both positions are
at the same latitude the following formula can be used:
CONVERGENCY = d' long" x sin latitude.
where d' long = the difference in longitude.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the convergency at 30" North for a difference in longitude of 50"
SOLUTION 1
Convergency = d' long x sin iatitude
= 50" x sin 30" = 25"
EXAMPLE 2
The angle of convergency between A (35" S 24" E) and B (35" S 53" E) is:
SOLUTION 2
Convergency = d long" x sin latitude
= 29 x sin 35"
= 16.6337"
If the two positions are at different latitudes, the formula for the approximate convergency
becomes:
CONVERGENCY = d' long x sin mean iatitude
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the value of convergency between A (40" S 25" E) and B (20" S and 50" E)
SOLUTION 3
d' long = 50" - 25" = 25"
mean latitude = 40" - 20" = 20" + 2 = 10" + 20" = 30"
Convergency = d' long x sin mean latitude
= 25" x sin 30"
= 12.5"
EXAMPLE 4
Determine the angle of convergency between A (26" S 15" E) and B (40" S 60" E)
SOLUTION 4
d' long = 60" - 15" = 45"
mean latitude = 40" - 26" = 14" t 2 = 7" + 26" = 33"
Convergency = d long" x sin mean latitude
= 45 x sin 33"
= 24.5087"
Remember that a Great Circle track crosses every meridian at a different angle. If we know the track
angle at one meridian and the value of convergency, the track angle at any other meridian can be cal-
culated.
Page 3-3
In the following examples the value of convergency has been calculated between the positions. Note
that the Meridians converge towards the nearer Pole.
The accuracy of the angles in the sketches is not important, it is the relative size of the angles that
matter. One angle will be larger or smaller than the other.
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
GC track at X = 120"
Convergency - 30"
GC track at Y = 090"
South
Pole
Figure 3-3
In the above sketch, the Meridian passing through X is transferred to position Y. Convergency is the
angle between the two Meridians and must be subtracted from the track angle at X to give the track
angle at Y.
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
GC track at P = 250"
Convergency + 25"
GC track at Q = 275"
Figure 3-4
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
GC track at A = 090"
Convergency +25"
GC track at B = 115"
Figure 3-5

Page 3-4
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
GC track at C = 280"
Convergency - 25"
GC track at D = 255"
Figure 3-6
C. CONVERSION ANGLE
Conversion Angle is the angle between a Rhumb Line and a Great Circle. It is used to convert Rhumb
Lines into Great Circles and vice versa.
i Equator
Figure 3-7: Conversion Angle (CA)

CONVERSION ANGLE IS HALF THE VALUE OF CONVERGENCY: CA =1/2 C
CONVERGENCY IS TWICE THE VALUE OF CONVERSION ANGLE: C = 2 CA
If C = difference of longitude x sin mean Latitude
Then ca = % difference of longitude x sin mean Latitude
ca = difference between RL and GC direction
Figure 3-7 shows how both the Great Circle and the Rhumb Line appear as curves, as they would if
observed from space.
All maps and charts used for aviation purposes (except Mercators) will show a Great Circle as a
straight line and the Rhumb Line as a curve towards the Equator.
The Mercator chart shows the Rhumb Line as a straight line, and the Great Circle as a curve towards
the nearer pole.

Page 3-5
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Track from A to B is 090" RL

Conversion Angle +7"
Then track A to B is 097" GC
Figure 3-8
Track from P to Q is 270" RL

Conversion Angle -13"
Then track P to Q is 257" GC
Figure 3-9
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Track from X to Y is 086" RL

Conversion Angle -11"
Then track X to Y is 075" GC
Figure 3-10
Track from L to M is 257" RL

Conversion Angle +9"
Then track L to M is 266" GC
Figure 3-1 1
IF THE TRACK FROM A TO B IS 090 RL

THEN THE TRACK FROM I3 TO A IS 270 RL
THE RECIPROCAL OF A RHUMB LINE TRACK IS VALID
THE RECIPROCAL OF A GREAT CIRCLE TRACK IS NOT VALID

Page 3-6
EXAMPLE 1
If the track from A to B is 085" RL (Southern Hemisphere) Conversion angle (CA) is 7,
then the
Great Circle track from B to A is:
Always make a sketch. See Figure 3-12.
Answer: \
RL track A-B = O W ,
therefore RL track B-A
=.
085" . . -. = 265"
-.t180"
GC track B-A = 265" - 7"
Figure 3-12
EXAMPLE 2
If the track from X to Y is 262" RL (Northern Hemisphere) Conversion Angle 13", then the Great
Circle track from Y to X is:
Again, try and make a sketch.

See Figure 3-13
Answer:
RL track = 262" - 180" = 082"
082" - 13" = 069" GC track
Figure 3- 13
D. SUMMARY
I
CONVERGENCY (C) = D' LONG x SIN MEAN LAT
CONVERSION ANGLE (CA) = % D' LONG x SIN MEAN LAT
CA=%C
C=2CA
CA = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE
C = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIAL AND FINAL GREAT CIRCLE TRACKS

DEPARTURE
CHAPTER 4 Page 4-1
DEPARTURE
A. INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 2 the origin of the nautical mile was discussed, ie the length of the arc of one minute of lat-
itude equals one nautical mile. Since the measurement is made along a meridian, it can be said that
the definition holds true only if the measurement is made along a great circle. Departure is the term
given to the measurement of distance travelled along a parallel of latitude.
6. DEPARTURE
At the equator (remember this is a great circle), the difference in longitude between 10" and 20" is ob-
viously lo", which equates to 600 nm (one degree = 60 minutes, 10 degrees = 600 minutes). As the
meridians leave the equator towards either pole, they converge and thus the distance between them
reduces and one minute can no longer equal one nautical mile. Departure decreases as the cosine of
the latitude and the formula to be used is as follows:
Departure = Difference of Longitude x Cos Latitude
where the difference in longitude (d' long) is in minutes.
EXAMPLE 1
If we take the d' long of 10" at the equator and move it to 60" North the distance should reduce,
so:
Departure = d 'long (minutes) x cos latitude
= 10" of longitude x cos 60"
= 600 x cos 60"
= 300 nautical miles
The decrease in departure at selected latitudes is shown in figure 4-1.
North
Pole
Dep = 600 minutes x cos 80 = 104 nm
Dep = 600 minutes x cos 60 = 300 nm
I \ 40' N Dep = 600 minutes x cos 40 = 460 nm
H
I
10" E
I
20"E
20" N Dep = 600 minutes x cos 20 = 564 nm
Equator
Figure 4-1: Departure

DEPARTURE
Page 4-2
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the distance (departure) between A (20" N 10" E) and B (20" N 16" E).
SOLUTION 2
Departure = d' long (minutes) x cos latitude
= 360 (6" x 60) x cos 20"
= 338.29 nm
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the distance between A (18" S 26" E) and B (18" S 34" E).
SOLUTION 3
Departure = d' long (minutes) x cos latitude.
= 480 (8" x 60) x cos 18"
= 456.5 nm
C. DISTANCE ALONG A MERIDIAN

To calculate distance in a northlsouth direction (in other words both positions are on the same merid-
ian) simply convert the difference in latitude into nautical miles.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the distance between A (15" S 28" W) and B (22" S 28" W).
SOLUTION 1
In this case both positions are located on the 28" W meridian. The difference in latitude is 7".
Therefore distance between A and B is:
7" x 60 (1 degree = 60 minutes and 1 minute = 1 nm) = 420 minutes
= 420 nm
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the distance between A (06" N 22" E) and B (08" S 22" E).
SOLUTION 2
In this case position A is north of the equator and position B is south of the equator. However
both positions lie on the same meridian - 22" E.
Distance = change in latitude x 60 nm per degree.
= 6 + 8 = 14"x60
= 840 nm
D. RHUMB LINE TRACK AND DISTANCE

Since departure is the distance along a parallel of latitude and a parallel of latitude is a Rhumb line (it
cuts each meridian at the same angle), both track and distance can be calculated.

DEPARTURE
Page 4-3
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the Rhumb line track and distance between A (22" 43' S 33" 15' E) and B (22" 33' S
le 33' E)
SOLUTION 1
Rhumb line track: in this case both positions are at the same latitude - 22" 43' S, position A (33"
15' E) lies further east than position B (18" 33' E) therefore the track must be 270".
Departure = d' long x cos latitude
= 33" 15' - 18" 33' = 14" 42' or 882'
882 x cos 22" 43 = 813.57 nm
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the Rhumb Line track and distance between A (24" 18' S 23" 10' E) and B (13" 28' S
23" 10' E).
SOLUTION 2
Rhumb Line track: both A and B are on the same meridian, 23" 10' E. Position A lies further south
than position B, therefore the track is 360".
Since both positions are on the same meridian, the departure formula is unnecessary. The
difference in longitude is: 24" 18' - 13' 28' = 10" 50' or 650' which is also 650 nm.
EXAMPLE 3
An aircraft departs from A ( 25" 15' S 15" 45' E) on a Rhumb line track of 270" (T) and after a
flight of 230 nm arrives at B (25" 15' S). Determine the longitude of B.
SOLUTION 3
Departure = d 'long x cos latitude. Both A and B are at the same latitude, so:
Deoarture
cos latitude = d 'long
= 230 nm
Cos 25" 15' = 254 minutes = 4" 14' . The aircraft has travelled on a track of 270",so:
15" 45' E - 4" 14'
= 11" 31' E

DEPARTURE - QUESTIONS
Page 4Q-1
QUESTIONS
I
1. The Rhumb Line track and distance between A (00" N S 13" 18' E) and B (00" N S 37" 48' W) is:
(a) 090" and 3066 nrn,
(b) 270" and 3066 nrn,
(c) 270" and 2086 nm.
2. The Rhumb Line track and distance between A (28" 27' S 105" 19' W) and B (47" 15' S 105"
19'W) is:
(a) 360" and 1008 nrn,
(b) 180" and 1128 nm,
(c) 180" and 1218 nm.
3. The Rhumb Line track and distance between A (60" N 43" 13' E) and B (60" N 02" 41' W) is:
(a) 270" and 1377 nrn,
(b) 090" and 1077 nrn,
(c) 270 " and 1077 nrn.
4. The Rhumb Line track and distance between A (36" 37' N 140" 17' W) and I3 (36" 37' N 88" 28'W)
is:
(a) 270" and 2400 nrn,
(b) 090" and 2400.45 nrn,
(c) 090" and 2495.42 nrn.
5. The Rhumb Line track and distance between A (53" 43'N 168" 29' E) and B (53" 43' N 155" 55'
W):
(a) 270" and 1005 nrn,
(b) 090" and 1264 nrn,
(c) 090" and 1145 nrn.
6. The distance between A (78" 15' N 49" 28' E) and B (69" 33' N 130" 32' W) is:
(a) 1932 nm,
(b) 1854 nrn,
(c) 2043 nrn
7. An aircraft departs from A (23" 07' S 005" 13' W) on a track of 090°(T) and arrives at B (23" 07' S)
after a flight of 378 nrn. The longitude of B is:
(a) 01' 38' E,
(b) 10" 28'E,
(c) 05" 44' E.
8. An aircraft in the northern hemisphere flies around the world in 13 hours at a groundspeed of 493
kt. The Rhumb Line track is 270". The latitude at which the flight took place is:
(a) 55" 22' N,
(b) 62" 18' N,
(c) 72" 44' N.

DEPARTURE - QUESTIONS
Page 4Q-2
9. If an aircraft flew around the world along a parallel of 62" 30' N at a groundspeed of 512 kt, the fly-
ing time would be:
(a) 18 hours 10 minutes 22 seconds,
Ib) 19 hours 28 minutes 48 seconds,

c) 20 hours 18 minutes 12 seconds.
10. An aircraft starting at position A (02" 30' S 08" 18' W), maintaining a groundspeed of 290 kt, flies a
track of 360°(T)for 3 hours 12 minutes, then alters track to 090"m for 4 hours to destination. The
position of the destination airfield is:
(a) 12" 58' N 011" 32' E,
(b) 18" 22' N 015" 30' E,
(c) 14' 38' N 01 2" 52' E;
11. Two aircraft X and Y leave position A (50" N 010" E) for B (62" N 008" W). Aircraft X travels due
north until the 62nd parallel and then follows this parallel to destination. Aircraft Y travels due west
until the 008" W meridian then flies due north to destination. Which of the two aircraft flies the
shortest distance and by how many miles.
(a) Aircraft X - 187 nm,
(b) Aircraft X - 220 nm,
(c) Aircraft Y - 100 nm.

DEPARTURE - ANSWERS
Page 4A-1
DETAILED ANSWERS
1. (b)
Track = 270". The aircraft is travelling along the same parallel (00" N/S) from east to west.
Distance: D.long = 13" 18' + 37" 48' = 51" 06' which along the Equator (00" NIS) means that 1
minute equals 1 nm, therefore 51" 06' = 3066 nm.
2. (b)
Track = 180". The aircraft is travelling from 28" 27' S to 47" 15' S along the same meridian (105" 19'
w
Distance: D.lat = 47" 15' - 28" 27' = 18"48', along a meridian distance is constant, so 18" 48' =
1128 minutes which is also 1128 nm.
3. (a)
Track = 270". Again, the aircraft is travelling along the same parallel (60" N) from east to west.
Distance: D.long = 43" 13' + 02" 41' = 45" 54', or 2754 minutes. Departure = 2754 x cos 60" =
1377 nm.
4. (c)
Track = 090". The aircraft is travelling along the same parallel, from 140" 17' W to 88" 28' W.
Distance: D.long = 140" 17' - 88" 28' = 51" 49' = 3109'. Departure = 3109 x cos 36" 37' = 2495.42
nm.
5. (b)
Track = 090". The aircraft will cross the ante-meridian of Greenwich.
Distance: 180" - 168" 29' = 11" 31'. 180" - 155" 55' = 24" 05'.
D.long = 11" 31' +
24" 05' = 35" 36' or 2136'.
Departure = 2136 x cos 53" 43' = 1264 nm.
6. (a)
Track: B is on the ante-meridian of A (049" 28' +
130" 32' = 180") The track will be 360" initially
and then 180" past the north pole. The shortest way from 78" 15' N to 69" 33' N would be over the
north pole. This would be both rhumb line and great circle tracks.
Distance: 90" - 78" 15' (to the pole) = 11" 45'. 90" - 69" 33' (from the pole) = 20" 27'.
D.lat = 11" 45' + 20" 27' = 32" 12' or 1932' which along a meridian is also 1932 nm.
7. (a)
Departure = 378 nm. Latitude = 23" 07' S.
378 = d.long x cos 23" 07'. D.long = 378
Cos23"07' =4117=6"51'
Longitude B = 06" 51' - 05" 13' = 01" 38' E.

DEPARTURE - ANSWERS
Page 4A-2
Departure = 13 x 493 = 6409 nm.

D.lona = 360" x 60 = 21600'
6 4 0 9 21600 x cos lat.
Cos lat = 6409
21600 = 0.2967129 = 72" 44' N
Latitude = 62" 30' N. D.long = 360" x 60 = 21600'

Departure = 21600 x cos 62" 30' = 9973.7699 nrn.
Time = 9973.7699 t 512 = 19 hours 28 minutes 48 seconds.
10. (a)
A - B = 3 1 2 @ GS 290 = 928 nm = 928' or 15" 28' along a meridian (track 360"). The latitude of
its position after 3:12 will be 15" 28' - 02" 30' = 12" 58' N.
The aircraft then flies along parallel 12" 58' N on track 090" 0 for 4 hours @ GS 290 (which is
1160 nm) to destination.
1160 = d.long x cos 12" 58'
D.long = 1160
cos 12' 58' = 1190' or 19" 50'
Longitude of destination = 19" 50' - 08" 18' = 11" 32' E.
Position of destination = 12" 58' N 011" 32' E.
11. (a)
Aircraft X:
A - C = 12" = 720' = 72Onm
C - 6: Dep. = 18" x 60 = 1020' x cos 62" = 507 nm
Total distance = 1227 nm.
Aircraft Y:
A - D: Dep. = 1080 x COS 50" = 694 nm
D - B = 12" = 720' = 720 nm.
Total distance = 1414 nm
Aircraft X travels shorter distance by 1414 - 1227
= 187 nm
) Commercial Pilot h n c e
AVIATION CHARTS
CHAPTER 5 Page 5-1
A. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of any chart is to present to the user a part of the spherical earth on a flat sheet of pa-
per. The various types of charts in use are created for a definite purpose and the properties thereof will
vary accordingly. Aviation charts effectively fall into two categories; the aeronautical topographical chart
typical of the 1:l 000 000 or 1:500 000 series commonly used by VFR pilots, and the navigation plot-
ting chart. Although the terms "Map" and "Chart" are commonly used, there is a distinction between
the two. Map is generally used to describe the representation of land areas, whilst the term chart is
taken to mean a representation of a sea area. With regard to air navigation we are not concerned with
the distinction and an air chart covers both situations.
B. TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS
The basic requirements for topographical maps are:
1. Shapes should be shown correctly.
2. Scale should be fairly constant throughout.
3. Adjacent sheets should fit accurately.
C. NAVIGATION CHARTS
An essential requirement for this type of chart is that bearings must be correctly represented. Charts
which comply with this are said to be orthomorphic or conformal. A further consideration is the repre-
sentation of Rhumb Lines and Great Circles. If the requirement is to fly constant tracks then a chart
which shows Rhumb Lines as straight lines is required. The Mercator chart is ideal for this purpose,
and up until the advent of long distance radio navigation systems flight navigators were carried aboard
aircraft and the Mercator was the required chart. Subsequently, of course, radio navigation systems
made the professional navigator obsolete and the Mercator also gave way to the type of chart projec-
tion which portrayed Great Circles as straight lines. An example of such a projection is the Lamberts
Chart used in the Navigation Plotting notes. It is important to remember that Great Circles and Rhumb
Lines cannot both appear as straight lines on the same chart.
To achieve orthomorphism a projection must comply with two basic requirements:
1. Meridians and parallels must cut each other at 90" as on the earth.
2. The scale at a certain point on the chart must vary at the same rate in all directions over short
distances.
No matter what type of projection is used, it still remains impossible to accurately project a spherical
surface onto a flat sheet and so distortion of shapes, bearings and scale will always occur.
The Mercator and Lamberts charts will be discussed more comprehensively in Chapters 7 and 8.
D. SCALE
Scale is the ratio of the length of a line drawn on a chart to the corresponding distance on the sur-
face of the earth. It can be expressed as follows:
SCALE -
- CHART LENGTH (CL)
EARTH DISTANCE (ED)

