Elective ONE HOUR

SUPER INTENSIVE

43

43
 DSE CHEM MASTERY
殺手課題思維特訓班
Redox Reaction, Chemical Cell & Electrolysis

1
 Table of Content
1 點解我要學好呢個課題？ ................................................................. 4

2 Redox Reactions – 基本概念 ......................................................... 5

2.1 Redox Reactions—從零認識 ............................................................................................... 5
2.2 Redox 最強武器：Oxidation Numbers ............................................................................. 9
2.3 輕鬆寫出完美 Redox Equation ........................................................................................ 16
2.4 DSE 必出 Oxidizing Agents 詳解..................................................................................... 26

3 Electrolysis .................................................................................... 46
3.1 何謂 Electrolysis（電解）？.............................................................................................. 46
3.2 Electrolysis of Molten Ionic Compound ....................................................................... 50
3.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution ................................................................................... 52
3.4 必學電解應用： Electroplating ........................................................................................ 73

2
上課前請閱讀
歡迎你參加我既《DSE CHEM：REDOX 思維特訓班》，當初決定以呢個課題作為精讀班既主題既
主要原因係因為從大學 Year 1 到而家，教授 DSE CHEM 已經差不多八年有多，每年都有學生因為
REDOX 呢個課題先開始去嚟搵我幫手，加上呢個課題係 DSE 入面佔分十分重，所以決定研發呢套
針對 REDOX 既精讀課程出嚟，務求用最短時間去幫同學解決最常見到既 REDOX 問題！

同學對 REDOX 嘅問題其實都離不開以下幾點：

§ 分唔到邊個係 oxidizing agent 或 reducing agent 、 或 完 全 唔 知 邊 樣 會 進 行

oxidation/reduction

§ 連有無 redox reaction 或點解會有 redox reaction 都唔識睇

§ 分唔清 chemical cell 既 electron flow 同埋邊個 electrode 會 discharge 先

§ Electrolysis 啲題型無從入手，成日揀錯會「preferentially discharge」嘅 ions

§ ......

好老實講，Redox Reaction 呢課係 DSE 入面內容唔算多，但 concept 層面去睇就絕對抽象，搞到

好多同學（好可能包括你）都會越學越亂， 甚至 因為呢個課題而有 drop 科嘅念頭。

但原來歸根究底，絕大部份同學學唔好 Redox 呢個課題既原因，就係因為冇打好 Redox 既基礎，

連最基本乜係 redox、背後嘅原理都未搞清楚，就直接越級挑戰 Chemical Cell 或 Electrolysis 等進
階概念同題型。 咁樣同你「去學游水之前，但連點樣浮喺水面都未識」一樣——死硬！

所以我會盡我所能，喺呢個短短 75 分鐘嘅課堂入面將 Redox 呢一課最核心嘅概念傳授俾你！再配

合一啲活生生既 DSE 題型，以確保你可以有足夠既實戰能力去應付相關真正會喺 DSE 見到既題
目！

我唔夠膽講上完呢堂你將會精通整個 redox 課題，因為呢個精讀班時間真係十分有限。但我可以

100%向你保證，呢 75 分鐘將會係你讀咁耐 CHEM 以來回報率最高既 75 分鐘！Get ready！

3
1 點解我要學好呢個課題？
Topic 7. Redox Reaction (10.8%)
Sub-Topic MC LQ

7.1 Chemical Cells 18.52% 24.07%

7.2 Redox Reactions 62.96% 48.15%

7.3 Electrolysis 18.52% 27.78%

Other Related Topics

§ 8. Energy & Chemical Reactions
§ 9. Rate of Chemical Reactions
§ 10. Equilibrium
§ 13. Industrial Chemistry
§ 15. Analytical Chemistry

4
2 REDOX REACTIONS – 基本概念
2.1 Redox Reactions—從零認識

Oxidation, Reduction & Redox Reaction 之間的關係

§ Reduction : gain of electrons
§ Oxidation : loss of electrons

What is a redox reaction?

It’s a combined process of reduction and oxidation (i.e. transfer of electrons),

while reduction and oxidation occur at the same time.

§ In most reactions, there are an oxidizing agent (oxidant) and a reducing agent (reductant).

OIL RIG
Take “Na(s) + H+(aq)” as an example:

5
Definitions of Oxidation, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent & Reducing Agent
§ There are several ways to define oxidation and reduction. ➝ Change in oxidation number is
the best.
§ 自己被 reduce ➝ oxidizing agent ➝ oxidize other
§ 自己被 oxidize ➝ reducing agent ➝ reduce other

What is oxidation number, O.N.?

It gives you a sense on what happening to the electrons and charges of an atom.

Oxidation Number Gain/Loss of Gain/Loss of Gain/Loss of

(O.N.) Electrons Oxygen Hydrogen

Addition of
Reduction ↓ in O.N. Gain of electrons Removal of oxygen
hydrogen

Removal of
Oxidation ↑ in O.N. Loss of electrons Addition of oxygen
hydrogen

Reducing agent A substance which A substance which A substance which

A substance which
(undergoes loses electrons gains oxygen loses hydrogen
increases in O.N.
oxidation) (e- donor) (O acceptor) (H donor)

Oxidizing agent A substance which A substance which A substance which

A substance which
(undergoes gains electrons loses oxygen gains hydrogen
decreases in O.N.
reduction) (e- acceptor) (O donor) (H acceptor)
*OILRIG: Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain of electrons

Game Rule
Identify redox reactions, oxidizing agents and reducing agents on the basis of i) gain or
loss of oxygen/hydrogen atom(s); ii) gain or loss of electron(s); iii) changes in oxidation
numbers.

6
Reactions that are REDOX
Metal + Water/Steam
!"#(%) + !(! )(*) → !"#)((#,) + (! (-)
§ Oxidation : Na(s) is oxidized to form Na+(aq) in NaOH(aq).
§ Reduction : H+(aq) in H2O(l) is reduced to form H2(g).

Metal + Acid
./(%) + !(0*(#,) → ./0*! (#,) + (! (-)
§ Oxidation : Zn(s) is oxidized to form Zn2+(aq) in ZnCl2(aq).
§ Reduction : H+(aq) in HCl(aq) is reduced to form H2(g).

Metal Displacement
012)" (#,) + 3-(%) → 01(%) + 3-2)" (#,)
§ Oxidation : Mg(s) is oxidized to form Mg2+(aq) in MgSO4(aq).
§ Reduction : Cu2+(aq) in CuSO4(aq) is reduced to form Cu(s).

Reactions that aren’t REDOX

Neutralization
(0*(#,) + "#)((#,) → "#0*(#,) + (! )(*)
Warming Ammonium Salt with Alkaline
#$%&
"(" 0*(#,) + 4)((#,) 5⎯7 "(' (-) + 40*(#,) + (! )(*)

Question 1

Oxidation may involve

(1) An increase in the oxidation number of a substance

(2) The loss of electrons from a substance
(3) The removal of oxygen from a substance

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

7
Question 2

Which of the following processes involve redox reaction?