AVIATION CHARTS
Page 5-2
E. METHODS OF EXPRESSING SCALE

1 Various methods are used by chart makers to express the scale of a chart. They include:
1. A STATEMENT IN WORDS
This may be found on some radio facility charts, for example "One inch equals one Nautical Mile".
In other words, one inch on the chart is the equivalent of one nautical mile on the earth's surface.
2. A GRADUATED SCALE LINE
This is commonly used on the South African Aeronautical charts and comprises a line divided into
sections which correspond to distances on the earth:
10 0 10 20 30
Nautical Miles
3. A REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION
This may appear as: 1
1 000 000 or the more commonly used: 1:1 000 000
It simply means that 1 chart unit is the equivalent of 1 000 000 earth units. The numerator (CL)
must always be 1, and the smaller the denominator (ED) the larger the scale. A chart with a scale
of 1:500 000 may be said to have a larger scale than a chart with a scale of 1:1 000 000, because
the area presented is shown in far more detail. The units must be the same and may be either
inches or centimetres.
F. SCALE FACTOR
Scale is not constant on a chart, even though a scale may be expressed, eg 1:1 000 000. Scale usu-
ally varies with latitude, so the stated scale is really only valid at one particular latitude. A scale factor
may be provided and this can be used to calculate the correct scale at another latitude.
EXAMPLE
The scale at 30" S is 1:2 000 000, if the scale factor at 40" S is 1 .I3 what is the scale at 4 0 9 ?
SOLUTION
I G. SCALE PROBLEMS
Scale problems are easily solved provided two basic points are remembered:
1. The formula:
SCALE = CHART LENGTH (CL)
EARTH DISTANCE (ED)
2.The units used in both cases must be the same, ie inches or centimetres. It is easier to work with
centimetres, so remember that 1 nm = 185300 cm.
EXAMPLE 1
The scale of a chart is 1 : l 000 000. If a line on the chart is 18 cm long, what is the earth distance
in nautical miles?

AVIATION CHARTS
Page 5-3
SOLUTION 1
Scale =
ED
Therefore 18 cm is the equivalent of 18 000 000 cm on the earth.
EXAMPLE 2
The scale of a chart is expressed as 3 cm = 8 nm. The scale as a representative fraction is:
SOLUTION 2
1 Commercial Pilot Licmce

AVIATION CHARTS
Page 5-Q1
QUESTIONS
1. The scale of a chart is 3 inches to 7 nm. The scale of the chart as a representative fraction is:
(a) 1: 1 702 400,
(b) 1: 170 240,
(c) 1: 70 240.
2. The length of a line drawn on a chart, the scale of which is 1:l 000 000, is 5 inches. The earth dis-
tance is:
(a) 68.53 nm,
(b) 685 nm,
(c) 85.63 nm.
3. On a chart, the scale of which is 1 :500 000, an earth distance of 37 nm would equal:
la) 23.544 cm.
(bj 6.85 cm, '
(c) 13.7122 cm.
4. The distance on a chart between A (03" 18'N 35" 20'E) and B (11" 49' S 35" 20'E) is 36 cm. The
scale as a representative fraction is:
(a) I:4 668 531,
(b) 1: 3 112 45,;
(c) 1: 4 120 450.
5. The distance on a chart between A (41" 36' S 176" 15' E) and B (41" 36' S 169" 49' W) is 19.5
inches. The scale as a representative fraction is:
(bj I: 3 556 87, '

(c) I:2 995 800.
6. An aircraft travels 8.5 cm on a chart in 20 minutes. The scale of the chart is 1:l 000 000. The air-
craft's groundspeed is:
(a) I 0 8 kt,
(b) 137.6 kt,
(c) 158.8 kt.
7. The scale of chart A is 2 cm equals one nautical mile and the scale of chart B is 1:250 000.
(a) chart A has a smaller scale,
(b) chart B has a smaller scale,
(c) the scales of both charts are the same.
8. The scale of a chart is 1 :2 500 000. The chart distance covered by an aircraft flying for 42 minutes
at a groundspeed of 280 M is:
(a) 8.4352 cm,
(b) 26. 556 cm,
(c) 14.52752 cm.

AVIATION CHARTS
Page 5-Q2
9. A fix obtained at 10.00 gave a chart distance travelled of 6.5 inches in 50 minutes. The scale of the
chart is 1 :2000 000 and there are 378 nm to go to the destination. The ETA is:
(a) 12.20,
(b) 1 1.46,
(c) 13.20.
10. On a chart a line 20 crn long represents 200 nautical miles. On the same chart the length of a line
in centirnetres representing 326 krn is:
(a) 22.457 cm,
(b) 12.056 crn,
(c) 17.593 crn.
11. On a chart, the scale of which is 1 :I 000 000,two pinpoints taken at 20 minute intervals by an air-
craft travelling at a groundspeed of 180 kt would appear:
(a) 1 1 .I18 cm apart,
(b) 15.887 crn apart,
(c) 20.555 cm apart.
12. Position A (36" 20' S) is due north of position B. The distance between A and B on a chart with a
scale of 1:5 000 000 is 6.2 crn. The latitude of B is:
(a) 33" 33' S,
(b) 39" 07' S,
(c) 42= 22' S.
13. An aircraft takes 15 minutes 12 seconds to cover a distance of 6.6 crn on a chart, the scale of
which is 1:2 000 000. the aircraft's groundspeed is:
a) 281.2 kt,
b) 305.8 kt,
(c) 256.4 kt.
14. The distance flown by an aircraft in 40 seconds at a groundspeed of 480 kt is 3.5 cm on a chart.
The scale of the chart in cm to the km is:
(a) lcrn = 3.875 km,
(b) 1 crn = 5.412 km,
(c) lcrn = 1.514 krn.
! Commercial Pilot Licence

AVIATION CHARTS
Page 5-A1
DETAILED ANSWERS
Scale = 3 1
7 x 6080 x 12 = 170 240 (1 nm = 6080 feet. 1 foot = 12 inches).
2. (a)
ED = 5 000 000 inches, therefore scale =
Convert 37 nm to cm.
Earth distance = 37 x 185300 = 6856100 cm
Chart length = 6856100 i 50 000 = 13.7122 cm.
Both positions are on the same meridian. Difference in latitude = 03" 18' +
11" 49' = 15" 07'
(Remember to add because one position is north of the equator and the other is southl). Earth
distance therefore equals 15" x 60 (1" of latitude = 60 nm) +
7 = 907 nm.
Scale = 36 1
907 x 185300 = 4 668 531
Both positions are on the same parallel of latitude, so this is combined scale and departure
problem. Remember that one position is east and the other west, so first calculate the D.long:
D.long = (180" - 176" 15')+ (180" - 169" 49') = 13" 56" or 846'
ED (Departure) = 836 x cos 41" 36' = 625.1592 nm
Scale = 19.5 1
625.1 592 x 6080 x 12 = 2 339 057
First find the chart distance covered in one hour, ie 60 + 20 x 8.5 = 25.5 cm.
On the earth: 25.5 x 1 000 000
185300
= 137.6 nm covered in one hour, since this is a ground distance it is also the ground speed.
7. (b)
Find the scale of chart A:
1 nm = 185300 cm. therefore scale = 185300 i2 = 1: 92 650.
Chart B has the smaller scale.
in 42 minutes at GS 280 the aircraft will travel 196 nm, or 36 318 800 cm.
Chart distance = 36 318 800 + 2 500 000 = 14.52752 cm

AVIATION CHARTS
Page 5-A2
9. (b)
ETA requires ground distance and ground speed. Find the chart distance travelled in one hour:
42 + 60 x 6.5 = 7.8 inches per hour.
ED = 7.8 x 2 000 000

6080 x 12 = 213.8 nm covered in one hour, so the ground speed is the same.
ETA = 378 nm at GS 213.8 = 1 hr 46 min + 10.00 = 11.46.

10. (c)
Scale = 20 1
200 x 185300 = 1 853 000
Therefore 326 km + 1 853 000 = chart length. Convert km to cm:
= 17.593 cm
11. (a)
20 minutes at GS 180 = 60 nm ED.
CL = 60 x 185300 60 x 185300
Scale = 1 000 000
= 11.118 cm
12. (b)
Since both positions are on the same meridian, the change in latitude will be 167' (167 nm) or 2"
47' +
36" 20' S = 39" 07' S.
13. (a)
Calculate the chart distance covered in one hour:
60 i15.2 x 6.6 = 26.0526 cm.
= 281.2 nm in one hour, so the ground speed is the same.
14. (c)
ED = 40 seconds at GS 480 = 5.3 nm.
Scale = 3.5 1
5.3 x I85300 = 280 597
Therefore 1 cm on the chart = 2.80 km on the earth.

RADIO BEARINGS
CHAPTER 6 Page 6-1
A. INTRODUCTION
Reference has been made several times to the fact that we need to be able to plot radio bearings on
navigation charts. The principle of radio transmission and the various radio navigation systems will be
dealt with at length in the manual on Radio Aids, but a summary of the basic terms and types of radio
bearings will be covered in this chapter.
B. RADIO BEARINGS
Radio bearings can be used to provide position lines in order to fix a position. Radio waves follow a
Great Circle path over the earth's surface and so logically all radio bearings are great circle bearings.
The navigation chart must allow us to plot Great Circles as straight lines.
C. Q CODES
Four Q codes are used to provide bearing information:
QTE - A True bearing from a station.
QDR - A Magnetic bearing from a station.
QDM - A Magnetic track to a station.
QUJ - A True track to a station.
D. RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

There are, of course, many types of radio navigation systems in current use. Our main concern here
lies with the Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) and the VHF Omni-Directional Range (VOR).
1. ADF
The ADF equipment carried in the aircraft measures the direction of incoming radio waves
transmitted by a ground-based Non-Directional Beacon (NDB). The ADF is also referred to as a
radio compass. The bearing which is received by the ADF is measured clockwise from the nose of
the aircraft and is called a Relative Bearing - it is the angle between the nose of the aircraft and
the NDB. In the most simplistic terms a relative bearing represents the number of degrees by which
the aircraft must alter heading to fly to the NDB. For example, an aircraft is steering a heading of
130" (M)and obtains a relative bearina of 110". To reach the station. the aircraft would steer 240"
(M). That is relatively easy. But to interijret this on a navigation chart we must convert the bearing to
a QTE if we wish to create a position line from the NDB. In our example, the QDM is 240" and
therefore the QDR would be 060". The problem we have here, of course, is that both bearings are
magnetic and our chart is drawn relative to True North. We cannot draw magnetic bearings on a
True map. To create true bearings we must remove the variation from the magnetic heading only.
Remember a relative bearing is simply an angle. So, assuming variation of 15" W, our true heading
will be:
Now, add the relative bearing: 115" + 110" = 225" m which is now a QUJ. To find the QTE.
subtract 180".
225" - 180" = QTE 045" m.
Now try the following:
i Commercial Pilot Licence

RADIO BEARINGS
Page 6-2
I EXAMPLE 1
Aircraft heading 270" (M), relative bearing 060°, aircraft variation 20" W. Determine the QTE.
SOLUTION 1
Hdg 270" (M) - 20" W = 250" m + 060. Rel = 310" QUJ - 180" = 130" QTE
EXAMPLE 2
Aircraft heading 150" (M), relative bearing 300., aircraft variation 21" W. Determine the QTE.
i SOLUTION 2
+ 300. Rel = 429" QUJ - 360" = 069" QUJ + 180" = 249" QTE.
I Hdg 150" (M) - 21" W = 129"
Corrections for Convergency or Conversion Angle will have to be made, depending on the type of
plotting chart used. This will be explained later.
I 2. VOR
The bearings received by an aircraft from a VOR transmitter are called radials. A radial is already a
QDR - magnetic bearing from a station. The bearing is corrected at the station for magnetic
variation and so to convert the radial to a QTE simply subtract station variation.
I EXAMPLE 1
Radial 310", station variation 22" W. Determine the QTE.
SOLUTION 1
310" - 22" W = 288" QTE
EXAMPLE 2
Aircraft heading 210" (M), aircraft variation 18" W, radial 050", station variation 19" W. Determine
the QTE.
SOLUTION 2
Radial 050" - station variation 19" W = 031" QTE.
Remember, the aircraft heading and variation are irrelevant. A radial is a magnetic bearing from a
station.
I 3. VERY HIGH FREQUENCY DIRECTION FINDING (VDF) BEARINGS

Several VDF stations are in operation in South Africa. The ground-based VDF station receives a
radio wave from the aircraft's VHF voice communications radio, measures the direction of the
incoming radio wave and is then able to pass the aircraft's magnetic bearing from the station, to
the aircraft. In other words a QDR. To plot this type of bearing, subtract the station variation to
convert to a QTE. Remember, the signal is converted to magnetic at the station. Treat a VDF
bearing as a radial.
E. PRESENTATION
Both ADF and VOR bearings can be presented on a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), which is a gyro
compass. For relative bearings in particular, this makes calculations easy as the QDM or QDR can be
read from the instrument without having to worry about adding the aircraft's heading. The following
rules should be remembered when using the RMI:

RADIO BEARINGS
Page 6-3
1. ADF BEARINGS
(a) The bearing is magnetic so aircraft variation will still have to be removed to create a QUJ or
QTE.
(b) Compass deviation may also have to be corrected for.
2. VOR BEARINGS
(a) No correction for compass deviation is necessary.
(b) The bearing is still magnetic so use station variation to convert to QTE.

THE MERCATOR CHART
CHAPTER 7 Page 7-1
A. INTRODUCTION
The Mercator chart is a navigator's chart, it's main advantage being that a Rhumb line appears as a
straight line and thus the bearing of a track can be measured at any meridian. Modern day use of ra-
dio navigation, and therefore great circle navigation, has largely made the Mercator obsolete.
8. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
The Mercator chart falls under the category of cylindrical projections. Imagine a reduced or model
earth, with a light source at its centre, surrounded by a cylinder of paper the axis of which is coinci-
dental with that of the model earth. The cylinder touches the earth only at the equator. The light
source reflects the meridians and parallels of latitude onto the paper to create the graticule shown in
Figure 7-1.
WANDS
EXPANDS
Figure 7-1: The Mercator Chart
C. PROPERTIES.
1. PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
These are unequally spaced parallel straight lines. The distance between them increases away from
the equator.
2. MERIDIANS
These are equally spaced, parallel straight lines.

THE MERCATOR CHART
Page 7-2
3. CONVERGENCY
Convergency is zero on this chart. Since all meridians are parallel, convergency must be zero at all
points.
4. SCALE
The scale is correct only at the equator and expands as the secant of the latitude. The scale given
on the chart will specify at which latitude it applies. Every latitude has a different scale.
5. RHUMB LINES
These are straight lines which cut every meridian at the same angle.
6. GREAT CIRCLES
These are curved lines convex to the nearer pole, or concave to the equator. Meridians and the
equator are, of course, both Rhumb Lines and Great Circles and so they appear as straight lines.
Figure 7-2: Great Circles and Rhumb Lines on a Mercator

7. ORTHOMORPHISM
The chart is orthomorphic by mathematical modification. The original chart produced by this method
of pro'ection had the scale in the EastIWest case expanding as the secant of the latitude and in the
~ o r t h l ~ ~ o case
u t h as the square of the secant of the latitude. To make the chart orthomorphic the
scale expansion in the NorthISouth case was reduced to the secant of the latitude.
8. SHAPES AND AREAS
Shapes and areas are reasonably correct between 11 N and 12" S, but become distorted as
latitude increases due to scale expansion.
9. ADVANTAGES
Rhumb Lines are straight lines.

The graticule is rectangular, which makes plotting easy
Tracks can be measured at any meridian.
10. DISADVANTAGES
The scale is variable. Every latitude has a different scale and so great care has to be taken when
measuring distances.
Great Circle radio bearings must be converted to Rhumb Line bearings using conversion angle
before they can be plotted.
The chart cannot be used in the polar areas. The chart limits are 75" North or South.
) Cammercial Pilot Licence

THE MERCATOR CHART
Page 7-3
11. USES
Plotting charts.
Topographical maps and synoptic meteorological charts near the equator.
D. SCALE
The scale of a Mercator chart is correct only at the equator, elsewhere on the chart it expands away
from the equator as the secant of the latitude, or the scale decreases towards the equator with the
cosine of the latitude. We can calculate the scale at a different latitude as follows:
EXAMPLE 1
The scale at the equator is 1:l 000 000. Determine the scale at 60" N.
SOLUTION 1
The scale increases away from the equator with the secant of the latitude. Therefore the scale at
60" N equals the scale at the equator x sec 60".
Scale at 60" = 1 x sec 60"
1 000 000
Now, since the numerator of a representative fraction must be 1, remove the secant 60" from the
numerator by dividing by sec 60". The denominator must also be divided by sec 60°, which is the
same as multiplying by cos 60". The equation can be re-wriien as:
Scale at 60" N = 1 1
1 000 000 x cos 60" = 500 000
EXAMPLE 2
The scale at 30" S is 1:I 000 000. Determine the scale at the equator.
SOLUTION 2
The scale decreases towards the equator with the cosine of the latitude. Therefore the scale at the
equator equals the scale at 30" S (1 000 000) x cos 30", or:
Scale at equator = 1 x cos 30"
1 000 000 or
Scale at the equator = 1
1 000 000 + cos 30"
EXAMPLE 3
The scale at 50" N is 1:2 000 000. Determine the scale at 20" N.
SOLUTION 3
In this case the difference in latitude cannot be used. The scale at the equator must first be
calculated and then at the new latitude.
Scale at 50" N = 1
2 000 000
, Scale at the equator = 1
2 000 000 + cos 50"
Scale at 20" N = 1
2 000 ooo+ cos 50" x cos 20"

THE MERCATOR CHART
Page 7-4
These scale problems can also be solved by the ABBA formula:
SCALE DENOMINATOR A x COS LAT B = SCALE DENOMINATOR B x COS LAT A

The previous three examples will be re-worked using this formula:
EXAMPLE 1
Scale at equator is 1:l 000 000, Determine scale at 60" N
SOLUTION 1
Scale Denominator A x cos B = scale Denominator B x cos A
Let A = the equator and B = 60" N, so:
1 000 000 x cos 60" = scale denominator B x cos 0",therefore:
scale denominator B = 1 000 000 x cos 60"
cos 0"
scale at 60" = 1: 500 000
EXAMPLE 2
Scale at 30" S = I: I 000 000. determine scale at the equator.
SOLUTION 2
Let A = 30" S and B - equator.
1 000 000 x cos 0" = scale denominator B x cos 30"
cos 30"
scale at equator = 1: I154 701
EXAMPLE 3
Scale at 50" N = 1:2 000 000. Determine the scale at 20" N.
SOLUTION 3
Let A = 50" N and B = 20" N
2 000 000 x cos 20" = scale denominator B x cos 50"
cos 50"
Scale at 20" N = 1:2 923 804.
E. PLOTTING RADIO BEARINGS

On the Mercator, conversion angle must be applied to Great Circle bearings (radio Bearings) in order
to convert them to Rhumb Line bearings for plotting.
Remember that conversion angle = half convergency. To calculate conversion angle, use the following
formula:
Conversion Angle = % d' long x sin mid latitude
I CommercialPilot Licence
THE MERCATOR CHART
Page 7-5
For converting Great Circle bearings into Rhumb Line bearings, always comply with the following:
1. All bearings must be converted into True bearings.
2. Apply the conversion angle to the nearest whole degree.
3. Apply the conversion angle and variation where the bearing is measured.
4. Always make a sketch, and remember the great circle appears towards the nearer pole.
1. VDF AND VOR BEARINGS
VDF and VOR bearings are straight fonvard; simply convert the bearing to a QTE, apply conversion
angle and plot.
EXAMPLE 1 - NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
VDF QTE 085" (GC)
CA +
5"
QTE 090" (RL)
Figure 7-3

VDF QDM 110" (GC)
VAR 17" W
QUJ 093" (GC)
+ 180"
QTE 273" (GC)
CA - 3"
QTE 270" (RL)
Figure 7-4
EXAMPLE 3 - SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

VOR Radial QDR 114" (GC)
VAR 20" W
QTE 090 (RL)
Figure 7-5

RMI reading QDM 106" (GC)
VAR 21" W
QTE 265" (GC)

CA + 5"
QTE 270" (RL)
Figure 7-6

THE MERCATOR CHART
Page 7-6
2. ADF BEARINGS.
Bearings indicated on an ADF are known as relative bearings. A relative bearing is the angle
measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft to the station. To determine the bearing from the
aircraft to the station, the relative bearing must be added to the aircraft's heading. Remember: a
relative bearing is an angle. If the aircraft's heading is magnetic, or compass for that matter, it must
be corrected to true before applying the relative bearing. Bear in mind what we are trying to
achieve: we need to plot the bearing from the station. A radio bearing is a Great Circle so it is
incorrect to apply 180" to the QUJ. It must first be changed to a Rhumb Line before taking the
reciprocal:
True Heading + Relative Bearing = GC QUJ +I- CA = RL QUJ +/- 180" = RL QTE
Aircraft Hdg 079" (M), Variation 21" E, relative bearing 170", Conversion Angle -3. Determine the
QTE.
SOLUTION 1
Hdg 079" (M)
+ 21" E
Hdg 100" 0
RB 170
QUJ 270 GC
CA- 3
QUJ 267 RL
- 180
QTE 087 RL
Figure 7-7
Aircraft Hdg 129" (C), Deviation +4", Variation 6" W, Relative Bearing 358", Conversion angle -5".
Determine the QTE.
SOLUTION 2
Hdg 129" (C)
Dev + 4"
Hdg 133" (M)
Var 6" W
Hdg 127" 0
RB 358"
QUJ 485" GC
- 360"
QUJ 125" GC
C A - 5"
QUJ 120" RL
+ 180"
QTE 300-RL
Figure 7-8

THE MERCATOR CHART
Page 7-7

Aircraft Hdg 278" C, Deviation -2, Variation 17" E, Relative Bearing 14Io, Conversion angle +3".
determine the QTE.
SOLUTION 3
Hdg 278" (C)
Dev - 2"
Hdg 276" (M)
Var 17"E
Hdg 293" (T)
RB 141"
QUJ 434" GC
- 360"
QUJ 074" GC
CA +3"
QUJ 077" RL Figure 7-9
+ 180"
QTE 257" RL
Aircraft Hdg 359" (C), Deviation -3",Variation 1lo
W, Relative Bearing 256". Conversion Angle +4.
Determine the QTE.
4
Hdg 359" (C)
Dev - 3"
Hdg 356" (M)
Var 11"W
Hdg 345" 0
RB 256"
QUJ 601" GC
- 360"
QUJ 241" GC
CA +4"
QUJ 245" RL
- 180" Figure 7-10
QTE 065" RL
3. RMI BEARINGS
Both NDB and VOR bearings can be presented on the RMI. For NDB bearings remember to apply
aircraft variation and deviation whilst for VOR bearings apply station variation only; deviation does
not apply. Also remember that the NDB bearing is the bearing from aircraft to station, so apply
conversion angle at the aircraft. VOR bearings are from the station so apply conversion angle at the
station.
NDB
RMI bearing 276", Variation 23" W, Deviation + 3",Conversion angle -1". Determine the QTE.
SOLUTION 1 I
RMI 276"
Dev +3"
QDM 279" (M)
Var - 23" W
QUJ 256" GC
CA -1"
QUJ 255" RL
- 180"
QTE 075 RL
Figure 7-11
, Commercial Pilot Licence

THE MERCATOR CHART
Page 7-8

VOR
RMI bearing 231°,Aircraft Variation 11" E, Station Variation 9" E, Conversion angle +3. Determine
the QTE.
SOLUTION 1
RMI 231"
Var +9"E
QUJ 240" GC
- 180"
QTE 060" GC
CA +
3"
QTE 063" RL
Figure 7-12
NDB
RMI bearing 048",Variation 22" W, Deviation + 3", Conversion angle +4".Determine the QTE.
SOLUTION 3
RMI 048"
Dev + 3"
QDM 051" (M)
Var - 22" W
QUJ 029" GC
CA - 4"
QUJ 025" RL
+180"
QTE 205" RL
Figure 7-13
VOR
RMI bearing 130", Aircraft Variation 18" W, Station Variation 16" W, Conversion angle +2.
Determine the QTE.
SOLUTION 1
RMI 130"
Var -16"W
QUJ 114" GC
- 180"
QTE 294" GC
CA +2"
QTE 296" RL
Figure 7-14

THE MERCATOR CHART - QUESTIONS
Page 7-Q1
QUESTIONS
1
1. The scale at the Equator is 1 :2500 000. The scale at 45" N is:
(a) 1: 2 000 000,
(b) 1: 1 767 767,
(c) 1: 1 505 000.
2. The scale at 25" S is 1:l 000 000. The scale at the Equator is:
(a) 1: 1 103 378,
(b) 1: 1 854 677,
(c) I: 2 202 455.
3. The scale at 20" N is 1.2 000 000. The scale at 35" S is:
4. On a Mercator chart the spacing between meridians 1" apart is 2.5 cm. The scale at 40" S is:
(a) I:3 950 150,
(b) 1: 1 800 500.
5. Determine the distance in cm between meridians 1" apart if the scale is 1: 3 000 000 at 45" N.
(a) 2.62 cm,
(b) 26.2 cm,
(c) 3.54 cm.
6. Determine the difference in longitude represented by a line 8.3 inches long drawn along a parallel of
latitude, if the scale of the chart is 1:2 000 000 at 50" S.
(a) 5" 54',
(b) 4" 15',
(c) 60 35'.
7. The scale at 40" N is 1 :I 000 000, determine the latitude at which the scale is 1 :500000
(a) 55" 18' N,
(b) 67" 29' N,
(c) 60" 00' N.
8. Determine the distance in cm between meridians 1" apart on a chart the scale of which is
1:2 000 000 at 40" N.
Ia) 4.9115 cm,

b) 5.4576 cm,
(c) 4.258441 cm.
9. On a Mercator chart the distance between meridians 173" W and 177" E is 33 cm. The latitude at
which the scale is 1:3 000 000 is:
(a) 24" 25' 18,
(b) 27" 04' 13",
(c) 260 14' 54".

THE MERCATOR CHART - QUESTIONS
Page 7-Q2
10. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:500 000 at the Equator. Two positions on the 38"s parallel are
48 cm apart. The difference in longitude between them is:
(a) 1" 45' 30",
(b) 2" 09' 30",
(c) 2" 55' 05.
11. An aircraft flying west along the 18" N parallel covers a distance of 12 cm in 32 minutes on a
Mercator chart. The scale of the chart at 30"N is I:I000 000. The aircraft's groundspeed is:
(a) 133.3 kt,
(b) 125.5 kt,
(c) 135.0 kt.
12. On a Mercator chart, two positions on the 32nd parallel are joined by a straight line measuring 41
- -
cm. The scale of the chart at 15"N is 1:3 000 000. The initiai and final areat circle tracks for a fliaht
in a westerly direction are:
(a) 273" initiai and 276" final,
(b) 273" initial and 267" final,
(c) 270" initial and 267" final.
13. The scale of a Mercator chart is 1 :3 500 000 at the Equator. Position A is at 47" 30' S 07" W and
position B is at 47" 30' S 10" E. The chart distance between A and B in cm is:
(a) 54 cm,
Ib) 48 cm,
c) 58 cm.
14. The scale of a Mercator chart is 1.3 000 000 at 45" N. A straight line drawn on the chart from A
(45" N 45" E) to B (45" N 55" E) measures 26.2 cm. The earth distance between A and B is:
(a) 655 km,
(b) 786 km,
(c) 500 km.
15. A Mercator chart has a scale of l:1 500 000 at the Equator. A and B, both on the parallel of 42"N
are 36 cm apart. An aircraft flies eastwards from A (42" N 28" W) to B in 33 minutes. The longitude
of B is:
(a) 30" 18' 30" W,
(b) 32" 51' 25" W,
(c) 23" 08' 3 5 W.

THE MERCATOR CHART - ANSWERS
Page 7-A1
DETAILED ANSWERS
1 x sec 45" = 1 -
- 1
2 500 000 2 500 000 x cos 45" 1 767 767
1 x cos 25" = 1 -
- 1
1 000 000 1 000 000 i cos 25" 1 103 378
1 x cos 20" x sec 35" = 1 -

- 1
2 000 000 2 000 000 i cos 20" x cos 35" 1 743 447
Spacing between meridians is constant, so the spacing at 40" S is also 2.5 cm for each degree.
One degree equals 60' or 60 nm, so:
2.5 - 1 -
- 1
60 x 185300 x cos 40" 60 x 185300 x cos 40" + 2.5 3 406 753
ED = 60 x 185300 x cos 45" = 7 861 613 cm
Again, spacing between meridians is constant, so the distance between meridians at 50" S is also
8.3 inches.
227.5219 = d.long x cos 50" (departure problem)

D.long = 227.5219 = 353.96128' = 5" 54'
cos 50"
Scale at 40" N = 1: 1 000 000 (scale at equator x sec 40")

Scale at X" N = 1: 500 000 (scale at equator x sec X")
Since the scale at X is twice the scale at 40" N, then secant of X must be twice the secant of 40" N.
sec 40" = 1.3054072
sec X" = 2 x 1.3054072 = 2.6108145, which equals 67" 29' N.
OR
By ABBA
A = 40" N, B = X 0 N
1 000 000 x cos X" = 500 000 x cos 40"
Cos X" = 500 000 x cos 40" = 0.3830222, therefore X = 67" 29' N
1 000 000

Page 7-A2
8. (c)
ED = 60 x 185300 x cos 40°,therefore
CL = 60 x I85300 x cos 40"
2 000 000
= 4.258441 cm
9. (b)
The difference in longitude between the two meridians is 10", and on the chart 10" = 33 cm.
Therefore:
ED at latitude X = 3 000 000 x 33 = 534.26875 nm
185300
534.26875 = 600'(10") x cos lat.
Cos lat = 534.26875 = 0.8904479
600
Lat X = 27"04' 1 3
lo. (b)
48 cm at 38" S is the same at the equator, so:
ED = 48 x 500 000 = 129.5 nm or 129.5'at the equator, which equals 2" 09' 3 0 d.long.
185300
11. (a)
Scale at 18" N = 1 x cos 30 x sec 18 = 1
1 000 000 1 098 185
12 cm on the chart = 32 minutes; per hour this is 60 t 32 x 12 = 22.5 cm
ED = 1 098 185 x 22.5 = 133.3 nm travelled in one hour, which is the same as the groundspeed.
185300
12. (b)
To find a great circle track on a Mercator chart, the conversion angle must be applied to the rhumb
line. To find the conversion angle, we must first calculate the difference in longitude between the two
positions.
ED = 3 000 000 x 41 = 663.78845 nm.

185300
D.long = 663.78845 = 687.20436'= 11" 27' 12"
cos 15
Initial great circle track = 270" CA;+
Final great circle track = 270" - CA.
CA = % d.long x sin mid latitude
CA = 5" 43' ~. .. x sin 32
36" .-= .3".
+
~
kitial GC track = 270" 3" = 273"

Final GC track = 270" - 3" = 267"
Commercial PClot Licence

Page 7-A3
13. (a)
The chart distance between A and B is the same as the chart distance between the meridians
through A and B at the equator.
= 54 cm
14. (b)
3 000 000 x 26.2 = 786 krn
100 000
15 (6)
The chart distance between the meridians of A and B is the same at the equator as it is at 42' N.
ED at the equator = 1 500 000 x 36
185300
= 291.41932 nm, which is also 291.41932 ' or a d.long of 4" 51' 25".
Longitude of B = 28" W - 4" 51' 2 5 = 23" 08' 35" W.

THE LAMBERTS CHART
CHAPTER 8 Page 8-1
A. INTRODUCTION
The Lambert's chart has taken over from the Mercator as the basic aviation chart for two reasons:
1. The Great Circle is, for practical purposes, a straight line.
2. Scale variation over the chart is minimal.
The Lambert's chart is a mathematical projection based on, and similar to, the conic projection fam-
ily.
B. THE SIMPLE CONIC PROJECTION

A cone is placed over the reduced earth tangential to a selected parallel of latitude, in the case of
Figure 8-1 at 40" N. This parallel now becomes known as the Standard Parallel, or Parallel of Origin,
as the scale at 40" N on the chart is equal to the scale at 40" N on the reduced earth. Convergency at
40" N is correct on the reduced earth so it is correct on the chart.
Figure 8-1: Simple Conic Projection

A light source at the centre of the reduced earth projects the graticule onto the cone creating a chart,
which is not particularly good for two main reasons:
1. Scale is correct only at the Standard Parallel and expands rapidly on either side.
2. The scale variation is not the same in all directions so the chart is not orthomorphic.
The only redeeming quality of the chart is its convergency properties.
The meridians on the simple conic are straight lines, so convergency is constant and the Conver-
gency Factor is called the Constant of the Cone or (n).
Once the chart has been opened out, as in Figure 8-1, it can be seen that 360" of longitude is repre-
sented by the segment of a circle, in this case 231.4". The higher the latitude, the larger the segment
will be. From the figures given in Figure 8-1, the constant of the cone can be found by the following
formula:
Constant of the Cone = Anaular Extent of Chart

Change of Longitude
1 Commercial Pilot ticence

THE LAMBERTS CHART
Page 8-2
So:
Which is also equal to the Sine of the latitude of the Standard Parallel.
Sin 40" = 0.6428, so:
Chart Convergency =
(a) D' Long x Constant of the Cone; or
(b) D' Long x n; or
(c) D' Long x Sin Parallel of Origin.
C. LAMBERT'S CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTION

The Lambetis Conformal is a modified simple conic. The cone is reduced or dropped so that it cuts
the earth at two selected Parallels of Latitude instead of one. The benefi here is that by making two
parallels correct to scale, the error of parallel scale is spread over a wider area. The area between the
two Standard Parallels is slightly contracted (a circle segment being replaced by a straight line) and so
it is fairly well represented in terms of shape and area. Outside of the two Standard Parallels the scale
expands rapidly and so the chart edges always lie very close to the two Standard Parallels making the
chart almost constant in scale.
Figure 8-2: Lambert's Conformal Conic Projection.