(1) Iron reacts with oxygen to form iron(III) oxide

(2) Mixing CaCl2(aq) and CuSO4(aq)
(3) Mixing HCl(aq) and NaOH(aq)

(1) only
(1) and (2) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

Question 3

When zinc reacts with oxygen to from ZnO(s), zinc is said to be

Neutralized
Reduced
Oxidized
Rusted

Question 4

When copper(II) oxide reacts with magnesium to form copper, CuO(s) is said to be
Reduced
Oxidized
Neutralized
Anodized

Question 5

Which of the following reactions will occur when zinc is added to CuSO4(aq)?

(1) Redox
(2) Displacement
(3) Neutralization

(1) only
(2) only
(1) and (2) only
All of the above

8
2.2 Redox 最強武器：Oxidation Numbers
What is oxidation number?

Oxidation number (O.N.) of an element (e.g. oxygen) is the imaginary charge

carried by an atom of that element as if it existed as an ion.

§ O.N. can be assigned to elements in covalent & other substances ➝ even there are no ions
present.
§ O.N. must have +/- sign, e.g. +3 or -1. (don’t confuse it with the charge of ion)

O.N. Assignment Rules

Game Rule
Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms of elements and compounds

#1 O.N. of elements in elemental state are always 0

§ O2, O3, N2, H2, P4, S, S8, metals (Na, Ca, etc.) → O.N. = 0

#2 O.N. of some elements in their compounds are fixed.

Element in Compounds Oxidation Number Example

Group I Elements +1 § NaCl, KOH, Na2O

Group II Elements +2 § CaO, Ca(OH)2, MgSO4

§ H2O, HCl, NaOH

+1
Hydrogen, H Exception: NaH
Except O.N. of H in metal hydrides is -1 §

Halogen, X -1 § CaCl2, HBr, HF, KI

-2 § H2O, KOH, CuO

Oxygen, O § Exception: Na2O2, H2O2
Except O.N. of O in peroxides is -1

9
#3 O.N. of an element in its monoatomic ion state = the charge of the
ion.
§ Na+ = +1, Ca2+ = +2, Al3+ = +3
§ Cl- = -1, O2- = -2, N3- = -3
§ Cu+ = +1, Fe3+ = +3, S2- = -2

#4 The sum of O.N. of all elements in a charge-neutral compound is

equal to zero.
Compound Sum of Oxidation Number

NaF (+1) + (−1) = 0

CaCl( (+2) + (−1) × 2 = 0

NaHCO) (+1) + (+1) + (+4) + (−2) × 3 = 0

H( O (+1) × 2 + (−2) = 0

#5 The sum of O.N. of all elements in a polyatomic ion = the charge of

the ion
Polyatomic Ions Sum of Oxidation Number

OH* (−2) + (+1) = −1

NO*
) (+5) + (−2) × 3 = −1

SO(*
+ (+6) + (−2) × 4 = −2

MnO*
+ (+7) + (−2) × 4 = −1

10
#6 Elements with multiple oxidation number in their compounds
§ Mainly are N, S, Cl and transition metals

O.N. N S Cl Cr Mn Fe

HClO!
+7 KClO!
KMnO!

SO" K # CrO!
+6 K # MnO!
H# SO! K # Cr# O$

HNO" HClO"
+5 N# O% KClO"

SO#
+4 NO#
H# SO"
MnO#

HNO# HClO# Cr# O" Fe# O"

+3 NaNO# KClO# Cr(OH)"
Mn# O"
FeBr"

FeO
+2 NO SCl# MnSO!
FeBr#

HOCl
+1 N# O
NaOCl

0 N# S& Cl# Cr Mn Fe

HCl
-1 NaCl

H# S
-2 N# H!
K#S

NH"
-3 NH! Cl

唔好死記，但要識計！

11
Example 1

Determine the oxidation number of the underlined atom of the following substances.
a) MnO4-

Analysis
§ O.N. of O = -2
§ Total O.N. of the ion = -1 (charge of the ion)

Solution
§ Let the O.N. of Mn in MnO4- be x.
§ M + (−2) × 4 = −1 → M = +7
§ Therefore, the O.N. of Mn in MnO4- is +7.

b) NH4NO3

Analysis
§ O.N. of the 2 N atoms in NH4NO3 may not be the same!
§ We can “separate” NH4NO3 into NH4+ & NO3-.
§ O.N. of H = +1 ; O.N. of O = -2
§ Total O.N. of NH4+ = +1 ; total O.N. of NO3- = -1

Solution
§ Let the O.N. of N in NH4+ be x. Let the O.N. of N in NO3- be y.
§ M + (+1) × 4 = +1 → M = −3 N + (−2) × 3 = −1 → N = +5
§ Therefore, the O.N. of N in NH4+ is -3. Therefore, the O.N. of N in NO3- is +5

12
Question 6

Determine the O.N. of the underlined elements in the following compounds.

Compound O.N. Compound O.N.

S8 K

Na+ Cl-

Ca2+ OH-

Na2O2 KMnO4

CaO NaCl

KCl MgCl2

SO2 Cr

SO32- FeBr2

H2O FeBr3

H2O2 MnO2

H2S Mn2O3

Compound O.N. Compound O.N.

N2 NH3

Cl2 NH4Cl

HClO3 K2MnO4

KClO3 FeO

H2 Fe2O3

K2S NO2

13
Question 7

Explain whether the following reactions are redox reactions. If yes, state and explain the oxidizing
agent in the reaction.
a) ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(s) + CO( (g)
b) Zn(s) + CuSO+ (aq) → ZnSO+ (aq) + Cu(s)

c) H, (aq) + OH* (aq) → H( O(l)

d) NaHCO) (aq) + HNO) (aq) → NaNO) (aq) + CO( (g) + H( O(l)
e) Ca(s) + 2HNO) (aq) → Ca(NO) )( (aq) + H( (g)

14
Question 8 12 MCQ 06-03

What is the oxidation number of Fe in K₃[Fe(CN)₆]?

+2
+3
+4
+6

Question 9 12 MCQ 06-04

Which compound shows the highest oxidation state of iodine?

KI
I2
IF₅
KIO₄

Question 10 16 MCQ 11-03

In which of the following compounds does nitrogen have the highest oxidation number?
HNO3
NH3
N2H4
NO

Question 11

Consider the reaction:

MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+(#,) ⟶ 5Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(I)
Which of the following statements concerning the above reaction is true?
H+ (aq) ions are reduced to H2O(I).
The oxidation number of manganese increases from -1 to +2.
1 mole of electrons is transferred per mole of MnO4- (aq) ions reacted.
1 mole of the reductant is required to react with 0.2 mole of the oxidant.

15
2.3 輕鬆寫出完美 Redox Equation

Writing Half-Equation
Game Rule
Balance half equations of reduction & oxidation.

What is half equation?