Figure 8-2 shows a Lambert's Chart for the Northern Hemisphere with Standard Parallels at 20" N and
60" N. The old Standard Parallel (40" N) is midway between the two new Standard Parallels and is now
called the Parallel of Origin. This controls the Constant of the Cone or "n" factor. Since convergency
is constant on this chart, and only correct at the Parallel of Origin, chart convergency equals:
D' Long x sin latitude of Parallel of Origin
On the Lambetis chart the sine of the latitude of the Parallel of Origin is a constant and it is often
printed on the chart. It is referred to as the Chart Convergency Factor (CCF), the Constant of the
Cone or the "n" Factor.
EXAMPLE 1
The CCF of a Lambert's chart is 0.5. One standard parallel is 25"N. Determine the latitude of the
other.
SOLUTION 1
The CCF = sin parallel of origin. Sin 0.5 = 30". Since the parallel of origin is midway between the
standard parallels it follows that the second standard parallel must be at 35" N.

THE LAMBERTS CHART
Page 8-3
EXAMPLE 2
A Lambert's chart has a chart convergency of 12.04" between meridians 70"E and W E . One
standard parallel is at 64"N. Determine the latitude of the other standard parallel.
SOLUTION 2
Chart convergency (CC) = d long x sin parallel of origin (110). The d long is 14" which is equal to
chart convergency of 12.04". Therefore the convergency for 1" of longitude = 12.04" t 14" =
0.86",which is the sin of the latitude of the parallel of origin, which is therefore 59" 19'.
Now, the parallel of origin is midway between the standard parallels and the difference between
64" N and the parallel of origin is 4" 41'. Therefore the other standard parallel must be at 59" 19' -
4" 41', which equals 54" 38'N.
D. PROPERTIES
1. PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
Arcs of concentric circles, nearly equally spaced.
2. MERIDIANS
Straight lines converging towards the nearer pole.
3. SCALE
Correct at the two Standard Parallels. It expands outside of the two Standard Parallels and contracts
between them. However, scale variation throughout the chart is small and can be considered
constant for all practical purposes if:
I
a) The band of latitude projected is fairly small.
b) The top and bottom edges of the chart are close to the Standard Parallel (not more than 1/13 of
the N/S chart length. This is called the one-sixth rule).
4. CONVERGENCY
Constant throughout the chart, but correct only at the Parallel of Origin.
Formulae:
D' Long x sin Parallel of Origin
D' Long x Constant of the Cone
D' Long x "nu Factor
D' Long x Chart Convergency Factor
5. GREAT CIRCLES
For all practical purposes a straight line can be considered to be a Great Circle. It is a slight curve
concave to the Parallel of Origin. On the Parallel of Origin, a Great Circle is a straight line because
convergency is correct. In both Hemispheres, Great Circle distance must be measured at the
mid-latitude. (See Navigation Plotting file).
6. RHUMB LINES
Rhumb lines are curves concave to the pole. Parallels of latitude are also curves concave to the
pole.
7. ORTHOMORPHISM
The Lambert's Chart is orthomorphic after mathematical modification. The radius of the Parallels of
Latitude is adjusted so that scale expansion in the N/S case equals scale expansion in the E/W
case.
8. SHAPES AND AREAS
Very little distortion.
Commercial Pflot Llcence

THE LAMBERTS CHART
Page 8-4
9. CHART FIT
Charts with the same scale and SP's will fit EastIWest but not North/South.
10. USES
Plotting, Radio Facility, Meteorological and Topographical charts.
11. ADVANTAGES
A Great Circle approximates a straight line - good for plotting radio bearings. Scale variation is
usually small - much better than a Mercator.
12. DISADVANTAGES
Great Circle tracks will vary because of convergency, so special techniques are required to fly
them. Plotting position is not as easy as on the Mercator because the graticule is not rectangular.
E. PLOlTING RADIO BEARINGS

1. VOR RADIALS AND VDF BEARINGS
In both cases the bearing is measured by the facility, so simply convert the bearing to a QTE (apply
station Variation) and plot.
2. ADF BEARINGS
These bearings are measured by the aircraft with reference to the Meridian passing through the
aircraft. The Meridian passing through the NDB will differ from that of the aircraft by the value of
convergency between the two. A practical method of correcting for convergency is to simply parallel
the aircraft's Meridian through the NDB and plot the QTE from the aircraft's Meridian at the NDB.
NDB Aircraft Meridian
Aircraft
Meridian parallel through NDB
Meridian
QUJ 240"
- 180"
QTE 060"
Figure 8-3: Parallel Meridian Method

This method is adequate for use on a plotting chart but for theoretical examination questions,
convergency between the aircraft and the NDB will have to be calculated and applied.
In the following four examples, chart convergency (CC) is assumed to be 8" in all cases. How it
must be applied is clearly indicated in each drawing.
QUJ 080"
+180"
QTE 260" QTE 260"
CC + 8"
PLOT 268" + 8"
QTE 268"

THE LAMBERTS CHART
Page 8-5

QUJ 285"
- 180"
QTE 105"
CC - 8"
PLOT 097"
- 8"
QTE 097" QUJ 285"
QUJ 120" QTE 300"

- 8"
QTE 292"

QUJ 260"
- 1Rn"
QTE 0.G
CC + 8"
PLOT 088"
QTE 080"
+8" QUJ 260"
QTE 088"
I
I
I
I CommercialPilot Licence
THE LAMBERTS CHART - QUESTIONS
Page 8-Q1
QUESTIONS
)
1. The chart convergency factor on a Lambert's chart is 0.5. If one standard parallel is at 25"N, the
other one will be at:
2. The chart convergency on a Lambert's chart between meridians 70"E and 84"E is 12.04". If one stan-
dard parallel is at 64"N, the other one will be at:
3. A Lambert's chart has standard parallels at 45"s and 55"s. The convergency between meridians 10"
apart is:
(a) 7.67,
(b) 6.43,
(c) 8.66.
4. On a Lambert's chart the convergency between A (45"N 45"E) and B (47"N 35"E) is 8". The latitude
of the parallel of origin is:
(a) 53" 08' N,
(b) 52" 52'N,
(c) 51' 48' N.
5. A bearing obtained from a NDB is 273" relative. Aircraft heading 330" 0 ,d 'long between aircraft
and NDB is 14", Parallel of Origin 30" S. The bearing to plot on a Lambert's chart is:
(a) O W ,
(b) 070",
(c) 077".
6. A Lambert's chart has a parallel of origin at 22" S. The angle of convergency between A (27" S 07"
E) and B (33" S 03" W) is:
(a) 2 3 ,
(b) 3.75",
(c) loo.
7. On a Lambert's chart which has standard parallels at 25" N and 55" N, the conversion angle
between A (39" 58' N 16" 16' E) and B (46" 16' N 31" 48' E) is:
(a) 9.98",
(b) 2.8",
(c) 4.90.
8. On a northern hemisphere Lamben's chart with a CCF of 0.6, the great circle bearing of B from A is
068". If tne d .ong is 20", the rhumb line bearing of A from B is:
(a) 142",
(b) 062",
(c) 254".
I Commercial Pilaf Licence

Page 8-Q2
9. On a southern hemisphere Lambert's chart with a CCF of 0.8, the great circle bearing of A from B
is 245". If the d long is lo", the rhumb line bearing of B from A is:
(a) 079,
(b) 069",
(c) 259".
10. On a Lambert's chart the parallel of origin is 29" N. The initial GC track from A (41" 17' N 20" OO'E)
to B (41°17'N 49" 18'E) is:
(a) 082.9",
(b) 097.1°,
(c) 272.9".
11. A northern hemisphere Lambert's chart has a CCF of 0.7462. The latitude on the earth at which
this convergency would occur is:
(a) 48" 16'
(b) 52" 15,
(6) 540 28'.
12. A Lambert's chart has standard parallels at 28" N and 42" N. Positions A (46" N 10" E) and B
(46" N 30" W) are joined by a straight line. The GC bearing of B from A is:
(a) 270",
(b) 101.47",
(c) 281.47'.
13. On a northern hemisphere Lambert's chart, the N factor is 0.75. A straight line from A (20" E) to C
-
(60" E) oasses through B (44" E). The direction of the track at A is 100" T. The direction of the
irack at 6 is:
14. The CCF on a northern hemisphere Lambert's chart is 0.5. A straight line drawn from X (20" N
10" E) to Y (40" N 30" W) measures 305" at X. The rhumb line track from X to Y is:
(a) 295",
(b) 315",
(c) 285".
15. An aircraft heading 173" (T) obtains a relative bearing from a NDB of 313". The CCF of the south-
ern hemisphere Lambert's chart is 0.5 and the d long between aircraft and NDB is 28". The QTE
that must be plotted on the chart is:
(a) 320",
(b) 292",
(c) 3060.
16. An aircraft flying along the parallel of 29" N in DR longitude 150" E in zero drift, obtains a relative
bearing of 220" from a NDB at 31" N 142" E. The parallel of origin is at 30" N. The QTE to plot
from the NDB is:
(a) 130",
(b) 134",
(c) 1260.
Commercial Pilof Ucence

Page 8-Q3
17. A Lamberk chart has standard parallels at 30" S and 50" S. The rhumb line distance from A (50" S
10" E) to B (50" S 10" W) is 40 cm. The scale at 30" S is:
18. A Lambert's chart has standard parallels at 28" N and 42" N. The scale is 1: 5 000 000. The rhumb
line distance between positions A (46" N 10" E) and B (46" N 30" W) is 62.2 cm. The scale at 46"
N is:
(a) 1: 4 966 696,
(b) 1: 5 333 654,
(c) 1: 4 545 788.

THE LAMBERTS CHART - ANSWERS
Page 8-A1
ANSWERS
)
1. (b)
CCF 0.5 = sin parallel of Origin (I0 = 30" N. The parallel of Origin is midway between the
Standard Parallels.
SP 25" N
// 0 30" N
d lat 5"
CC = d long x sin /I 0
12.04 = 14 x sin /I 0
12.04
14 = sin110 = 59V9' N
SP = =N
d lat = 4" 41'
// 0 = 5 9 " N
SP = 54" 38' N
CC = d 'long x sin //O

= 10"x sin50"
= 7.67
sin // 0 = CCF = converaency

d long
= 8"
5. (b)
CC = d long x sin // 0
= 14"xsin30"
= 7"
Brg 273" Rel

Hdg 330" 0
Brg 603" QUJ
- -180"
Bra 243" QUJ
Erg 063" QTE Plot from aircraft's meridian transferred to NDB
+7"CC
070" QTE Plot from NDB meridian
CC = d long x sin //O

= 10 x sin 22"
= 3.75"

Page %A2
110 is midway between standard parallels.

Therefore //0 = 40" N.
CC = d long x sin 40"
CA = lh d lona x sin 40"
The difference between a great circle and a rhumb line is the conversion angle.
Convergency = d long x CCF
= 20" x 0.6
-
- .-
13O
Therefore CA = 6"
Since 6 is further east of A, and in the northern hemisphere, the rhumb line will be greater.
Therefore:
RL A to B = 068" + 6" = 074" + 180" = 254". If in doubt, make a sketch.
The difference between a great circle and a rhumb line is the conversion angle.
= lWxO.8
= 8"
Therefore CA = 4"
Since A is to the west of B, and in the southern hemisphere the rhumb line is closer to the equator,
the rhumb line track must be greater than the great circle.
Therefore:
RL 6 to A = 245" + 4" = 249"
RL A to 6 = 249" - 180" = 069". If in doubt, make a sketch.
10. (a)
A and B are on the same parallel, therefore the rhumb line A to B is 090". The GC track A to B will
be 090" - CA.
CA = % d long x sin //O
= 14" 39' x sin 29"
- 7 9 0
11. (a)
The CCF = the sine of the latitude of the 110.
Sin 110 = 0.7462 which = 48" 16' N.
Chart convergency equals earth convergency only at the parallel of origin, which would also be 48"
16' N.
I Commercial Pilot Ucence

Page 8-A3
12. (c)
The parallel of origin is at 35" N. Therefore:
CA = % d long x sin 35"
= 20 x sin 35"
= 11.47"
A to B GC track = 270" +
11.47"
= 281.47"
13. (c)
A to B convergency = d long x N factor
= 24 x 0.75
= 18"
GC track at B = 100" T + 18" = 118" 1
14. (a)
CA = 'h d long x CCF
= 20 x 0.5
= 10"
X to Y GC = 305"
XtoYRL = 305"-10"=295"
15. (b)

= 28" x 0.5
= 14"
Initial GC = 126"
Final GC = 126" -14" = 112"
QTE = 112"+180"=292"
16. (c)
In still air the true heading of the aircraft must be 090". If the aircraft was heading 270" the relative
bearing would be less than 90".
RE 220"
TH 090"
QUJ 310" GC
The GC in an easterly direction at the aircraft's position = 310" - 180" = 130".
Convergency = d long x sin /I0
= 8 x sin 30"
= 4"
Bearing to plot = GC QTE 130" - 4" = 126"
1 Commercial Pilof Licence

Page 8-A4
17. (c)
The scale at 30" S is the same as the scale at 50" S.
Scale - 40
20 x 60 x I85300 x cos 50"
-
- 1
3 573 256
18. (a)
Scale -
- 62.2
40 x 60 185300 x cos 46"
= 1: 4 966 696

RELATIVE VELOCITY
CHAPTER 9 Page 9-1
A. INTRODUCTION
Up until now our concern with aircraft velocity has been either True Airspeed (TAS) or Groundspeed
(GS). A third velocity that concerns us is Relative Velocity, or the velocity of one aircraft relative to an-
other aircraft. For example, two aircraft flying in formation at the same speed would have a relative ve-
locity of zero. Relative velocity calculations are based on the aircraft's groundspeeds.
6. SPEED OF OPENING
This term describes the relative velocity of two aircraft flying one behind the other in the same direc-
tion, with the first aircraft flying faster than the one behind.
EXAMPLE 1
Aircraft A (GS 190 kt) is overhead position X at 0800. Aircraft B (GS 150 kt) is also overhead
position X at 0800. At what distance from aircraft 6 will aircraft A be at 0850?
Aircraft B 150 M Aircraft A 190 kt
Figure 9-1: Speed of Opening

SOLUTION 1
In this case the relative velocity is the difference in the speeds, ie 40 Ms.
50 minutes at GS 40 Ms = 33 nm.
C. SPEED OF CLOSING
This term is used to describe the relative velocity of two aircraft approaching each other.
EXAMPLE 2
Two aircraft are approaching each other along the same track. Aircraft A at GS 180 Ms and aircraft
B at GS 160 Ms. Aircraft A is overhead position X at 0830, whilst Aircraft B is overhead position Y
at the same time. The two aircraft are 470 nm apart. Calculate the time at which the aircraft will
oass each other:
Aircraft A 180M Aircraft B 160 M
Figure 0-2: Speed of Closing

RELATIVE VELOCITY
Page 9-2
SOLUTION 2
Speed of closing = 340 kts
Distance to close = 470 nm
Time to close = 470 nm at 340 kts = 1 hr 23 mins.
+
Time of passing = 0830 1 hr 23 = 0953.
To find the distance from X (or Y) at which the aircraft will pass each other:
Distance from X = 1 hr 23 mins at GS 180 = 249 nm
Distance from Y = 1 hr 23 mins at GS 160 = 221 nm.
EXAMPLE 3
Aircraft A (GS 160) is overhead position X at 0735 en route to position Y. Aircraft B (GS 135) is
overhead position Y at 0753 en route to position X. If the distance between X and Y is 380 nm,
calculate the time and the distance from X that the aircraft will pass each other.
SOLUTION 3
In this case we must position both aircraft at the same time. Move aircraft A forward by 18 minutes
at GS 160 = 48 nm.
380 - 48 = 332 nm at GS 295 (160 + 135) = 1 hr 08 minutes. Time of passing = 0753 + 1.08 =
0901.
Distance from A = 1 hr 08 mins at GS 160 = 181 nm + 48 nm = 229 nm.
EXAMPLE 4
Aircraft A (GS 150) was overhead position X at 0730. Aircraft B (GS 180) is overhead position X at
0750. At what time will aircraft B pass aircraft A.
SOLUTION 4
To calculate a time we need a distance and a speed.
Again we must position both aircraft at the same time. Where would aircraft A be at 0750? 20
minutes ahead at GS 150 = 50 nm. We now have the distance to make up. The speed will be the
speed of closing, which will be 180 - 150 = 30 Ms.
50 nm at 30 kts = 1 hr 40 mins.
Time of passing will be 0750 + 1 hr 40 mins = 0930.
D. SPEED REDUCTION
Where a reduction in speed is necessary to delay arrival at a particular point, the following formula can
be used:
Distance out = Delav (in minutes) x Old GIs x New G/S
60 x Difference in Groundspeeds
EXAMPLE 1
An aircraft, GS 175, estimates a VOR at 0845. The pilot is informed by ATC that due to traffic he
must arrange to cross the VOR at 0855. The pilot elects to reduce speed by 30 Ms. At what
distance from the VOR must the speed reduction be made?
SOLUTION 1
Distance out = Delav (in minutes) x Old G/S x New GIs
60 x Dierence in Groundspeeds

RELATIVE VELOCITY
Page 9-3
Distance out = 10 x 175 x 145 = 140.9 nm

60 x 30
The time at which the speed reduction must be made can be calculated as follows:
140.9 nm at G/S 145 = 58 mins.
0855 - 58 = 0757

RELATIVE VELOCITY
Page 9-A1
DETAILED ANSWERS
)
1. (a)
Position both aircraft at the same time - 1149. At 1149 aircraft Y will be 63 nm from B (21 minutes at
GS 180). The remaining distance to close is 1148 - 63 = 1085 nm.
Closing speed = 420 kt
Time to close = 1085 nm at GS 420 = 2 hrs 35 minutes. The time at which the aircraft will meet is
1149 + 2.35 = 1424. The distance from A is 2 hours 35 minutes at GS 240 = 620 nm
Speed of closing = 60 kt (240 - 180)
Closing time = 1 hour 22 minutes.
A will overtake Y at 1030 +
1.22 = 1152.
Aircraft Y flying to A = 2342 nm at GS 500 kt = 4 hrs 41 minutes.

Y will reach A at 0950 + 4.41 = 1431.
At 1431 aircraft X has been flying for 5 hrs 1 minute (1431 - 0930).
5 hrs 1 minute at GS 460 kt = 2308 nm.
The distance of X from B will be 2342 - 2308 = 34 nm
Position both aircraft at the same time, (1030).

At 1030 Y was 53 nm from A (12 minutes at GS 265).
Closing distance 53 nm at closing speed 45 kt = 1 hour 11 minutes.
+
Time of passing = 1030 1.11 = 1141.
Distance from A = 1 hour 11 minutes at 220 kt GS = 260 nm.
Flying time of X to B = 348 nm at GS 394 = 53 minutes, therefore ETA of X at B = 0735 +

53 =
"---.
nR3R
AT 0828, Y will have to be 140 nm from B, which is 348 - 140 = 208 nm from A.
Y was at A at 0800, therefore it has to cover a distance of 208 nm in 28 minutes (0828 - 0800),
which will require a GS of 446 kt. The reduction in GS will be 480 - 446 = 34 kt.
When aircraft X is at A, aircraft Y is 10 minutes behind X which is 10 minutes at GS 222, or 37 nm

. -... .A..
.frnm
When aircraft X is at B, aircraft Y is 4 minutes behind X, which is 4 minutes at GS 222, or 14.8 nm
from B.
The aircraft have closed 22.2 nm (37 - 14.8).
Closing distance = 22.2 nm at closing speed 36 kt (222 - 186) = a closing time of 37 minutes.
The whole procedure took 37 minutes.
Therefore it took X 37 minutes to fly from A to B at GS 186 which equals a distance of 114.7 nm.
RELATIVE VELOCITY
Page 9-A2
There are various ways of solving this problem.

Option 1
Distance = Time x Speed.
Full ground speed: D = T x 280.
Reduced ground speed: D = (T+12) x 220.
T x 280 = ( l x 220.
+12)
280T = 220T + 2640, therefore 60T = 2640 and T = 2640+ 60 = 4 4 minutes.
The distance from B at which the aircraft must reduce GS by 60 kt will be 44 minutes at GS 280 =
205.3 nm.
Option 2
Possibly the easier method if you can remember the following formula:
DISTANCE = DELAY (in minutes) x OLD GS x NEW GS
60 x DIFFERENCE IN GS
so:
Distance = 12 x 280 x 220
60 x 60
Aircraft Y was 33 nm (5 minutes at GS 396) behind aircraft X, when X was at A.

Aircraft X is 27 nm (5 minutes at GS 324) behind aircraft Y, when Y is at B.
5 minutes A 5 minutes
33 nm I 27 nm B
I I
Y - GS 396 X - GS 324 X - GS 324 Y - GS 396
Therefore Y overtook X somewhere between A and B.

Y closed in on X by 33 nm and then Y opened up on X by 27 nm.
Total closing and opening distance = 33 +
27 = 60 nm
Closing and opening speed = 72 kt
Closing and opening time = 60 nm at GS 72 = 50 minutes.
Distance A to B = 50 minutes at GS 324 = 270 nm +
27 nm = 297 nm, OR
50 minutes at GS 396 = 330 nm - 33 nm = 297 nm.

CHAPTER 10 Page 10-1
A. INTRODUCTION
The planet Earth is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, positioned towards the outer lim-
its of a Galaxy known to us as the Milky Way and which is just one of countless galaxies that are dis-
tributed through space and which make up the Universe.
B. THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The Solar System which lies near the central horizontal plane, or Galactic plane, of the Milky Way Gal-
axy consists of the sun and nine major planets of which the Earth is one. These planets revolve
around the sun in elliptical orbits in an anti-clockwise direction. The closest planet to the sun is Mer-
cury which orbits the sun in 88 days; Venus, which is next, takes 225 days whilst the Earth, which is
third in line. takes 365 davs. Pluto, which is the furthest la net from the sun takes about 248 vears to
complete its orbit of the sun.
Distances are immense and are calculated in light years (light travels at 162 000 n m per second). The
nearest star to Earth is Rigel Kent at 4.5 light years away, or 25 400 000 000 000 miles distant. The
Sun is on average a mere 93 000 000 miles away, it's light taking only 8 minutes to reach the Earth.
Compared with such distances, the Earth's diameter and orbit around the Sun are negligible and rays
of light from stars appear parallel at all points on the Earth's surface.
C. PLANETARY ORBITS
1. PLANETARY MOTION
The astronomer Kepler defined the following laws of planetary motion:
(a) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun as one of the foci.
(b) The line joining the planet to the Sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps out equal area in
eoual
-7---
time.
Figure 10-1: A Planetary Orbit

In Figure 10-1, the orbit of planet P is represented by the ellipse, the Sun being at S. AC is the
major axis or apse line, and BD the minor axis. The point A, where the planet is closest to the Sun
is known as Perihelion and point C, where the planet is farthest from the Sun, is called Aphelion.
The planet takes the same time to travel from X to A as from Y to C. According to Keplers second
law, the areas SXA and SYC are equal. Since the distance XA is greater than YC, it follows that the
planet's orbital speed varies, being greatest at perihelion and least at aphelion.

Page 10-2
2. THE EARTH'S ORBIT

The Earth rotates about its own axis from west to east, in the process creating day and night. But
whilst doing so it is also orbiting the Sun once in approximately 365.25 days. The Earth's orbital
plane is called the Ecliptic. The Earth's axis is inclined at 66.5" to the Ecliptic and the Earth's
Equator is inclined at 23.5" to the Ecliptic. This last figure is also known as the Obliquity of the
Ecliptic and is responsible for the creation of the seasons.
Plane of Ecliptic
Figure 10-2: The Earth's Orbit

3. THE SEASONS
As the Earth revolves around the Sun in its orbit, the direction of its axis remains fixed in space, like
a gyroscope, and the result is that the Sun appears to move from 23.5" North to 23.5" South and
back again in one year creating the Earth's seasons.
Spring or Vernal
Equinox March 21
Summer Winter
Solstice Solstice
June 22 December 23
Autumnal Equinox
September 23
Figure 10-3: The Earth's Seasons

Ihe observer in the Northern Hemisphere would see the seasons as follows:
DECEMBER 23
The sun is overhead the parallel of 23.5" S (known as the Tropic of Capricorn). This is referred
to as the Winter Solstice and the sun is at its most southerly declination.
MARCH 21
The Earth has now completed a quarter of its yearly travel and the sun is overhead the Equator.
This time is known as the Spring or Vernal Equinox.
' CommercialPilot Licence

THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND TlME
Page 10-3
JUNE 22
The sun is now overhead the 23.5" N parallel (the Tropic of Cancer). This is called the Summer
Solstice and the Sun is at its most northerly declination.
SEPTEMBER 22
The sun is once more over the Equator and the term Autumn Equinox applies.
NOTES:
(i) The term declination is the celestial equivalent of latitude.
(ii) The seasons given above obviously apply to the Northern Hemisphere. They are reversed for
the Southern Hemisphere.
In addition to the above, the following points should be considered:
(a) The terms Summer and Winter Solstices and Vernal and Autumn Equinoxes apply to
0 b s e ~ e r sin the Northern Hemisphere.
(b) The length of day and night vary with latitude.
(c) On December 23, observers on the 50" N parallel, experience a short day and a long night,
whereas at 50" S a long day and short night would occur.
(d) Above paraliel 66.5" N (90" - 23.5") the sun does not rise at all on December 23.
(e) Below parallel 66.5" S the sun does not set on December 23.
(f) Parallel 66.5" N is called the Arctic Circle and paraliel 66.5" S is called the Antarctic Circle.
D. MEASUREMENT OF TlME
1. THE SIDEREAL DAY
A repetitive event, such as the rotation of the Earth about its axis, the rate of which is constant, and
the relationship between a point on the Earth and a point in space, is a convenient method of
expressing time. In this manner the time taken for the Earth to complete one revolution about its
axis is measured as 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds. The selection of the fixed point in space
which will be used is immaterial; the time taken to complete one revolution will always be the same.
In actual fact the celestial reference point which is used is a star known as the first point of Aries,
since it is also a reference point used for determining the co-ordinates of all heavenly bodies.
A Sidereal Day, then, is the time interval between two successive transits of the first point of Aries,
at the same meridian. Remember that the time taken is constant at 23 hours 56 minutes and 4
seconds.
2. APPARENT SOLAR DAY
If we now use the sun as the reference point, then the daily rotation of Earth in relation to the sun
also occupies a time period. However, there is an additional problem here by virtue of the fact that
as the Earth rotates about its own axis it is also moving in its orbit of the sun, which results in a
time period, or day, of varying length.
Figure 10-4 shows how an observer at the North Pole would observe the difference between the
Sidereal Day and the Apparent Solar Day. From the 0bse~er's position the Earth rotates
anti-clockwise.
' Commercial Pilof Licence

Page 10-4
Figure 10-4: Sidereal Day and Apparent Solar Day

At position 1, the true Sun and a fixed point in space are in transit over the 0bSe~er'SMeridian.
The Earth moves in its orbit around the Sun and 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds later it
reaches position 2. The fixed point in space is at its second transit (one Sidereal Day later), but the
Earth has to rotate X degrees before the Sun is in its second transit. This of course takes time, thus
an Apparent Solar Day is always longer than a Sidereal Day.
As the orbital speed of the Earth is variable, the time taken to rotate X degrees must be variable.
Thus the Apparent Solar Day is of variable length and not suitable for time keeping.
An Apparent Solar Day is the time interval between two successive transits of the real or apparent
sun at the same Meridian. Since the Earth orbit is elliptical and the speed of revolution vanes, the
length of an apparent solar day is not constant.
3. MEAN SOLAR DAY
Given the varying time lengths of the Apparent Solar Day, it is far too inconvenient to adopt this
system of time measurement. In order to have a constant measurement of time, the average length
of 365 Apparent Solar Days is taken as an average period of exactly 24 hours. This period is called
the Mean Solar Day and is used as the basis for time keeping.
4. THE TROPICAL YEAR
As a point of interest, the period between two successive S ring Equinoxes is called The Tropical
Year, which is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 49 s e c o n i long - near enough 365% days. It is
this year on which the Civil Year IS based, which obviously cannot be 365% days long; clearly it has
to be a whole number of days, so 365 is used. However, the remaining time of the orbit has to be
adjusted for and this has been done in the Gregorian Calendar which we use, by adding an extra
day every four years - the leap year. A further adjustment is necessary at intervals of 400 years - the
last adjustment was in the year 2000. But even this adjustment needs correction for the fractional
error remaining. This will occur in the year 5754111
C. EXPRESSING TlME
Four different methods of expressing time are in current use:
1. LOCAL MEAN TlME (LMT)
The Mean Solar Day of 24 hours forms the basis of time keeping and the principle of Local Mean
Time is to use the sun as the celestial reference and a local meridian as the terrestrial reference.
Logically, then, all positions along the same meridian will have the same Local Mean Time.
When observed from above the North Pole the Earth rotates in an anti-clockwise direction. For
ease of explanation it is convenient to consider the Earth as being stationary and the Sun rotating
around the Earth in a clockwise direction from east to West.

Page 10-5
The Mean Sun is assumed to circle the Earth at a constant declination at the Equator and
constant orbital speed, travelling through 360" of Longitude in 24 hours, or 15" per hour. When
the Mean Sun is overhead a particular Meridian it is 1200 LMT at any point on that Meridian.
Assuming that the Meridian where the LMT is 1200 is 0 0 T / W (the Greenwich, or Prime Meridian),
then the LMT at 15" E will be 1300, since the Sun will have been over the 15" E Meridian one
hour previously. Similarly, the LMT at 15" W is 1100, since in one hour's time the Sun will be over
the Meridian of 15" W. Remember:
EAST IS LATER - WEST IS EARLIER
The examples just used assume positions at longitudes 15" E and 15" W. Obviously the longitudes
of positions vary, and to accurately calculate the time a system of Arc to Time is used. Where Arc
refers to the change in degrees of longitude.
To convert arc into time, we divide the arc of longitude in degrees and minutes by 15 to obtain
the time in hours, minutes and seconds. For example, if one hour equals 15", then one degree
equals four minutes of time, and therefore 15' of arc equals one minute of time. These calculations
are more easily achieved using the Arc to Time Table on the next page. The first six columns
convert arc degrees into hours and minutes and the last column converts arc minutes into time
minutes and seconds.
EXAMPLE 1
The time at Alpha (12" E) is 0920 LMT. Determine the time at Bravo (14" 40' E).
SOLUTION 1
The difference in longitude is 2" 40'. Bravo is further east than Alpha so the time at Bravo must
be later by 2" 40'. Using the Arc to time table:
2" = 8 minutes
40' = 2 minutes and 40 seconds.
The time at Bravo is therefore 0920 + 10 minutes 40 seconds = 09:30:40 LMT
EXAMPLE 2
The time in Bloemfontein (26" 15' E) is 0728 LMT. Determine the time in Durban (31" E).
SOLUTION 2
The difference in longitude is 4" 45'. Using the arc to time table this converts to a time
difference of 19 minutes. The time in Durban, which is further east, is 07:28 +
00:19 = 07:47
LMT.
This example also illustrates a problem in time difference between two places fairly close
together, but more about that later.
In normal life it is customary to divide the 24 hour day into two periods of 12 hours each, making
it easier to register time on a watch or clock. These periods reflect the time from midnight to
midday and from midday to midnight. The use of the terms ante-meridian (AM) meaning the
morning period, and post-meridian (PM) meaning the afternoon period are also in common use.

Page 10-6
Figure 10-5: Conversion of Arc to Time

Page 10-7
'
2. CO-ORDINATED UNNERSAL TlME (UTC)
In the section dealing with the Mean Solar Day, we stated that the period of one day was
determined as being the time between two successive transits by the sun of a terrestrial reference
point. Locai Mean Time further expands this by creating a meridian as the terrestrial reference
point. The position of the mean sun over a particular meridian indicates the time as noon, and by
using arc to time we can calculate the LMT at any other location. However, the system requires a
reference or starting point and so it is necessary to determine a standard meridian for this
purpose. Since longitude is measured 180" east or west of the Greenwich or Prime meridian, logic
dictates that this meridian also be used as the LMT reference meridian. Locai Mean Time at
Greenwich is referred to as Greenwich Mean Time and the Greenwich day commences as the
mean sun transits the ante meridian of Greenwich making it midnight on the Greenwich meridian.
It follows, then, that places to the east of Greenwich will be later, and places to the west of
Greenwich will be earlier, than Greenwich. Simply remember the following rule:
LONGITUDE EAST GREENWICH (UTC) LEAST UTC IS EARLIER THAN LMT
LONGITUDE WEST GREENWICH (UTC) BEST UTC IS LATER THAN LMT
Navigation utilises the 24 hour's system of continuous reckoning and so for standardisation
purposes all reported times will be given in relation to Greenwich. In order to do so, a pilot must
be able to convert his longitude using arc to time to determine the time difference to Greenwich.
The term Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) has now been largely replaced with Co-ordinated Universal
Time, or UTC and this is now the preferred method or reporting time and will be used in these
notes.
EXAMPLE 1
The UTC is 02: 15: 11 on the 15th June. Determine the LMT at X (143" 47' W).
SOLUTION 1
Try and get the picture: X is West of Greenwich, so the time wili be earlier at X. It wili be earlier
by the arc (143" 47') converted to time.
15th June -
- 02: 15: 11 UTC
Arc to Time -
- - 09: 35: 08
Time at X -
- 16: 40: 03 LMT on the 14th June
EXAMPLE 2
The time is 1I:38: 24 UTC on 12 January. Determine the LMT at X (35" 22' E)
SOLUTION 2
This time X is east of Greenwich, so the time will be later by 35" 22' converted to time.
12th January -
- 11: 38: 24 UTC
Arc to Time -
- 02: 21 : 28
Time at X -
- 13: 59: 52 LMT
EXAMPLE 3
An aircraft departs A (169" 47' W) at 19: 19: 00 LMT on 23rd June. the destination is B at (173"
58' E), the flying time is 7: 27: 00. Determine the ETA at B in LMT.
SOLUTION 3
This time a sketch is in order. See Figure 10-6 on the next page.
The shortest distance between the two positions is clear. It will mean crossing the anti meridian
of Greenwich (the International Date Line). Make the calculations in UTC as follows:
Depart A (23 June) 19: 19: 00 LMT
Arc to Time (169"47,) + 11: 19: 08
Depart A (24 June) 06: 38:08 UTC
Flying time 07: 27: 00
Arrive I3 (24 June) 14: 05: 08 UTC
Arc to Time (173" 58') + 11: 35: 52
Arrive B (25 June) 01: 41: 00 LMT
) Commtarcial Pilot Licenoe