It shows you what happen at one of the electrodes during electrolysis (i.e. either
oxidation or reduction)

Step 1: Write down the reactant and product

Step 2: Balance the number of elements that have change in O.N.
Step 3: Balance the number of “O” atoms by adding H2O(l)
Step 4: Balance the number of “H” atoms by adding H+(aq)
Step 5: Balance the charge by adding e-
Example 2

Write the half equation for the following changes:

a) VW → VW!,
Step 1: Fe → Fe(,
Step 2: Fe → Fe(, + !W*

b) SO32- ➝ SO42-

Step 1: SO(*
) → SO+
(*

Step 2: SO(* (*
) + (! ) → SO+
Step 3: SO(* (*
) + H( O → SO+ + !(
,

Step 4: SO(* (* ,
) + H( O → SO+ + 2H + !W
*

O.N. of S increases from +4 to +6 = lose 2 electrons

c) 3/)*
" → 3/
!,

Step 1: MnO*
+ → Mn
(,

Step 2: MnO*
+ → Mn
(,
+ Y(! )
Step 3: MnO+ + Z( → Mn(, + 4H( O
* ,

Step 4: MnO* , *
+ + 8H + \W → Mn
(,
+ 4H( O

O.N. of Mn decreases from +7 to +2 = gain 5 electrons

16
Question 12

Determine the following changes are oxidation or reduction. Then, balance the following half
equations.
a) MnO*
+ → Mn
(,

b) Cr( O(*
- → Cr
),

c) SO( → SO(*
+

d) SO(* (*
) → SO+

e) Fe(, → Fe),

f) Fe(, → Fe
g) Cl* → Cl(
h) F( → F *
i) Br * → Br(
j) K, → K
k) Ca → Ca(,

l) H( O( → H( O

17
Question 13

Which of the followings are redox reactions?

(1) Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(2) Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaAIO2(aq) + 2H2O(I)
(3) MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) ⟶ MnCl2 (aq) + Cl2 (g) + 2H2O(I)

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

Question 14 12 MCQ 22-02

Which of the following processes involve redox reaction?

(1) mixing methanol and ethanol

(2) mixing Ca and CuSO4 (aq)
(3) mixing ethene and acidified K2Cr2O7 (aq)

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

Question 15 15 MCQ 17-01

An aqueous solution of manganese (IV)oxide turns green with time due to the following reaction:
MnO( (aq) + 4HCl(aq) → MnCl( (aq) + Cl( (g) + 2H( O(l)
Which of the following statements concerning the above reaction is/are correct?

(1) Cl is oxidised by MnO2

(2) MnO2 is reduced by HCl
(3) The green colour is due to the MnCl2 formed

(1) only
(1) and (2) only
(2) and (3) only
(1) and (3) only

18
Question 16

When ammonia reacts with copper (II) oxide upon heating, nitrogen, copper and water will be
produced.
a) State whether or not the reaction is redox. Explain your answer in terms of oxidation number
change.

(2 marks)
b) Write the chemical equation for the reaction of ammonia with copper (II) oxide.

(1 mark)

19
Balancing Redox Equations
Game Rule
Balance redox equations by using half equations or changes in oxidation numbers.

Rule of Thumb

Just make sure the number of electrons on the

two half equations will be cancelled out!

Example
Write a balanced equation for each of the following redox reactions.
a) Na( Cr( O- (aq), FeSO+ (aq)
b) KMnO+ (aq), K ( SO) (aq)
c) Zn(s), AgNO) (aq)

Question 17

Write a balanced equation for each of the following redox reactions.

a) K ( Cr( O- , bc(

b) FeSO+ , Cl(
c) KMnO+ , ZnI(
d) K ( Cr( O- , FeCl(

e) Cu, H( SO+ (l)

f) KMnO+ , NaBr
g) Cl( , H( SO)
h) KMnO+ , NaCl

20
Question 18 13 MCQ 16-01

Consider the following chemical equation:

e3/)* !* , !* !,
" (#,) + \2)' (#,) + f( (#,) → g2)" (#,) + h3/ (#,) + i(! )(*)

Which of the following is the correct combination of the reaction coefficients y and z?
y z
5 2
2 5
5 3
3 5

Question 19 13 MCQ 16-02

Consider the following chemical equation:

ejk * (#,) + 0k! )!* , ',

. (#,) + f( (#,) → gjk! (#,) + h0k (#,) + l(! )(*)

Which of the following is the correct combination of the reaction coefficients y and z?
y z
5 2
3 2
3 1
2 5

Question 20

Consider the ionic equation below:

2MnO4- + xSn2+ + yH+ ⟶ 2Mn2+ + xSn4+ + 8H2O
What is the value of x?
2
4
5
7

21
Question 21

Chlorine can be prepared from concentrated hydrochloric acid and potassium permanganate
according to the following equation:
2KMnO4 + xHCl ⟶ 2KCI + 2MnCl2 + yH2O + zCl2
What is the value of z?
4
5
8
10

Question 22

Consider the following chemical equation:

2HNO3 + xFeSO4 + yH2SO4 ⟶ zFe2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 2NO
Which of the following combinations is correct?
x y z
4 3 2
6 2 3
6 3 3
2 1 1

Question 23

Consider the following chemical equation:

0*! (-) + 2)!* * !* ,

' (#,) + (! )(*) → g0* (#,) + 2)" (#,) + h( (#,)

Which of the following is the correct combination of the reaction coefficients y and z?
y z
1 2
3 2
2 1
2 2

22
Question 24

Consider the following chemical equation:

em * (#,) + 2)!* ,
" (#,) + f( (#,) → gm! (-) + (! 2(#,) + h(! )(*)

Which of the following is the correct combination of the reaction coefficients y and z?
y z
4 2
4 4
2 4
2 3

Question 25

Which of the following equations can represent the reaction between silver and concentrated nitric
acid?
3Ag(s) + 4HNO3(aq) → 3AgNO3(aq) + NO (g) + 2H2(g)
Ag (s) + 4HNO3 (aq) → AgNO3(aq) + 3NO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
Ag (s) + 2H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) → Ag+(aq) + NO2 (g) + H2O(l)
Ag (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 4NO3-(aq) → Ag(aq) + 4NO2 (g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)

23
Question 26

Refer to the experimental set-up as shown below.

a) When concentrated HCl(aq) is dropped into KMnO (s), a yellowish green gas is formed.
4

i) What is the yellowish green gas?

ii) Explain whether the reaction forming the yellowish green gas is a redox reaction.

(2 marks)
b) With the aid of an ionic equation, state the expected observation when the yellowish green gas
reaches the filter paper.

(2 marks)
c) In consideration of laboratory safety, explain where the experiment should be performed.

(1 mark)

24
Question 27 18 LQ 8-02

Refer to the experimental set-up as shown below.

a) HI is a strong acid. What is meant by the term 'strong acid’?

(1 mark)
b) When concentrated HI (aq) is dropped into K2Cr2O7(s), a dark purple gas is formed.
i) What is the dark purple gas?

ii) Explain whether the reaction forming the dark purple gas is a redox reaction.

(2 marks)
c) With the aid of an ionic equation, state the expected observation when the dark purple gas
reaches the filter paper.

(2 marks)
d) In consideration of laboratory safety, explain where the experiment should be performed.