Page 10-8
Flying time - 07: 27: 00
n
16V W
Figure 10-6
Arc to Time can also be used to calculate the Longitude of a position.
EXAMPLE 1
UTC is 12:OO. The LMT at Position A is 13:OO. Determine the longitude of A.
SOLUTION 1
Since Position A is one hour later than UTC it must be east of Greenwich. One hour in arc is
15", therefore the longitude of Position A is 15" E.
To find the longitude of a position, compare the LMT of that position with the UTC. Take the
difference in time and convert it into arc.
EXAMPLE 2
UTC is 05:47. The LMT at A is 09:13. Determine the longitude of A.
SOLUTION 2
Again, since the LMT of A is later than UTC it must be east of Greenwich. Calculate the
difference in time:
A 09:13:00 LMT
- 05:47:00 UTC
03:26:00
Time to arc = 03:26:00 x 15" = 51" 30' E
3. ZONE TlME (ZT)
The obvious problem with the time keeping system discussed so far is that each Meridian has its
own LMT and so theoretically two places 20 miles apart will have different time. This was explained
in the section on Local Mean Time, with Example 2 calculating the time difference between
Bloemfontein and Durban as 19 minutes. Clearly this is not practical and some standardisation is
necessary. Zone time is a partial solution. The Earth is divided into Time Zones 15" apart, with each
zone adopting the LMT of the mid meridian of the zone. The zone reference around the Greenwich
meridian - 7.5" W to 7.5" E, is known as Zone Zero. The next zone would fall between 7.5" E and
22.5" E and would adopt the LMT of its central Meridian of 15" E and so on. This system is partially
satisfactory, although it is primarily used only by ships at sea.
4. STANDARD TlME (ST)
Whilst Zone Time may ease the problem somewhat, it is still not the final solution. Standard time is
a further development of Zone Time to allow a country to adopt one time as its standard. South
+
Africa is in fact a case in point. Most of the Republic falls into the zone which is UTC 2 hours, but
+
some parts - notably Cape Town - are in zone UTC 1 hour. To make life simple, South Africa has
adopted UTC + 2 hours for the whole country. This would be expressed as a Standard Time
Factor of 2. To determine whether to add or subtract the Standard Time Factor, the longitude of the
position in relation to the Greenwich Meridian must be known. Always remember:

Page 10-9
Longitude East - UTC least

Longitude West - UTC best
Countries with a large change of longitude may have several Standard Time Factors. Australia
ranges from UTC + 8 (Perth - Western Australia) to UTC + 10 (New South Wales). The USA, of
course, has a very large change of longitude and each state has its own Standard Time Factor.
The Standard Time Factor (STF) is usually provided as part of the question in the examination, but
tables may also be provided.
EXAMPLE 1
UTC is 13:23:00 on the 3rd of the month. Determine the Standard Time at Durban (30" 57' E)
STF 2 hours.
SOLUTION 1
Remember longitude east - UTC least, so:
Time 13:23:00 UTC
STF + 2:oo:oo
ST 15:23:00
EXAMPLE 2
UTC is 09:45:00 on the 18th of the month. Determine the Standard Time at Rio De Janeiro (43"
W) if the STF is 3 hours.
SOLUTION 2
Longitude west - UTC best, so:
Time 09:45:00 UTC
STF
ST
EXAMPLE 3
The ST at position A (99" 17' E) is 07:13:00 on the 7th of the month, STF 7. Determine the ST
at position B (163" 1 S'W), STF 11.
SOLUTION 3
Position A (7th) 07:13:00 ST
STF - 7:OO:OO
(7th) 00:13:00 UTC
STF - 11:OO:OO
Position B (6th) 13:13:00 ST
EXAMPLE 4
The LMT at A (143" 20' W) is 22:19:00 on the 5th of the month. Determine the ST at Gander
(55" W) Newfoundland, STF 03:30.
SOLUTION 4
Position A (5th) 22:19:00 LMT
Arc to Time + 9: 33:20
Position A (6th) 07:52:20 UTC
STF - 03:30:00
Gander (6th) 04:22:20 ST

Page 10-10
Standard Time Tables comprise three lists:

LIST 1: Places which are fast (ahead) of Greenwich. These are mostly East of Greenwich but can
include some with Westeriv Lonaitude . . Only selected countries from the complete list have
been provided.
hm h m
Admiralty Islands ....................................... 10.00 Kenya ........................................ 03.00
Afghanistan................................................. 04.30 Korea ........................................... 09.00
Albania ........................................................ I .00 Kuwait ..........................................03.00
Algeria I .00
Angola ..........................................................I .00 Laos ........................................... 07.00
Australia Latvia ........................................... 02.00
Australian Capital Territory .....................10.00 Lebanon ..................................... 02.00
New South Wales ...................................10.00 Lesotho ..................................... 02.00
Northern Territory ...................................09.30
Queensland ........................................... 0.00 . . ......................................
Malaysia 08.00
South Australia........................................ 09.30 Maur~t~us ......................................04.00
Tasmania ................................................10.00 Mozambique ............................. 02.00
Victoria....................................................10.00
Western Australia ................................ 08.00 Namibia ......................... . ..........01.00
Austria....................................................... I .00 New Zealand...............................12.00
Azerbaijan.....................................................04.00 Norway ........................................ I .00
Bahrain ........................... . ..........................03.00
Balearic Islands ..................................... 0.00
Bangladesh .................... . .........................06.00 Pakistan................... . . ..............05.00
Belarus ..........................................................02.00 Philippine Republic .....................08.00
Belgium .................................................. I .00 Portugal ..................................... 0 .00
Botswana ......................... . . .......................02.00
Bulgaria ...................................................... 02.00
Burma ........................................................... 06.30
Reunion .......................................04.00
Cambodia ..................................................... 07.00 Russia
Cameroon .................................................. 01 .00 Moscow ............................. 03.00
China .......................................................... 08.00 St Pietersburg ...................... 03.00
Croatia .......................................................... I .00
Saudi Arabia ...............................03.00
Seychelles ...................................
04.00
Singapore ....................................
08.00
Egypt ............................................................
02.00 South Africa ................................
02.00
Estonia ................. .................................... 02.00
Taiwan ....................................... 08.00
Fiji .................................................................
12.00 Tanzania ......................................03.00
France........................................................... I .00 Thailand.......................................07.00
Germany ................................................ I .00 Uganda........................................
03.00
Greece ..........................................................
02.00 United Arab Emirates .................04.00
Guam ............................................................10.00
Vietnam .......................................
07.00
I .00
Holland .........................................................
Hong Kong ................................................. 08.00
Hungary ...................................................... 0 .00
Zaire (Democratic Republic of Congo)
India ..............................................................05.30 Kinshasa ..............................01 .00
Iran ................................................................03.30 Shaba ................................. 02.00
Israel ............................................................. 02.00 Zambia ...................................... ..O
2.00
Italy ............................ . ........................... 0 .00 Zimbabwe ..................................02.00
Jordan .......................................................... 02.00
Japan ............................................................ 09.00

Page 10-11
LlST 2: Places normally keeping UTC.

Ascension Island Ghana Irish Republic Morocco Togo Rep
Burkina-Faso Great Britain Ivory Coast Principe Tristan da Cunha
C a n a Islands
~ Guinea Bissau Liberia St Helena
Chann'el Islands Guinea Rep Madeira Sao Tome
Faeroes Iceland Mali Senegal
Gambia Nth Ireland Mauritania Sierra Leone
LlST 3: Places slow (behind) on UTC - West of Greenwich.
Argentina ......................................................03.00 Samoa .........................................1 1.OO
Azores ...........................................................
I .OO
Trinidad and Tobago .................04.00
Bahamas .................................................... 05.00
Bermuda ..................................................... 04.00 United States of America
Bolivia ...........................................................04.00 Alabama ............................... 06.00
Brazil . . Alaska................................. 09.00
Bras~ha .....................................................03.00 Arizona ................................. 07.00
California .............................. 08.00
Connecticut..........................05.00
Canada Florida ..................................05.00
Alberta .....................................................07.00 Hawaii .................................. 10.00
British Columbia ..................................... 08.00 Kansas ............................... 06.00
Newfoundland ........................................03.30 Massachusetts ..................... 05.00
Ontario ................................................... 05.00 Mississippi ...........................06.00
Yukon ...................................................... 08.00 Montana ............................... 07.00
Chile............................................................ 04.00 Nevada .................................08.00
Cuba ........................................................... 05.00 New Mexico .........................07.00
...................................................................... New York ............................. 05.00
Ecuador ........................................................
05.00 Oregon .................................08.00
...................................................................... Tennessee ........................... 06.00
Falkland Islands .............................. . .........04.00 Texas ....................................
06.00
...................................................................... Utah ......................................
07.00
Grenada........................................................ 04.00 Washington DC ................... 05.00
Guatemala .................................................... 06.00 Uruguay .......................................
03.00
Jamaica ......................................................05.00
Paraguay ...................................................... 04.00

Peru ..............................................................
05.00
Table usage is straightfofward as instructions on how to apply the STF are given at the beginning of
each section. A position may be difficult to find since the longitude is not provided, so it may be
necessary to check all three lists. Examples of table usage follow:
EXAMPLE 1
The Standard Time in Angola is 05:30.Determine the Standard Time in Burma.

SOLUTION 1
Use List I
Anaola
04:30 UTC
STF Burma + 06:30
ST Burma 11:OO
I Commercial Pilat Licence

Page 10-12
EXAMPLE 2
The Standard Time in Argentina is 18:30. determine the Standard Time in Botswana.
SOLUTION 2
Use Lists I and Ill
Aroentina
EXAMPLE 3
The Standard Time in Bolivia is 14:20. Determine the Standard Time in Ghana.
SOLUTION 3
Use Lists II and Ill
Bolivia 14:20 ST
STF Bolivia 04:OO
18:20 UTC
From List I1 it can be seen that Ghana keeps UTC as its Standard Time, so the time in Ghana will
also be 18:20 UTC and also, therefore, ST.
EXAMPLE 4
The Standard Time in the Canary Islands is 10:45. Determine the Standard Time in Afghanistan.
SOLUTION 4
Use Lists I and II
Canary Islands 10:45 STIUTC
STF Afghanistan 04:30
ST Afghanistan 15:15
D. INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

The Anti Meridian of Greenwich (180" E/W) represents a change in time of 12 hours either east or west
of Greenwich (180" i15" for each one hour time zone = 12 hours). An aircraft leaving Greenwich at
mid-day (12.00 noon) would reach 180" E N at midnight whether it travels east or west. Midnight signi-
fies the commencement of a new day and thus a new date and therefore the 180" E N meridian is
also called the International Date Line.

Page 10-13
Equator
1 8 d EIW
...................... InternationalDate Line
Figure 10-7: The lnternational Date Line

The International Date Line effectively follows the 180" E N meridian, except where it crosses Siberia
where it is diverted to the west out to sea then crosses 180" E N passing to the east of the Aleutian
lslands before regaining 180" E N and continuing south to divert to the west of Tonga and the Chat-
ham lslands before lining up again with 180" E N .
Both Tonga and the Chatham lslands have Westerly Longitude (between 170" and 180" west of Green-
wich) but an Easterly Standard Time Factor (STF). A portion of Siberia also has Westerly Longitude
and an Easterly STF. The Aleutian lslands have Easterly Longitude and a Westerly STF.
E. SUNRISE AND SUNSET

Whilst Noon occurs at the same LMT on all Meridians (ie 12:00:00 LMT), sunrise and sunset occur at
the same LMT on the same parallel. Tables from the Air Almanac are used to determine the LMT of
sunrise and sunset for various latitudes. Examples of these tables are shown on the next page and the
following points should be noted:
1. The dates are at 3 day intervals.
2. Latitude is shown from the Equator (0") to 72" N, and 60" S.
3. The interval between latitudes is not constant, varying between 2",5" and 10".
It follows, therefore, that some interpolation may be necessary for both date and latitude. Answers can
be rounded to the nearest minute.

Page 10-15
Apr. May June

Lat. 29 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 1 4 7 10
.Ihm h m h m
N72215122162247
h m
o
h m
n
h m
o
h m
o
h m
o
h m
o
h m
o
h m hrn
o
h m
o
h m h m .
0 0 1 ~ 7 2
Figure 10-9: Sunset Table

EXAMPLE
Determine the ST of Sunset at Johannesburg (26" 15's 27" 55'E), Standard Time Factor +2, on
the 15th May.
SOLUTION
This time it will be necessary to interpolate for both date and latitude.
Interpolate for the date first, to the nearest minute:
From the table locate the latitude, 26" falls between 20" and 30", the date (15th May) falls between
the 14th and 17th May, so:
The time difference = 17:32:00 - 17:15:00 = 17 minutes for a change in latitude of 10" (600'). The
latitude of Johannesburg is 26"15' S, which is 6" 15' (or 375') more than 20" S. By interpolation,
then:
375
600 x 17 = 11'. Therefore the sunset at Johannesburg will be:
26" 15' S = 17:32:00 - 00:11:00 = 17:21:00 LMT
Sunset Johannesburg 15th May = 17:21:00 LMT
Arc to Time (27" 55') - 1:51:40
Sunset Johannesburg 15th May = 15:29:20 UTC
STF + 2:OO:OO
Sunset Johannesburg 15th May = 17:29:20 ST

Page 10-16
F. CIVIL TWILIGHT
By definition. Civil Twilight exists when the brightest stars are just visible and terrestrial objects can still
be easily distinguished.
1. Morning Civil Twilight is the period of time between the sun being at 6" below the horizon to the
time of sunrise.
2. Evening Civil Twilight is the time from sunset to the time that the sun is 6" below the horizon.
The duration of civil twilight can be determined by reference to Morning and Evening Civil Twilight ta-
bles published in the Air Almanac. They are used in the same manner as the Sunrise and Sunset ta-
bles. In both cases the time of sunrise or sunset must either be given or have been calculated.
The times given in the morning civil twilight table indicate the beginning of morning civil twilight. The
times given in the evening civil twilight table indicate the end of evening civil twilight.
Apr. May June

Lat. 29 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 1 4 7 10
h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m h m
N 7 2 Ill1 Ill/ Ill/ Ill/ 0 0 o o o o o o o o o
70 llll llll 1111 llll Ill1 1111 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
680129 0058 llll llll 1/11 llll 1111 1/11 llll 1111 o o o n
66 02 09 01 51 01 30 01 06 00 29 1111 1/11 1/11 Ill1 1/11 1/11 1111 1111 1111 llll
64 35 02 22 02 07 01 52 01 35 01 17 00 54 00 18 1/11 /I// Ill1 1/11 /Ill 1111 I///
62 0256 0244 33 0221 0209 01 56 01 44 01 30 01 16 01 00 0041 0001 /Ill llll 1/11
N 60 03 12 0302 0253 0243 0233 0223 0213 0204 01 54 0145 0136 0127 01 18 01 10 0103
58 26 17 03 09 03 00 0252 0244 36 28 0221 02 13 0207 0201 01 55 01 50 01 46
56 38 30 22 15 03 07 03 00 0254 0247 41 35 30 25 02 21 02 17 02 14
54 48 41 34 27 20 14 03 08 03 03 02 57 02 52 0248 0244 41 38 35
52 0356 50 44 38 32 26 21 16 03 11 0307 0303 0300 0257 0254 0253
~ 5 04040 0358 0353 0347 0342 0337 0332 0328 0323 0320 0316 03 13 03 11 0309 0307
45 21 0416 0411 0407 0402 0358 0355 0351 0348 0345 0343 0340 0339 37 36
40 34 30 26 22 19 0415 0412 0410 0407 0405 0403 0401 0400 0359 0358
35 45 41 38 35 32 30 27 25 23 21 19 18 17 04 16 04 16
30 0454 0451 0449 0446 0444 0441 0439 37 36 34 33 32 32 31 31
N 20 0509 0507 0506 0504 0502 0501 0500 0458 0458 0457 0456 0456 0455 0455 0455
N1!
10 43
:: 21
32
43
20
32
43
19
31
43
18
31
44
17
31
44
16
31
45
05 16
31
05 45
05 15
05 46
31
0515
31
05 46
05 15
0547
31
0515
32
05 48
0515
32
05 49
05 15 05 16
33
05 49 05 50
33
20 0552 0553 0554 0555 0556 0557 0558 0600 0601 0602 0603 0604 0605 0606 0607
S300603 0605 0606 0608 0610 0612 0613 0615 0617 0618 0620 0621 0623 0624 0625
35 08 11 13 15 17 19 21 24 26 27 29 31 33 34 36
40 15 17 20 23 25 28 30 33 35 38 40 42 44 460647
45 21 25 28 32 35 38 41 44 0647 0649 06 52 06 54 06 57 06 59 07 00
50 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 0657 0700 0703 0706 0709 07 12 07 14 16
Figure 10-10: Morning Civil Twilight

Page 10-17
Apr. May June

Lat. Lat.
29 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 1 4 7 10
. h m h m
N 7 2 Ill1 llli
h m h m h m h m h m h m h m hm hm
1/11 o o o n 0 0 r=1 r=1
h m
0
h m
o
h m h m
o o
70 11~1 1111 llll llil llll 1/11 n o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 8 2 2 3 4 2308 llll Ill1 llli llll llll Ill1 liN o o n o o o
6 6 2 1 5 1 2209 2230 2256 llll llll /Ill llll ill1 llil Illl Ill1 /Ill llll Ill1 66
64 23 21 36 21 50 22 06 22 23 22 42 23 07 ill1 Ill1 Ill1 Ill1 Nil llll Ill1 llll 64
6221022112 2421352147220022132227224223002322 llll 1/11 Ill1 1/11 62
N 60 20 45 20 54 21 03 21 13 21 22 21 32 21 42 21 52 22 02 22 12 22 22 22 31 22 41 22 50 22 58 N 6 0
58 31 39 2047 2055 2103 21 11 19 27 2135 2142 2150 2157 2203 2209 2214 58
56 19 26 33 40 2047 2054 2101 2108 2114 21 26 32 2137 2142 2145 56
54 09 15 21 27 34 40 2046 2052 2057 21 03 21 08 21 13 17 21 24 54
52 2000 2005 11 17 22 28 33 38 43 2048 2052 2057 21 00 21 04 21 07 52
N 5 0 1952 1957 2002 2007 20 12 20 17 2022 2026 20 31 2035 2039 2043 2046 2049 2052 N50
45 35 39 1943 1947 1951 1955 1959 2002 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 3 20162018 2021 23 45
40 22 25 28 31 35 38 41 1944 1947 1950 1952 1955 1957 1959 2001 40
35 11 13 16 I8 21 24 26 29 31 33 36 38 40 41 1943 35
Figure 10-11: Evening Civil Twilight

EXAMPLE
Determine the duration of evening civil twilight at Johannesburg (26" 15' S 27" 55' E) on the 15th
May.
SOLUTION
In the previous example the time of sunset at Johannesburg was calculated as 17:21:00 LMT. Note
that we use LMT and not ST or UTC as the Air Almanac tables are all LMT.
Again, interpolation is necessary:
End of evening civil twilight Johannesburg 15th May 17:46:00 LMT (by interpolation)
Sunset Johannesburg 15th May 17:21:00 LMT
Duration of evening civil twilight Johannesburg 15th May 25:OO

Page 10-Q1
QUESTIONS
1. The LMT at A (10" 20'N 161" 15'W) is 1700 on the 5th. The LMT and local date at B (46" 17's 45"
47'W) is:
(a) 00:41:52 on the 6th,
(b) 06:48:08 on the 5th,
(c) 03:45:00 on the 6th.
2. An aircraft leaves Bombay (073" 08'E) at 0705 LMT on the 9th for Dakar (017" 30'W). The flying time
is 9 hours 48 minutes. The ETA for Dakar is:
(a) 12:00:00 LMT,
(b) 13:10:58 LMT,
(c) 10:50:28 LMT.
3. The Standard Time at X (110" 25'E) is 0917 on the 5th, STF 7. The LMT at Y (046" 45'E) is:
4. An aircraft departs from Seoul (3740'N 12735'E), ST factor 9, at 1800 ST on 7th en route to
Edmonton (53"40'N 113"30'W), ST factor 7. The flying time is 8 hours 42 minutes. The ETA for
Edmonton is:
(a) 17:42:00 ST,
(b) 10:42:00 ST,
(c) 00:42:00 ST.
5. An aircraft flies due west along the equator at GS I80 kt. It crosses the 180"ElW meridian at 1200
UTC. At 1230 UTC it will be at longitude:
(a) 001"30 W,
(b) 178"30 E',
(c) 176"30 E'.
6. The UTC is 0730 and the LMT at A is 0240. The longitude of A is:
(a) 40" W.
(b) 7230' E,
(c) 72"303W
7. An aircraft arrived at B (17l040'W),ST factor 12, at 1930 ST on the 23rd after a flight of 8 hours 32
minutes. It departed from A at 0710 LMT on the 24th. The longitude of A is:
a) 123" E,
b) 123" W,
(c) 057" W.
8. An aircraft departs A, in the eastern hemisphere, at 1400 ST (ST factor 7) and arrives at B at 1628
LMT after a flight of 4 hours 46 minutes. The longitude of B is:
(a) 45" W,
(b) 70" 30' W,
(c) 70" 30' E.

Page 10-Q2
9. An aircraft is flying due west along the equator. In order to pass each meridian at the same LMT it
would have to maintain a ground speed of:
(a) 450 M,
(b) 900 kt,
(c) 750 M.
10. An aircraft departs A (155"15'W) on the 12th at 0755 LMT en route to B (16V32'E). It arrives at B
(ST factor 11) at 1032 ST on the 13th. If the average GS for the flight was 360 kt, the distance
from A to B is:
(a) 1755 nm,
(b) 1220 nm,
(c) 1896 nrn.
11. An aircraft has to land at B (0718'S 16915'E) 15 minutes before the end of evening civil twilight
on May 20th. The LMT of landing would be:
(a) 18:27 LMT,
(b) 17:57 LMT,
(c) 18:12 LMT.
12. An aircraft is scheduled to take of at Position X (23"30'N 120"15'W) 20 minutes after the beginning
of morning civil twilight on May 23rd. The LMT of departure will be:
(a) 05:lO LMT,
(b) 04:50 LMT,
(c) 0430 LMT.

Page 10-A1
DETAILED ANSWERS
17:00:00 LMT
+ 10:45:00
03:45:00 UTC
- 03:03:08
00:41:52 LMT
Dep Bombay (9th) 07:05:00 LMT

Arcrime - 04:52:32
Dep Bombay (9th) 02:12:28 UTC
Flying time f 09:48:00
~~~
Arr Dakar (9th) 12:00:28 UTC

Arcrime - 01:10:00
Arr Dakar 10:50:28 LMT
X (5th) 09:17:00 ST
ST factor - 07:OO:OO
X (5th) 02:17:00 UTC
Arcnime + 03:07:00
Y (5th) 05:24:00 LMT
Dep Seoul (7th) 18:00:00 ST

Deo Seoul (7th) 09:OO:OO UTC
~lyhg time
> ,
+ 08:42:00
Arr Edmonton 17:42:00 UTC
Arr Edmonton 10:42:00 ST
At 1230 the aircraft is 30 minutes at GS 180 (90 nrn) from the 18O0E/W meridian. At the equator 90
nm = l"30' d long. Since the aircraft is flying west along the equator and has crossed 180" E/W, it
will be Io30'to the east, at 17V30' E.
Since it is earlier at A than at Greenwich, A must be in the western hemisphere. Simply convert the
time difference into arc.
07:30:00 UTC
02:40:00 LMT
04:50:00
Time to arc = 0450 x 15" = 72"30' W

Page 10-A2
The LMT of departure from A is 07:lO (24th). Calculate the UTC of departure, subtract the one from
the other to determine the hemisphere and longitude of B.
Arr B (23rd) 19:30:00 ST
ST facior ' + 12:oo:oo
Arr B (24th) 07:30:00 UTC
Flight time - 08:32:00
Dep A (23rd) 22:58:00 UTC
LMT is later than UTC, so A is in the Eastern hemisphere.
Dep A (24th) 07:10:00 LMT
Dep A (23 rd) 22:58:00 UTC
08:12:00
08:12 Time to arc x 15" = 123" E
8. (6)
The aircraft arrives at B at 1628 LMT. Calculate the arrival at B in UTC.
Dep A 14:00:00 ST
Dep A 07:OO:OO UTC
Flight time + 04:46:00
Arr B 11 :46:00 UTC
B must be in the eastern hemispher since the LMT arrival is later than UTC arrival.
Arr B 16:28:00 LMT
Arr B - 11 :46:00 UTC
04:42:00
04:42 Time to arc x 15" = 70°30' E
The aircraft will have to travel at the same speed as the sun, 15" per hour. At the equator 1" is 60
nm, so 15" x 60 nm = 900 nm per hour, or 900 kt.
The GS is given, the distance is required and so we must find the flying time. Calculate the
departure and arrival time in UTC.
Dep A (12th) 07:55:00 LMT
Arc to time + 10:21:00
Dep A (12th) 18:16:00 UTC
Arr B (13th) 10:32:00 ST

ST factor - 11:oo:oo
Arr B (12th) 23:32:00 UTC
Arr B (12th) 23:32:00 UTC

Dep A (12th) - 18:16:00 UTC
Flying time 05:16:00
Distance A to B = 5:16 at GS 360 = 1896 nm

Page 10-A3
11. (b)
Refer to the evening civil twilight table.
Latitude of B - 0778's. The table orovides times at the eauator (0")
~, and at 10"s. lnteroolation will be
necessary.
Locate 20th May - time of evening civil twilight is 18:22:00 at the equator and at 10"s it is 18:08:00.
This is a change of 14 minutes in 10" (600'). Position B is 718' S, or a change in latitude of 438'.
Time of evening civil twilight at B = 4 8 3
600 x 14 = 10 minutes.
Since I3 is further south than the equator, evening civil twilight will be earlier, so:
18:22:00 - 10 minutes = 18:12:00. The aircraft has to land 15 minutes earlier, so:
12. (a)
Again, interpolation will be necessary.
Locate 23 May - morning civil twilight.
The two appropriate latitudes are 20"N and 30"N. The time interval between them is:
0458 - 0436 = 22 minutes. Latitude of X is 23303N,which represents a change in latitude of 390'
(210') Therefore the time of morning civil twilight will be:
-
210
600 x 22 = 8 minutes. Since X is further north than 20", morning civil twilight will be earlier, so:
04:58:00 -8 minutes = 04:50:00. Departure time will be 20 minutes later, so:
04:50:00 + 20 minutes = 05:10:00.

CHAPTER 11 GENERAL QUESTIONS
Page 11-Q1
1. An aircraft in the northern hemisphere flies around the world in 12 hours 25 minutes at a ground
speed of 496 kt. The rhumb line track is 090" (T). The latitude at which the aircraft flies is:
(a) 71°03' N,
(b) 73"26' N,
(c) 76018' N.
2. The distance between A (77"13'N 103"303E)and B (8l047' N 076030'W) is 1260 nm.

(a) this is the rhumbline distance,
(b) this is the great circle distance,
(c) this is both great circle and rhumb line distance.
3. The time taken to fly around the world along a parallel of 58"38' S at a ground speed of 525 kt is:
(a) 21 hours 25 minutes,
(b) 23 hours 01 minutes,
(c) 24 hours 38 minutes.
4. An aircraft in position 0337's 01O015'W, flies at track of 360" (T) at a ground speed of 310 kt for 5
hours and 12 minutes, then alters track to 090" (T) for 5 hours and 24 minutes to destination. The
position of the destination is:
Ia) 23"15'N 017"39'E,

b) 23"15'N 020"07'E,
(c) 26052'N 02I002'E.
5. The distance on a chart between A (4914's 175"53'E) and B (4914's 168"4Z3W)is 24.87 cm. The
scale of the chart is:
(bj 1: 6 900 000;

(c) 1: 5 000 000.
6. An aircraft travels 9.3 cm on a chart in 23 minutes. The scale of the chart is I:1 000 000. The air-
craft's groundspeed is:
(a) 136 kt,
(b) 124 kt,
(c) 131 kt,
7. The scale of a chart is I:3 500 000. An aircraft flying at a ground speed of 315 kt for 54 minutes
would cover a chart distance of:
(a) 15 cm,
Ib) 14 cm,
c) 13.5 cm.
8. Position A (latitude 42"14'S) is due north of position B. The distance between A and B on a chart
with a scale of 1: 5 000 000 is 16.6 cm. The latitude of B is:
(a) 49033,
(b) 4942'5,
(c) 500093.

GENERAL QUESTIONS
Page 11-02
9. An aircraft takes 18 minutes 24 seconds to cover a distance of 7.3 cm between A and B on a chart
whose scale is 1: 2 000 000. The aircraft's ground speed is:
(a) 269 kt,
(b) 239 kt,
(c) 257 kt.
10. On a Mercator chart the spacing between meridians 2" apart is 5 cm. The scale at 40" N is:
(a) I:2 973 554,
(b) I:3 406 753,
(c) I:4 447 200.
1I.The scale of a Mercator chart is I:2 500 000 at 36"N. The distance in cm between meridians one
degree apart is:
(a) 4.4 cm,
(b) 3.6 cm,
(c) 3.0 cm.
12. The scale of Mercator chart is 1: 3 000 000 at 40"s. The difference in longitude represented by a
line 8.7 inches long drawn along a parallel of latitude is:
(a) 7'47,
(b) 5" 58',
(c) 4"46'.
13. An aircraft, heading 357"C), Variation 1IoW, Deviation 3"W, in the southern hemisphere, obtains a
relative bearing from an NDB of 258". The convergency between the aircraft and the NDB is 8". The
bearing to plot from the NDB on a Mercator chart is:
(a) 065",
(b) O W ,
(c) 061'.
14. An aircraft in the southern hemisphere obtains an RMI bearing from a VOR station of 058". Station
variation is 22"E, variation at the aircraft is I Y E . The deviation is 2'W and the conversion angle
between the aircraft and the VOR is 4". On a Mercator chart the bearing to plot from the station is:
15. On a Mercator chart the scale at the equator is I:2 000 000. A and B are both on parallel 38"N
and are 34 cm apart. An aircraft flies eastwards from A to B in 37 minutes. The aircraft's ground
speed is:
Ia) 451 kt,

b) 469 kt,
(c) 488 kt.
16. The scale of a Mercator chart is I:3 000 000 at the equator. An aircraft flies from A (43"32'S
008"OWWJ to B (43"32'S 00Y37'E). The TAS and W N are constant throughout the flight. The
aircraft was overhead A at 0900 and crossed the Greenwich meridian at 0940. The ETA for B is:
(a) 1039,
(b) 1034,
(c) 1028.

GENERAL QUESTIONS
Page 11-Q3
17. On a Mercator chart the distance between meridians 174%' and 176"E is 12.7 inches. The latitude
at which the scale is 1.3 000 000 is:
(a) 2g030'N or S,
(b) 3I002'N or S,
(c) 3I058'N or S.
18. The initial great circle track from A (53"39'S 172"40'E) to B (53'39'5 157"32'!N) is:
(a) 084",
(b) l o p ,
(c) 114".
19. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1: 500 000 at 20"s. Two positions on the 42" S parallel are 17
inches apart. The difference in longitude between them is:
(a) 1°57',
(b) ZV04',
(c) 2037'.
20. An aircraft flying due east along the 20"N parallel covers a distance of 14 cm in 27 minutes on a
Mercator chart. The scale of the chart is 1: 1 000 000 at 35"N. The aircraft's ground speed is:
(a) 167.9 kt,
(b) 192.6 kt,
(c) 200.8 kt.
21. The rhumb line bearing of A from B is 110" and the great circle bearing of B from A is 284". The
great circle bearing of A from B is:
(a) I l V ,
(b) l o p ,
(c) 100".
22. The great circle bearing of B from A is 148" and the great circle bearing of A from B is 322". The
rhumb line track from A to B is:
(a) 154",
(b) 151°,
(c) 1450.
23. The latitude at which the convergency between two meridians is twice the convergency at 21"s is:
24. The bearing of A from B is 283" great circle and the bearing of B from A is 098" rhumb line. The
great circle bearing of B from A is:
(a) l o g ,
(b) 103",
(c) 0930.

GENERAL QUESTIONS
Page 11-Q4
25. A (172"E) and B (168" W) are on the same parallel in the southern hemisphere. The convergency
between A and B is 8". The latitude of A and B is:
26. The position of A is 40°15'N 159"38'W. B is on the same parallel. The initial great circle track from
A to B is 277". The longitude of B is:
(a) 17l014'W,
(b) 1 7I059'E,
(c) 178042'E.
27. The chart convergency on a Lamberts chart between meridians 072"W and 100"W is 24.08". One
standard parallel is at 65"s. The latitude of the other standard parallel is:
(a) 53038'S,
(b) 70"41'S,
(c) 5919'5.
28. A Lamberts chart has a scale of I:1 000 000 with standard parallels at 40"N and 50"N. The dif-
ference between chart convergency and earth convergency of two meridians 10" apart at 55"N is:
(a) 1.12",
(b) 0.56",
(c) 1.68".
29. On a Lamberts chart the straight line from A (27"N 020"W) to B (33'N 030"W) cuts the meridian of
25"W at an angle of 55". A and B are both on the standard parallels. The great circle track from A
to B is:
(a) 310",
(b) 307.5",
(c) 305".
30. An aircraft flying along the parallel of 28"N in DR longitude 160"E, obtains a relative bearing of 204"
from an NDB at 32"N 148"E, W N 270/20. The bearing to plot from the station on a Lamberts chart
whose parallel of origin is 30"N is:
(a) log",
(b) lip,
(c) 108".
31. A Lamberts chart has standard parallels at 28"s and 52"s. Position A (52% 045'E) Position B (523
070"E). The great circle bearing of B from A is:
(a) 09T06',
(b) 098"02',
(c) 106"04'.
32. An aircraft obtains a QDM of 231" to a VDF station. The station variation is 17"W and the variation
at the aircraft's position is I Y W . The convergency between the aircraft's position and the station is
8" in the southern hemisphere. The bearing to plot on a mercator chart is:
["d, 0O2388,
(c) 030°.

GENERAL QUESTIONS
Page 11 -Q5
33. An aircraft heading 153" (T) obtains a relative bearing from an NDB of 293". The convergency
between the aircraft and the station is 9". The bearing to plot on a Lamberts chart in the northern
hemisphere is:
(a) 275",
(b) 257,
(c) 270.50.
34. A Lamberts chart with a scale of 1: 4 000 000, has standard parallels at 26"N and 44"N. Position X
(4VN030"E) and position Y (46"N 010"W) are joined by a straight line. The great circle bearing of Y
from X is:
(a) 258"32',
(b) 292" 57'
(c) 281°28'.
35. Positions X and Y are in the same hemisphere. An aircraft at X heading 279" (T) obtains a relative
bearing of 153" from an NDB at Y. When plotted as a straight line from the NDB on a Lamberts
chart, the bearing measures 244" (T). The rhumb line track from X to Y is:
36. The standard parallels on a Lamberts chart are 20DNand 40"N. Position A is 40" N 160"W and
position B 20"N 150"E. The rhumb line track from A to B is 245". The great circle track from A to
B at the anti-meridian of Greenwich is:
(a) 244.50,
(b) 2 4 7 3 ,
(c) 250.5".
37. An aircraft leaves A (158"5Z3E)at 0752 LMT on the 7th March. It arrives at B (081°03'W), ST factor
5, after a flight of 8 hours 37 minutes. The arrival time at B is:
(a) 23:51:26 ST on 6th March,
(b) 00:29:20 ST on 7th March,
(c) 00:53:32 ST on 7th March.
38. An aircraft leaves A (088"45'Wj and after a flight of 10 hours 40 minutes arrives at B (158"15'W) at
2120 standard time on the 10th October. ST factor at B is 11. The departure time from A was:
Ia) 15:18:00 LMT on 10th October,

b) 15:45:00 LMT on 10th October,
(c) 16:35:00 LMT on 10th October.
39. An aircraft leaves A at 0817 ST on 12th September. A is in the eastern hemisphere and the ST
factor at A is 8. The aircraft arrives at B after a flight of 10 hours 54 minutes at 2356 LMT on 11th
September. The longitude of B is:
(a) 159"13'E,
(b) 168"45'W,
(c) 15V13'W.
) Commefcial Pilot Licence

GENERAL QUESTIONS
Page 11-Q6
40. On a flight from A to B the aircraft arrived at B (171"45'W) at 2217 ST on 5th January. The ST
factor at B is 11. The flying time from A to B was 7 hours 46 minutes. The aircraft left A at 1954