(1 mark)

25
2.4 DSE 必出 Oxidizing Agents 詳解
Nitric Acid of different concentrations
Concentration Properties

Very dilute (~0.2 M) Typical dilute acid ➝ only acidic properties

Dilute (~2 M)
Oxidizing acids ➝ strong oxidizing agents + acidic properties
Concentrated (~16 M)

Hot dilute nitric acid + metals (except Pt and Au)

!"#$%(') + *+%,#" ./0! ($1) → !"#$% /+#3$#"($1) + /0(4) + ." 0(%)

5/0(4) + 0" (4) → 5/0" (4)

§ Dilute nitric acid can oxidize metals (except platinum and gold) to give metal nitrate, colourless
nitrogen monoxide and water.
§ Then, colourless nitrogen monoxide produced reacts with oxygen near the test tube mouth to
give brown and pungent nitrogen dioxide.

Example (Cu)
§ Redox Equation : 3Cu(s) + 8HNO) (aq) → 3Cu(NO) )( (aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H( O(l)
§ Ionic Equation : 3Cu(s) + 8H, (aq) + 2NO* (,
) (aq) → 3Cu (aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H( O(l)
§ Further Oxidize : 2NO(g) + O( (g) → 2NO( (g)

Observations
§ Cu dissolves to give a blue solution
§ a brown pungent gas (NO2) is evolved at the test tube mouth.

26
Hot conc nitric acid + metals (except Pt and Au)

!"#$%(') + 6789. ./0! ($1) → !"#$% /+#3$#"($1) + /0" (4) + ." 0(%)

§ Concentrated nitric acid can oxidize metals (except platinum and gold) to give metal nitrate,
brown nitrogen dioxide and water.
§ Brown NO2(g) is formed directly

Example (Cu)
§ Redox Equation : Cu(s) + 4HNO) (aq) → Cu(NO) )( (aq) + 2NO( (g) + 2H( O(l)
§ Ionic Equation : Cu(s) + 4H, (aq) + 2NO* (,
) (aq) → Cu (aq) + 2NO( (g) + 2H( O(l)

Observations
§ Cu dissolves to give a blue solution
§ A brown pungent gas (NO2) is evolved.

27
Hot conc nitric acid + some non-metals

6(') + ;./0! ($1) → 60" (4) + ;/0" (4) + 5." 0(%)

<(') + ;./0! ($1) → <0" (4) + ;/0" (4) + 5." 0(%)

§ In most cases, SO2 produced is further oxidized by concentrated HNO3 to give sulphate ion
(SO42-) and NO2. Hence, the equation becomes:

<(') + =./0! ($1) → ." <0# ($1) + =/0" (4) + 5." 0(%)
Observations
§ Non-metal dissolves to give a colourless solution
§ Brown pungent gas (NO2) is evolved.

Conc nitric acid + some reducing agents

Examples
§ SO(* * , (*
) (aq) + 2NO) (aq) + 2H (aq) → SO+ (aq) + 2NO( (g) + H( O(l)
§ SO( (g) + 2NO* (*
) (aq) → SO+ (aq) + 2NO( (g)

Observations
§ A brown pungent gas (NO2) is evolved.

Remarks
§ NO2(g) is brown in colour, pungent and toxic ➝ ∴ the experiment should be performed in a
fume cupboard.
§ Since dilute and conc. HNO3 are strong oxidizing agents ➝ Fe is oxidized to Fe3+ directly but
not Fe2+ ➝ ∴ a yellow instead of pale green solution is produced
§ Conc. HNO3 decomposes easily in the presence of sunlight to give brown toxic NO2. ➝ ∴ it
should be stored in a brown bottle to cut off sunlight.
/01234#&
Y(")' (#,) 5⎯⎯⎯⎯7 Y")! (-) + )! (-) + !(! )(*)
§ KMnO4(aq), Cl2(aq) and AgNO3(aq) are also stored in brown bottles to cut off sunlight. What
are them?

28
Question 28

What would NOT be observed when dilute HNO3 is added to zinc granules?
A colourless solution is formed.
Heat is evolved.
A pungent smell is detected.
A yellow solution is formed.

Question 29

Which of the following can be the reduction products of concentrated nitric acid?

(1) NO
(2) NO-
(3) NO2
(4) NO32-

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(1), (3) and (4) only
(2), (3) and (4) only

Question 30

With which of the following does dilute nitric acid react the same as compared to dilute hydrochloric
acid?
Copper
Gold
Potassium carbonate
Sulphur

Question 31

Which of the following chemicals can be used to distinguish dilute nitric acid from dilute sulphuric
acid?
Sodium hydroxide
Blue litmus paper
Iron
Platinum

29
Question 32

Concentrated nitric acid often appears as yellow in colour because

It reacts with O2 in air to give yellow products.
It reacts with H2O in air to give yellow products.
It contains dissolved nitrogen monoxide.
It contains dissolved nitrogen dioxide.

Question 33 13 MCQ 22-02

Which of the following reagents can be used to distinguish between sodium sulphite and sodium
sulphate?

(1) Silver nitrate

(2) Acidified potassium dichromate
(3) Acidified potassium permanganate

(1) and (3) only

(1) and (2) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

Question 34 13 MCQ 22-03

Which of the following reagents can be used to distinguish between sodium sulphite and sodium
sulphate?

(1) Potassium iodide

(2) Iron(II) chloride
(3) Iron(III) chloride

(1) only
(2) only
(3) only
(1) and (3) only

30
Question 35 13 MCQ 22-04

Which of the following reagents can be used to distinguish between sodium sulphite and sodium
sulphate?

(1) Oxygen
(2) Bromine
(3) Iron(III) chloride

(3) only
(1) and (2) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3) only

Question 36 15 MCQ 17-01

An aqueous solution of manganese(IV)oxide turns green with time due to the following reaction:
3/)! (#,) + Y(0*(#,) → 3/0*! (#,) + 0*! (-) + !(! )(*)
Which of the following statements concerning the above reaction is/are correct?

(1) Cl- is oxidized by MnO2.

(2) MnO2 is reduced by HCl.
(3) The green colour is due to the MnCl2 formed.

(1) only
(1) and (2) only
(2) and (3) only
(1) and (3) only

31
Question 37 15 MCQ 17-02

An aqueous solution of hydrogen bromide turns brown with time due to the following reaction:
0*! (#,) + !(jk(#,) → !(0*(#,) + jk! (#,)
Which of the following statements concerning the above reaction is/are correct?

(1) Cl2 is oxidized by HBr.

(2) HBr is oxidized by Cl2.
(3) The brown colour is due to the Br2 formed.

(1) only
(1) and (2) only
(2) and (3) only
(1) and (3) only

Question 38

What is observed when concentrated HNO3 is added to

a) iron granules?
b) gold granules?
c) sulphur dioxide solution?
d) sodium hydroxide solution?

32
Question 39

Suggest a chemical test to distinguish very dilute nitric acid and concentrated nitric acid.

Question 40 15 LQ 02-04

For each of the following experiments, state the expected observation, and write the chemical
equations(s) for the reaction(s) involved.
a) Passing sulphur dioxide gas into potassium dichromate solution until in excess.

(3 marks)
b) Adding aqueous Carbon to hot concentrated nitric acid solution until in excess.

(2 marks)

33
Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
§ Dilute sulphuric acid (2 M) : a typical dilute acid ➝ only shows acidic property
§ Concentrated sulphuric acid (~18 M) : not a typical acid
§ It behaves as an oxidizing acid [a strong oxidizing agent]
§ It shows both acidic property and oxidizing property (when it reacts with SOME chemicals).
§ It is corrosive due to its oxidizing property and dehydrating property.

Hot conc. sulphuric acid + metals (except Pt & Au)

!"#$%(') + 6789. ." <0# (%) → !"#$% <,%>?$#"($1) + <0" (4) + ." 0(%)

§ Conc. sulphuric acid can oxidize metals (except platinum and gold) to give metal sulphate,
sulphur dioxide and water.

Example (Cu)
§ Redox Equation : 01(%) + !(! 2)" (*) → 012)" (#,) + 2)! (-) + !(! )(*)
§ Ionic Equation : 01(%) + !(, (#,) + (! 2)" (*) → 01!, (#,) + 2)! (-) + !(! )(*)

Observations
§ Cu dissolves to give a blue solution
§ pungent gas (SO2) is evolved.

Hot conc. sulphuric acid + some non-metals

6(') + 5." <0# (%) → 60" (4) + 5<0" (4) + 5." 0(%)

<(') + 5." <0# (%) → @<0" (4) + 5." 0(%)

Observations
§ Non-metal dissolves to give a colourless solution
§ a pungent gas (SO2) is evolved.

Remarks
§ SO2(g) is pungent and toxic ➝ ∴ the experiment should be performed in a fume cupboard.
§ ∵ conc. H2SO4 is a strong oxidizing agent ➝ Fe is oxidized to Fe3+ but not Fe2+. ➝ ∴ a yellow
instead of pale green solution is produced

34
Preparation of sulphur dioxide from concentrated sulphuric acid
§ Sulphur dioxide can be prepared by heating a metal (e.g. copper) with conc. sulphuric acid.
§ Sulphur dioxide is further dried by conc. sulphuric acid.
§ Then, it is collected by downward delivery (upward displacement of air) or a gas syringe.
01(%) + !(! 2)" (*) → 012)" (#,) + 2)! (-) + !(! )(*)

Conc sulphuric acid is also a dehydrating agent

§ Remove water from hydrated salts
5! 67" (9)
§ CuSO+ . 5H( O(s) 5⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯7 CuSO+ (s) + 5H( O(l)
§ React with carbohydrate to give black carbon solid
5! 67" (9)
§ Glucose : C; H<( O; (s) 5⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯7
5! 67"(9)
§ Sucrose : C<( H(( O<< (s) 5⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯7

Drying Agents
§ Due to its dehydrating property, conc. H2SO4 can act as a drying agent for acidic gases (e.g. HCl,
SO2, CO2 and Cl2) and neutral gases (e.g. H2, O2 and N2). There is no reaction between conc.
H2SO4 & the above chemicals.
§ conc. H2SO4 cannot be used to dry alkaline gas (e.g. NH3) because they will react with each
other.
!"(' (#,) + (! 2)" (#,) → ("(" )! 2)" (#,)

35
Common Drying Agents for Gases

Drying agent Gases to be dried

Conc. H2SO4(l) (acidic) Neutral gases and acidic gases

Anhydrous CaCl2(s) All gases except NH3(g)

Neutral gases and alkaline gases (e.g. NH3(g))

CaO(s) (basic) *CaO(s) is especially used to dry ammonia.
* CaO(s) is not used to dry acidic gases as it neutralizes the acidic gases.
*Most of the above drying agents are solids (except conc. H2SO4).

§ Anhydrous Na2SO4(s) and MgSO4(s) are used to dry organic liquids (e.g. organic solvents).
§ Drying ≠ Dehydrating
§ Drying : removal of water which is not chemically combined to a substance.
§ Dehydrating : removal of water which is chemically combined to a substance.
§ A drying agent may not necessarily be a dehydrating agent!
Conc. H2SO4 is the ONLY dehydrating agent you have learnt so far!!!
Common Set-Ups for Drying Gases

Question 41

When concentrated H2SO4 mixes with NaOH(aq), it acts as

An oxidizing agent
An acid
A dehydrating agent
A drying agent

36
Question 42

Sulphur dioxide CANNOT be dried by

(1) Concentrated sulphuric acid

(2) Calcium oxide
(3) Anhydrous calcium chloride

(1) only
(2) only
(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only

Question 43

Which of the following chemicals CANNOT be used to distinguish concentrated sulphuric acid and
concentrated nitric acid?
Sodium carbonate
Copper
Carbon
Calcium nitrate solution

Question 44

Which of the following substances react with hot concentrated sulphuric acid?

(1) Sodium nitrate

(2) Hydrated copper(II) sulphate
(3) Sulphur

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

37
Question 45

The diagram below shows the set-up used in an experiment to study the reaction of copper with
concentrated sulphuric acid.

a) During the experiment, a black solid was formed on the surface of the copper wire. What is the
black solid?

(1 mark)
b) What other changes would be observed in test tube A? Write the chemical equation for the
reaction that occurred.

(2 marks)
c) What can be observed in test tube B. Explain your answer.

(2 marks)
d) What’s the function of the sodium hydroxide solution in test tube C? State the potential hazard
if sodium hydroxide solution is not used.

(2 marks)

38
Question 46

Three bottles of dilute acid are labelled as X, Y and Z. One of them contains nitric acid, sulphuric acid
and hydrochloric acid. The table below summarizes the results of two tests carried out on the three
acids:

Observation
Acid X Acid Y Acid Z
Test

A colourless gas is rapidly

Heating with liberated, but the reaction A colourless gas is
Same observation as Y
CaCO3 soon slows down and then rapidly liberated
steps

Yellowish-brown fumes
A colourless gas is rapidly
Heating with appear above the reaction
liberated, and a colourless Same observation as X
Zn mixture, and a colourless
solution is obtained
solution is obtained
a) Identify acid X and acid Z. In each case, explain the observation that leads to your identification.

(3 marks)
b)
i) Name the colourless solution formed in the reaction between zinc and Y.

ii) What will be observed if dilute sodium hydroxide solution is slowly added to the solution
in (b) (i)?

(3 marks)
c) Write an equation for the reaction of dilute nitric acid with
i) CaCO3.
ii) Zn.
(2 marks)

39
Chlorine

Properties of Chlorine, Cl2

§ Colour of Chlorine Gas : Pale green/yellowish green/greenish yellow
§ Acidic, Pungent (with a swimming pool smell)
§ Toxic, Corrosive

Preparation of Chlorine in school laboratory

§ We can prepare chlorine by adding dilute acid (e.g. HCl(aq) and H2SO4(aq)) to chlorine bleach.
)0** (#,) + 0** (#,) + !(, (#,) → 0*! (-) + (! )(*)
§ Dilute acid provides hydrogen ions (H+).
§ Chlorine bleach contains sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl) ➝ ∴ can
provide hypochlorite ion (OCl-) and chloride ion (Cl-)

§ Chlorine can be dried by bubbling it through concentrated sulphuric acid ➝ dry chlorine can be
collected by downward delivery (upward displacement of air) or a gas syringe

40
Reactions between chlorine & halide ions (displacement reactions)
§ Oxidizing power of halogens : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
§ Reducing power of halide ions : I- > Br- > Cl- > F-