LMT on 5th January. The longitude of A is:
(a) 084"15'W,
(b) 077"303W,
(c) 075"15'W.
41. An aircraft leaves A (54"16'N 176"50'W) at 1000 ST on the 8th May. ST factor at A is 11. It arrives
at B (54"16'N 16Z020'E)at 11:37:20 LMT on the 9th May. The aircrafts ground speed was:
(a) 329 kt.
(b) 242 kt,
(6) 192 kt.
42. An aircraft departs A (15T15'W) on the 12th April at 0745 LMT for a flight to B (16fY32'E) arriving
at 1002 ST on the 13th April. ST factor at B is 11. The average ground speed for the flight was 390
kt. The distance from A to B is:
(a) 1881 nm,
(b) 1937 nm,
(c) 1976 nm.
43. Aircraft X, GS 180 kt estimates A at 1210. Aircraft Y, GS 221 kt estimates A at 1228. Both aircraft
are on the same track. The distance from A at which Y will overtake X is:
(a) 237 nm,
(b) 291 nm,
(c) 303 nm.
44. Aircraft X, GS 380 kt, is overhead A at 0600. Aircraft Y, GS 464 kt, is overhead A at 0627. Both
aircraft are bound for B. The time at which the separation between the two aircraft will be 100 nm
is:
(a) 0647,
(b) 0650,
(c) 0718.
45. Aircraft X, GS 380 kt, is overhead A at 0600. Aircraft Y, GS 464 kt,is overhead A at 0627. Both
aircraft are bound for B which is 412 nm from A. The reduction In ground speed that Y would have
to make at A to ensure a separation of 130 nm when X is overhead B is:
["d, :"9,
(c) 34 kt.
46. Aircraft X, GS 194 kt, passes over point A 18 minutes ahead of aircraft Y, GS 230 kt. Aircraft X
then passes over point B 7 minutes ahead of aircraft Y. The distance between A and B is:
(a) 268 nm,
(b) 227 nm,
(c) 249 nm.
47. An aircraft, GS 320 kt, on a flight from A to B, distance 920 nm, is requested by ATC to delay its
arrival by 10 minutes. The distance from B that the aircraft will have to reduce speed by 50 kt is:
(a) 288 nm,
(b) 243 nm,
(c) 234 nm.

GENERAL QUESTIONS
Page 11-Q7
48. Aircraft X, GS 369 kt, passes point A 7 minutes ahead of aircraft Y, GS 420 kt. Aircraft Y passes
point B 7 minutes ahead of aircraft X. The distance from A to B is:
(a) 709 nm,
(b) 739 nm,
(c) 753 nm.
49. Aircraft X, GS 250 kt, is overtaking aircraft Y. Both aircraft are flying the same track and are initially
80 nm apart. The slower aircraft, Y, is overtaken in 1 hour and 38 minutes. The groundspeed of Y
is:
p:E"
c) 201 kt.
50. A straight line in the direction of 080" (T), is drawn on a Lamberts chart in the southern hemi-
sphere. An aircraft departs from a point corresponding to the start of the line and maintains a
heading of 080" (T). Assuming zero wind conditions the aircraft would:
(a) maintain a path over the ground corresponding to the line drawn on the chart,
(b) end up south of the straight line,
(c) end up north of the straight line.
51. The distance from A to B is 987 nm, track 105" 0.Aircraft X leaves A for B at 0927, TAS 231 kt.
Aircraft Y leaves A for B at 1000, GS 237 kt. W N 075145. The distance from B that Y will overtake
X is:
(a) 427 nm,
(b) 446 nm,
(c) 459 nm.
52. An aircraft arrived at B (123Y5'E) on 1st March at 0218 ST. ST factor at B is 8. The flying time was
10 hours 48 minutes. The time and date of departure from A (15V45'W) is:
(a) 2103 LMT on 28th February,
(b) 2150 LMT on 28th February,
(c) 2203 LMT on 27th February.

GENERAL QUESTIONS - DETAILED ANSWERS
Page I 1-A1
DETAILED ANSWERS
D = GSxT
= 496xl2h25
= 6158.6 nm
Departure = d 'long x cos lat
cos lat =
d 'long
cos lat = 0.285

Lat = 73" 26'
The sum of the two meridians = 180". Therefore, the aircraft has flown along the meridian over the
north pole. The meridian is both a Rhumb line and a Great Circle.
3 = d 'long x cos Lat
= 11243 nrn
525 kts
21 hrs 25 mins.
D = GSxT
= 31Ox5hrs12
= 1612 (no departure)
= 26" 52' north of 03" 37' S
= 23" 15'N
= d 'long x cos lat
d 'long =
cos lat
- 1674
cos 23" 15' N
) Commercial Pilot Ucence

-
GENERAL QUESTIONS DETAILED ANSWERS
Page 11-A2
Dep = d 'long x cos lat

= 925' x cos 49" 14'
= 604 nm x 185300 cm
= 111922420 crn
ED = CLx S
= 9.3 x 1 000 000
= 9 300 000
185300
= 50.2 nrn
GS = D
T
1 = GSxT
= 315 x 54 mins
= 283.5 nm
- 52532550 (283.5 x 185300)

3 500 000 crn

-
Page 11-A3
= 447.9 nm OR min (no departure)
- 78.8
18 min 24 sec
lo. (b)
At the Equator:
ED = 2" x 60' x 185300 (no departure)

= 22236000 crn
1 x 1
-
-
- 1
4 447 200 cos 40 3 406 753

Page 11-A4
11. (b)
1
- 1
-
S at Lat x 1 = S at Equator.
1
2 500 000 x 1 = X
cos 36
2 500 000 = X
X = 1
3090170 scale at Equator
s =
ED
CL = ED
s
= 1" x 60' x 185300 (no departure)
3090170
= 3.6 cm
12. (a)
1
- 1
-
S at Lat x 1 = S at Equator
1
3 000 000 X 1 = X
X = 1
3916222 Scale at Equator
S = CL
-
ED
ED = CL x S
= 8.7" x 3916222
= 34071130
= 34071130
12 x 6080
= 467' OR nm (no departure)
60
13. (a)
241" GC QUJ
245" RL QUJ
I Commercial Pilot Ucence

14. (b)
R L ~QUJ
RL QTE
3 GENERAL QUESTIONS
GC QUJ 080"
- DETAILED ANSWERS
Page 11-A5
QTE260"
15. (b)
1 -- -
- 1
Scale at Equator x se: Iat (c' !at) scale at latitude
1 1 = 1
2 000 000 x cos 38 1576022
ED = CL x S
= 34 x 1576022
= 53584731 crn
185300
= 289 nrn
GS = D
-
T
= -
289
37 mins
= 469 Ms
16. (c)
A - 0" E/W = 8" x 60
= 480 nm (no departure)
= 480
40 rnins (0900 - 0940)
= 720 Ms
0" E/W - I3 = 9" 37' x 60
720 Ms
= 48 mins + 0940
= 1028

-
Page 11-A6
17. (a)
= 10"x60'
= I:3 446 929 Scale at the Equator

1 - 1
--
Scale at Equator x se: Iats:c( lat) - scale at latitude
1 1 1
3446929 x cos X = 3 000 000
1 1 3446929
cos X = 3 000 000 x 1
2 1.15
cos X = 1
18. (b)
Convergency = d 'long x sin lat
= 29" 43' x sin 53" 39'
= 24"
Conversion angle = 12"
RL track A - B = 090" (A and B on same parallel)
Conversion angle -
- 12"
GC track = 102"
19. (b)
The meridians are 17" apart at any latitude. Answer calculated at 20" S.
CommercialPilot Ucence
Page 11-A7

d 'long = DEP
cos lat
= 116.5
cos 20"
= -
124'
60
= 2" 04'
20. (b)
1 = X
1 000 000 x 1
X = 1
1220775 (scale at Equator)
1 1 = X
1220775 x cos 20
[ = 1
1147153 (scale at 20" N\
ED = CLx S
= 14 x 1147153
= 16060140 crn
185300
= 86.67 nrn
27 rnins
21. (a)

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Page 1I-A8
22. (c)
148" GC
Convergency 6"
328" GC
322" GC
23. (b)
= 1"xsin2Io
0.72" = I" x sin lat

sin lat = 0.72"
I"
Lat
24. (c)
25. (b)
8" = (180" - 172"E) + (180" - 168"W) x sin lat
8" = 20" x sin lat
sin lat
sin lat = 0.4

Lat = 23" 35' S

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Page II - A 9
26. (c)
CA = 7"
Convergency = 14"
14" = d 'long x sin 40"15' N
d 'long -
- 14"
sin 40" 15'
= 21" 40' in a westerly direction
= +
159"38'W 2 I 0 4 0 ' W
27. (a)
Convergency = d 'long x sin lat Parallel of Origin
24.08" - (100" - 72") x sin lat P of 0
24.08" - 28" x sin lat P of 0
sin lat P of 0 =
sin lat P of 0 =
Lat of P of 0 =
Standard parallel
-
-
Parallel of Origin =
Standard Parallel =
28. (a)
Chart Convergency = d 'long x sin P of 0
= 1O0xsin45"
= 7.07"
Earth Convergency = d 'long x sin lat
= 10"xsin55"
= 8.19"
Difference

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Page 11-A10
29. (b)
C-D = Convergency
Convergency = d 'Ion x sin lat P of 0
= 5" x sin 30"
= 2.5"
30. (c)
Hdg 090" (T)

RE 204"
GC QUJ 294"
Convergency = d 'long x sin P of 0

= 12" x sin 30'
Plot GC QTE 108"
31. (b)
= 25" x 40"
Conversion angle = 8" 02'
Since A and B are on the same parallel, the RL track is 090"
Therefore, GC at A = 090" +8" 02'
= 098" 02'
32. (c)
GC QDM = 231"
Station Variation = 17"
-
GC QUJ = 214"
-
RL QUJ = 210"
180"
RL QTE = 030"

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Page I1-A1 1
33. (a)
Heading
RB
. .-
-360"
GC QUJ = 086"
Convergency = 9"
= 095"
GC QTE
34. (c)
= 40" x sin 34"
= 22" 57'
35. (b)
GC QUJ
GC QTE
-072"
Convergency = 8"
GC QUJ = 072"
CA -
- -4"
RL QUJ = 068"
I 1 Commercial Pilot Licence

Page 11-A12
36. (b)
Convergency d 'long x sin lat P of 0

50" x sin 30"
25"
Convergency d 'long x sin lat P of 0

20" (180" - 160" W) x 0.5
10"
37. (c)
Dep 07 52 00 LMT 7th

A/T 10 35 28
D ~ P 21 16 32 UTC 6th
Flight time 08 37 00
Arrive 05 53 32 UTC 7th
STF 05 00 00
Arrive 00 53 32 LMT 7th
38. (b)
Arrive 21 21 ST 10th
STF
Arrive 08 20 UTC 11 th
Flight time
Dep 21 40 UTC 10th
rn 555
Dep 15 45 LMT 10th
39. (b)
DeP 08 17 ST 12th
STF l...QL
DeP 00 17 UTC 12th
Flight time
Arrive 11 11 UTC 12th
An*
Arrive 23 56 LMT 11th
= 1111-2356
= 3511-2356
= 11 15 x 15 = 168" 45' W (west because A/T was subtracted).

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Page 11-A13
40. (a)
Arrive 22 17 ST 5th
STF
Flight time -
07 46
Deo 01 31 UTC 6th
19 54 LMT 5th
* 01 31 - x = 1954
0131-1954 = x
2531-1954 = x
x = 5 hr 37 x 15 = 084" 15'W (west because A/T was subtracted)
41. (c)
Dep 10 00 ST 8th
STF LQQ
D ~ P 21 00 UTC 8th
Flight time 03 48
Arrive 00 48 00 UTC 9th
An 10 49 20
Arrive 11 37 20 LMT 9th
= (180"- 176"50'W) + (180"- 162" 20' E) x cos 54" 16'
= 1250'xcos54"16'
= 730 nrn + 3 hrs 38
= 192 MS
42. (c)
Arrive 10 02 ST 13th
STF jlaCL
Flight time Qukl
DeP 17 58 UTC 12th
An
D ~ P 07 45 LMT 12th
D = GSxT
= 390 x 5 04
= 1976 nm
43. (b)
Position both aircraft at the same time. At 12:28 aircraft X will be:
18 minutes at GS 180 = 54 nm ahead of aircraft Y
Speed of closing = 41 Ms for 54 nm
Time of passing = 1:19
Distance of passing = 1.19 at GS 221
= 291 nm
44. (c)
At 06:OO aircraft Y is 208.8 nm behind aircraft X (27 minutes at GS 464).
Distance to close = 208.8 - 100
= 108.8 nm at GS 84 (speed of closing)
= 1:18
Time of separation = 06:OO +1:18
= 07:18

Page 11 -A14
45. (a)
I Aircraft X from A - B = 412 nm at GS 380
= 1:05 +
06:OO
Overhead B = 07:05
At 07:05 aircraft Y must be 130 nm from B
= 412 - 130
= 282 nm
Time to be 282 nm from B
= 07:05 - OR27 (time overhead A)
= 38 minutes
= 282 nm in 38 minutes
= GS 445 Ms
Speed reduction = 464 - 445
= 19Ms
46. (b)
At position A aircraft Y is 18 minutes behind aircraft X
Distance behind = 18 minutes at GS 230
= 69 nm
I
At position B aircraft Y is 7 minutes behind aircraft X
= 27 nm
Distance closed = 69 - 27
= 42 nm
Closing speed = 230 - 194
= 36 Ms
Time to close = 42 nm at 36 Ms
= 1.16hrs
Distance covered = 1.16 hrs at GS 194
47. (a)
Distance = Delav in minutes x Old GS x New GS
60 x Difference is GS
= 10 mins x 320 kts x 270 kts
60 x 50 kts
48. (a)
At position A aircraft Y is 7 minutes behind aircraft X
= 49 nm
At position B aircraft X is 7 minutes behind aircraft Y
= 43 nm
Distance closed = 92 nm
Closing speed = 51 kts
Closing time = 1:48
Distance = 1:48 at GS 420
= 757.6 nm
Distance A - B = 757.6 - 49 nm
= 709 nm

Page 11A 15
49. (c)
Time to close = 1:38
Closing speed = 49 kts
Aircraft Y is slower by 49 knots
Aircraft Y GS = 250 - 49
= 201 kts
50. (b)
The Rhumb line curves to the south in the southern hemisphere.
51. (b)
GS aircraft X = 191 kts
GS aircraft Y = 237 Ms.
At 10:OO aircraft X will be 33 minutes from aircraft Y
Distance = 33 minutes at GS 191
= 105nm
Speed of closing = 46 kts
Time to close = 105 nm at GS 46 Ms
Distance from A = 2 3 7 at GS 237

= 541 nm
Distance from I3 = 987 nm - 541 nm
= 446 nm
52. (a)
Arrive 02 18 ST 1st
STF
Flight time 10 48
Depart 07 30 UTC 29th
m
Depart 21 03 LMT 28th
8

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NAVIGATION

COMMERCIAL PILOT LICENCE

CHAPTER PAGE SUBJECT

THE MATHEMATICS OF NAVIGATION

THE LAMBERTS CHART

THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND TIME

I Commercial Pilot Licence

ABBA formula ................................................................................................................................ 7-4

) Commercial Pilot Licence

Q codes ........................................................................................................................................... 6-1

Isosceles Equilateral Obtuse Right Angled

Figure 1-1: Types of Triangles

Commercial Pilot Licence

Figure 1-2: The Right Angled Triangle

) Commercial Pilot Licence

Figure 1-3: Calculator keyboard

1 Commercial Pilot Licence

Measure it for proof.

E. THE ONE IN SIXTY RULE

Figure 1-5: One in Sixty Rule

1 Commercial Pilot Licence

Track error (TE) = Distance off

-.Distance ott Distance off

Figure 1-6: Calculating Total Heading Change

1 Commercial Pilot Licence

F. DOUBLE THE ANGLE ON THE BOW

Figure 1-7: Double the Angle on the Bow

G. SPEED, DISTANCE AND TIME CALCULATIONS

) Commercial Pilot Licence

' Commercial Pilot Licence

B. THE FORM OF THE EARTH

C. CARDINAL POINTS AND DIRECTION

D. CIRCLES ON THE EARTH

Commercial Pilot Licence

2. THE SMALL CIRCLE

Figure 2-1: Latitude and Longitude

Commercial Pilot Licence

Figure 2-2: Convergency, Great Circle and Rhumb Line Tracks

Commercial Pilot Ucence

Figure 2-3: Variation

J Commeroial Pilot Licence

A further consideration of direction is the effect of compass deviation.

Compass Magnetic True North

Figure 2-4: Compass Deviation

J Commercial Pilot Licence

Figure 2-5: 1 Minute of Latitude = 1 Nautical Mile

I Commercial Pilot Licence

Figure 3-1: Convergency

Figure 3-2: Convergency

1 Commercial Pilot Licence

J Commercial Pilot Licence

Figure 3-7: Conversion Angle (CA)

J Commercial Pilot Licence

Track from A to B is 090" RL

Track from P to Q is 270" RL

Track from X to Y is 086" RL

Track from L to M is 257" RL

IF THE TRACK FROM A TO B IS 090 RL

Commercial Pilot Licence

Again, try and make a sketch.

1 Commercial Pilot Licence

The decrease in departure at selected latitudes is shown in figure 4-1.

Dep = 600 minutes x cos 80 = 104 nm