Chlorine can oxidize both Br-(aq) & I-(aq)

§ 0*! (-/#,) + !jk * (#,) → !0** (#,) + jk! (#,)
§ Observation : colourless to orange
§ 0*! (-/#,) + !m (#,) → !0** (#,) + m! (#,)
*

§ Observation : colourless to brown

Bromine can oxidize I-(aq), but not Cl-(aq)

§ jk! (#,) + !m * (#,) → !jk * (#,) + m! (#,)

Summary for Actions of Halogens

OA/RA Cl- Br- I-

Cl2 - ✓ ✓

Br2 X - ✓

I2 X X -
§ Br2 in organic layer : orange red
§ I2 in organic layer : purple/violet

Reactions between chlorine & sodium hydroxide solution

§ Cl2(g) can react with cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution to give chlorine bleach
0*! (-) + !"#)((#,) → "#0*(#,) + "#)0*(#,) + (! )(*)
or
* (#,) * (#,)
0*! (-) + !)( → 0* + )0** (#,) + (! )(*)
§ Cl2(g) can react with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to give a mixture of sodium
chlorate and sodium chloride.
i0*! (-) + p"#)((#,) → \"#0*(#,) + "#0*)' (#,) + i(! )(*)
or
i0*! (-) + p)(* (#,) → \0** (#,) + 0*)*
' (#,) + i(! )(*)

§ Disproportionation is shown as Cl2 is oxidized and reduced at the same time (simultaneously) in
the above reactions.

41
Question 47

What would be observed when chlorine water is mixed with potassium bromide solution in 1,1,1-
trichloroethane?
The non-aqueous (organic) layer becomes purple.
The non-aqueous (organic) layer becomes orange-red.
Pale green gas is evolved.
Some brown vapour is observed.

Question 48

Potassium chloride solution and potassium iodide solution can be distinguished by adding them to

(1) Heptane
(2) Chlorine water
(3) Acidified silver nitrate solution

(1) only
(2) only
(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only

Question 49 16 MCQ 13-01

Gas X is bubbled steadily into solution Y as shown in the diagram below:

In which of the following combinations would NOT have a visible change in solution Y?
Gas X Solution Y
Cl2 KI(aq)
SO2(g) FeSO4(aq)
O2(g) Fe(NO3)2(aq)
SO2(g) acidified KMnO4

42
Question 50 16 MCQ 13-02

Gas X is bubbled steadily into solution Y as shown in the diagram below:

In which of the following combinations would NOT have a visible change in solution Y?
Gas X Solution Y
Cl2(g) KBr(aq)
O2(g) acidified K2Cr2O7(aq)
CO2(g) acidified K2Cr2O7 (aq)
SO2(g) acidified KMnO4(aq)

Question 51

In which of the following reactions, fluorine acts as an oxidizing agent?

(1) F2 +H2 → 2HF

(2) F2 + 2Na → 2NaF
(3) 2F2 + 2NaOH → OF2 + 2NaF + H2O

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

Question 52

xCl2 (g) + 6OH- (aq) → yCl- (aq) + ClO3- (aq) + 3H2O (l)
The values for x and y in the balanced equation should be:
x y
1 1
3 5
2 3
4 7

43
Question 53

Which of the following correctly explain the use of tin plating to prevent iron cans from rusting?
Tin corrodes more readily than iron
The tin protects the iron from exposure to air.
Tin has higher tendency to lose electrons than iron.
Tin plating on the can readily form an alloy with iron, resisting rusting of the can.

Question 54

Which of the following are redox reaction?

(1) MnO2 (s) + 4HCI (aq) → Cl2 (g) + MnCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
(2) Al(OH)3 (s) + NaOH (aq) → NaAlO2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
(3) Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

(1) and (3) only

(1) and (2) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

Question 55
#$%&
(NH4)2Cr2O7 (s) 5⎯7 N2 (g) + 4H2O (g) + Cr2O3 (s)
When ammonium dichromate is heated to decomposition according to the above equation, which of
the following descriptions regarding the changes in oxidation numbers of nitrogen and chromium is
correct?
Oxidation number of nitrogen Oxidation number of chromium
Increase Decrease
Decrease Decrease
Increase Increase
Decrease Increase

44
Question 56 15 LQ 02-03

For each of the following experiments, state the expected observation, and write the chemical
equations(s) for the reaction(s) involved.
a) Passing chlorine gas into cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution until in excess.

(3 marks)
b) Adding hot concentrated sulphuric acid to sodium iodide solution until in excess.

(2 marks)

Question 57 20 MC 12

Refer to the following half equations:

C( O(*
+ (aq) → 2CO( (g) + 2e
*

MnO* , * (,
+ (aq) + 8H (aq) + 5e → Mn (aq) + 4H( O(l)

What is the minimum volume of 0.010 M acidified KMnO4(aq) required to completely oxdizie 15.00
cm3 of 0.020 M Na2C2O4(aq)?
6.00 cm3
12.00 cm3
15.00 cm3
75.00 cm3

45
3 ELECTROLYSIS
3.1 何謂 Electrolysis（電解）？
What is electrolysis?

Electrolysis is a redox reaction by which the electrolytes (in molten state or

aqueous solution) are decomposed by electricity.

§ The electrolytic reactions are usually endothermic and non-spontaneous

§ A direct current (d.c.) instead of an alternating current (a.c.) is used for electrolysis.
§ ∵ If an a.c. current is used, the polarities of the electrodes will change continuously ➝ different
products will be formed at the SAME electrode.
§ During electrolysis, cations are attracted to the -ve electrode whereas anions are attracted to
the +ve electrode.

Set-Up of Electrolytic Cell

Game Rule
Describe the materials needed to construct an electrolytic cell

46
Component Function/Description

Chemical Cell § Provide electrical energy for electrolysis

§ Oxidation occurs at the anode.

Anode § It is connected to the + pole of the battery
§ Example : inert electrode (graphite or Pt) or oxidizable metal (Cu or Ag)

§ Reduction occurs at the cathode.

Cathode § It is connected to the – pole of the battery
§ Example : inert electrode (graphite or Pt)

§ Molten ionic compounds [e.g. NaCl(l) and PbI2(l)], or

§ Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds [e.g. NaCl(aq) and MgSO4(aq)],
or
Electrolyte § Aqueous solutions of acids and alkalis (covalent compounds) [e.g.
HCl(aq) and NH3(aq)]
§ It provides ions for electrolysis & conducts electricity by providing
mobile ions.

47
Chemical Cell VS Electrolytic Cell

Chemical cell Electrolytic cell

Function Generate electricity by redox reaction Drive a redox reaction by electricity

Energy
Chemical Energy ➝ Electricity Electricity ➝ Chemical Energy
Conversion

Reaction Spontaneous, Exothermic Non-Spontaneous, Endothermic

Anode: -ve electrode Anode: +ve electrode

[oxidation occurs at here]
Polarity of
Electrodes
Cathode: +ve electrode
[reduction occurs at here]
[oxidation occurs at here]
Cathode: -ve electrode
[reduction occurs at here]

“Red Cat” & “An Ox” are applicable to both chemical cell & electrolytic cell!

48
Question 58

Which of the following statements about electrolysis are correct?

Cations are oxidized at the cathode.
Reduction occurs at the positive electrode.
Electron flow is from anode to cathode through the external wire.
Electrolysis aims to produce more electrical energy.

Question 59

Which of the following reactions could occur at the anode during electrolysis?
Fe), (aq) + e* → Fe(, (aq)
2Cl* (l) → Cl( (g) + 2e*
Na, (l) + e* → Na(l)
O( (g) + 2H( O(l) + 4e* → 4OH* (aq)

Question 60

Which of the following could be used to prepare a solution which conducts electricity readily after
being added to water?
Calcium chloride
Lead(II) chloride
Sugar
Calcium

49
3.2 Electrolysis of Molten Ionic Compound
§ In electrolysis of molten compounds, the electrolytes used are molten ionic compounds under
high temperature.
§ We assume that NO water is present in the electrolytes (NO H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions).

Electrolysis of molten NaCl(l) using inert electrodes

§ Electrolyte : molten NaCl(l)
§ Electrodes : graphite
§ Ions : Na (l), Cl-(l)
+

Anode Cathode

2Cl* (l) → Cl( (g) + 2e* Na, (l) + e* → Na(l)

Pale green chlorine gas is evolved Silvery sodium liquid is formed

2NaCl(l) → 2Na(l) + Cl( (g)

Remarks
§ Strong heating is required in this electrolysis to keep the NaCl “molten”, otherwise NaCl
becomes solid ➝ no mobile ions ➝ electrolysis stop
§ All metals can be extracted from their compounds (ores) in molten state by electrolysis.

50
Question 61

Gallium (Ga) can be obtained from the electrolysis of gallium chloride (GaCl3). Which of the following
correctly describes the oxidation number of gallium in GaCl3, and the electrode at which Ga is
produced during the electrolysis?
Oxidation number of Ga Electrode at which Ga is produced
+3 anode
+1 cathode
+1 anode
+3 cathode

Question 62

Sodium bromate (NaBrO3) can be obtained from the electrolysis of a saturated solution of sodium
bromide (NaBr). Which of the following correctly describes the oxidation number of bromine in NaBr,
and the electrode at which NaBrO3 is produced during the electrolysis?
Oxidation number of Br Electrode at which NaBrO3 is produced
+1 anode
+1 cathode
-1 anode
-1 cathode

Question 63

Oxygen (O2) can be obtained from the electrolysis of indium sulphate (ln2(SO4)3). Which of the
following correctly describes the oxidation number of indium in ln2(SO4)3, and the electrode at which
O2 is produced during the electrolysis?
Oxidation number of In Electrode at which O2 is produced
+3 anode
+3 cathode
-2 anode
-2 cathode

51
Question 64

Barium Chlorate (Ba(ClO3)2) can be obtained from the electrolysis of Barium Chloride (BaCl2). Which
of the following correctly describes the oxidation number of Barium in BaCl2, and the electrode at
which Ba(ClO3)2 is produced during the electrolysis?
Oxidation number of Ba Electrode at which Ba(ClO3)2 is produced
+1 anode
+1 cathode
+2 anode
+2 cathode

3.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution

Factors affecting the preferential discharge of ions during

electrolysis
Core Concept

When there’re more than one kind of ions in the electrolysis, you need to know
which will undergo oxidation or reduction first. i.e. preferentially discharge

Game Rule
Predict products at each electrode of an electrolytic cell with reference to the factors
affecting the preferential discharge of ions.

Types of ions presented in the aqueous electrolyte

§ When water is used as solvent ➝ the electrolyte must contain both H+(aq) & OH-(aq) ions.
§ Ionization of Water : H( O(l) ⇌ H, (aq) + OH* (aq)
§ Types of ions in NaCl(aq) : Na+(aq), Cl-(aq), H+(aq) and OH-(aq)
§ Cations (H+, Na+) migrate to the cathode (-ve electrode)
§ Anions (OH-, Cl-) migrate to the anode (+ve electrode)

The three factors that determine the preferential discharge of ions

§ Position of the ions in the electrochemical series (E.C.S.)
§ Concentration of the ions in the solution
§ Nature of the electrodes

52
#1 Position of ions in the electrochemical series (E.C.S.)
At cathode (reduction)
§ stronger oxidizing agents are preferentially discharged.
§ Cations lower in the E.C.S. are reduced first because they gain electrons more readily.
§ Oxidizing Power: r- , > 01!, > (, > tu!, > VW!, > ./!, > r*', > 3- !, > "#, > 0#!, >
4,

At anode (oxidation)
§ stronger reducing agents are preferentially discharged.
§ Anions higher in the E.C.S. are oxidized first because they lose electrons more readily.
*
§ Reducing Power : OH* > I * > Br * > Cl* ≫ SO(* + , NO)
§ In DSE, only Zn2+(aq), Fe2+(aq), Pb2+(aq), H+(aq), Cu2+(aq), Ag+(aq), OH-(aq), I-(aq), Br-(aq) and Cl-
(aq) ions are normally discharged in the electrolysis of an aqueous solution.

Question 65

Consider an electrolytic cell with graphite as electrodes, determine the ions that are going to
preferentially discharge and write down the half equation.

Electrolyte Reduction Oxidation

NaBr(l)

AgCl(l)

H2SO4(aq)

NaBr(aq)

AgCl(aq)

Very dilute NaCl(aq)

Dilute NaCl(aq)

Conc. NaCl(aq)

53
#2 Concentration of ions in the solution (Concentration Effect)
Core Concept

The ion with a higher concentration is preferentially discharged.

The more concentrated ion is preferentially discharged if......

§ the concentration of an ion is much higher (concentrated) than that of another ion
§ the position of the two ions are not too far apart in the E.C.S

Only concentration of OH-, I-, Br- and Cl- are needed to be considered
§ If the concentration of halide ions (Cl-, Br- and I-) is low, OH- is discharged to give O2 because
OH- is a stronger reducing agent than halide ions.
§ If the concentration of halide ions (Cl-, Br- and I-) is high, halide ions are discharged to give Cl2,
Br2 and I2 due to the concentration effect.

#3 Nature of electrodes
Electrode Effect

Inert Electrodes
-
(e.g. Pt, Graphite)

The metal electrodes will be oxidized instead of

Anode: Metal Electrodes
the anions in the solution
(Ag or metals above Ag in ECS)
M(s) → M, (aq) + e*

Na, (aq) will preferentially discharge

Cathode: Mecury
Na, (aq) + e* → Na(s)

Game Rule
Describe the anodic & cathodic reactions, overall reaction & observable changes of the
electrolyte in electrolytic cells.

54
Electrolysis of dilute H2SO4(aq) using inert electrodes

Types of Ions

From: Cation Anion

Water H+(aq) OH-(aq)

Dilute sulphuric acid H+(aq) SO42-(aq)

Redox Reaction & Obsevations

§ OH-(aq) is preferentially discharged to form O2(g) because OH-(aq) is a stronger reducing agent
than SO42-(aq) OR OH-(aq) is higher than SO42-(aq) in the E.C.S.
§ H+(aq) ions are attracted towards the cathode (-ve) and then discharged to form H2(g)

Anode Cathode

OH* (aq) → O( (g) + 2H( O(l) + 4e* 2H, (aq) + 2e* → H( (g)

Colourless gas bubbles are evolved Colourless gas bubbles are evolved

2H( O(l) → 2H( (g) + O( (g)

Volume of gaseous products collected

§ For gases ONLY: mole ratio = volume ratio
§ From overall equation, mole ratio of H2:O2 = 2:1 ➝ volume ratio of H2:O2 = 2:1

Remarks
§ Net effect : decomposition of water ➝ concentration of H2SO4(aq) increases ➝ more
acidic ➝ pH decreases
§ Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid = Electrolysis of water

55
Electrolysis of very dilute NaCl(aq) using inert electrodes
§ Electrode : Graphite
§ Electrolyte : very dilute NaCl(aq)
§ Universal indicator is added to show pH changes.

Types of ions

From: Cation Anion

Water H+(aq) OH-(aq)

Very dilute sodium chloride Na+(aq) Cl-(aq)

Redox Reaction & Observations

§ OH-(aq) is a stronger reducing agent than Cl-(aq)➝ ∴ OH-(aq) is preferentially discharge.
§ H+(aq) is a stronger oxidizing agent than Na+(aq) ➝ ∴ H+(aq) is preferentially

Anode Cathode

OH* (aq) → O( (g) + 2H( O(l) + 4e* 2H, (aq) + 2e* → H( (g)

§ Colourless gas bubbles are evolved § Colourless gas bubbles are evolved
§ [OH-(aq)] ↓ ⇒ Solution around the anode§ [H+(aq)] ↓ ⇒ Solution around the cathode
turns red turns blue

2H( O(l) → 2H( (g) + O( (g)

Remarks
§ Net effect: decomposition of water ➝ [NaCl(aq)] ↑, pH remains unchanged
§ Electrolysis of very dilute sodium chloride solution = Electrolysis of water

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After a long period of time, pale green gas is also evolved at anode......
§ At the beginning : OH-(aq) is higher than Cl-(aq) in the E.C.S. ➝ OH-(aq) ions are
preferentially discharged to form O2(g)
§ After a while : [Cl-(aq)] ↑ ➝ concentration effect ➝ Cl-(aq) ions are preferentially discharged
to form Cl2(g) ➝ ∴ pale green gas

57
Electrolysis of concentrated NaCl(aq) (brine) using inert
electrodes
§ Electrode : graphite
§ Electrolyte : concentrated NaCl (Brine)
§ Universal indicator is added to show pH changes.

Type of ions

From Cation Anion

Water H+(aq) OH-(aq)

Concentrated sodium chloride Na+(aq) Cl-(aq)

Redox Reaction & Observations

§ Though OH-(aq) is a stronger reducing agent than Cl-(aq), but [Cl-(aq)] is much higher➝ ∴ Cl-
(aq) is preferentially discharge.
§ H+(aq) is a stronger oxidizing agent than Na+(aq) ➝ ∴ H+(aq) is preferentially discharge

Anode Cathode

2Cl* (aq) → Cl( (g) + 2e* 2H, (aq) + 2e* → H( (g)

§ Pale green gas bubbles are evolved § Colourless gas bubbles are evolved
§ Solution around the anode turns red, then§ [H+(aq)] ↓ ⇒ Solution around the cathode
colourless. turns blue

2H, (aq) + 2Cl* (aq) → H( (g) + Cl( (g)

58
Why the solution around anode first turns red, then colourless?
§ ∵ Cl2(g) dissolve in water to give acidic HCl(aq) & HOCl(aq) ➝ ∴ turns red

0*! (#,) + (! )(*) ⇌ (0*(#,) + ()0*(#,)

§ HOCl(aq) is a bleaching agent ➝ ∴ turns colourless

()0*(#,) + xgW → (0*(#,) + (xgW + ))

coloured colourless
Remarks
§ As electrolysis proceeds, [H+(aq)] & [Cl-(aq)] ↓ ⇒[Na+(aq)] & [OH-(aq)] ↑ ⇒ solution becomes
NaOH(aq) gradually ⇒ more alkaline ⇒pH of the electrolyte ↑
§ Theoretically, mole ratio of H2:Cl2 = 1:1 ➝ volume ratio of H2:Cl2 = 1:1.
§ Cl2(g) is slightly soluble in water ➝ actual volume of Cl2(g) collected is smaller than that of H2(g)
§ If dilute NaCl(aq) is used instead of concentrated NaCl(aq), a mixture of O2(g) and Cl2(g) will be
obtained.
§ OH-(aq) ions are preferentially discharged to form O2(g).
§ BUT a little amount of Cl-(aq) ions may be discharged to form Cl2(g) at the same time.

59
Electrolysis of concentrated NaCl(aq) (brine) using mercury
cathode

Types of ions

From Cation Anion

Water H+(aq) OH-(aq)

Concentrated sodium chloride Na+(aq) Cl-(aq)

Redox Reaction & Observations

§ Though OH-(aq) is a stronger reducing agent than Cl-(aq), but [Cl-(aq)] is much higher➝ ∴ Cl-
(aq) is preferentially discharge.
§ Though H+(aq) is a stronger oxidizing agent than Na+(aq), but the mercury cathode favours the
discharge of Na+(aq)➝ ∴ Na+(aq) is preferentially discharge

Anode Cathode

Na, (aq) + e* → Na(g)

2Cl* (aq) → Cl( (g) + 2e*
Na(s) + Hg(l) → Na/Hg(l)(sodium amalgam)

§ Pale green gas bubbles are evolved

§ Silvery liquid is formed around the cathode
§ Solution around the anode turns red, then
colourless.

2NaCl(aq) + 2Hg(l) → 2Na/Hg(l) + Cl( (g)

Remarks
§ As electrolysis proceeds, [Na+(aq)] & [Cl-(aq)] ↓ ➝ [NaCl(aq)] ↓ (pH remains unchanged)
§ Na/Hg(l) is a mixture instead of a compound (NO reaction involved in the formation process).

60
Question 66

a) A student used the set-up shown below to prepare hydrogen and chlorine by electrolysis of a
very dilute sodium chloride solution. However, a colourless gas X instead of chlorine was
liberated at the anode.

i) What is X?

ii) Suggest chemical test to show the presence of X.

(2 marks)
b) The experiment in (a) was then modified so that hydrogen and chlorine were produced at the
cathode and anode respectively.
i) Suggest how the experiment could be modified.

ii) What is the ratio of the theoretical volumes of hydrogen and chlorine produced? Support
your answer with appropriate chemical equation.

iii) With the help of a chemical equation, explain why the volume of chlorine collected is
significantly smaller than the theoretical volume.

(5 marks)

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Electrolysis of dilute CuSO4(aq) using inert electrodes
§ Electrode : graphite
§ Electrolyte : dilute CuSO4(aq)

Types of ions

From Cation Anion

Water H+(aq) OH-(aq)

Dilute copper(II) sulphate solution Cu2+(aq) SO42-(aq)

Redox Reaction & Observations

§ OH-(aq) is a stronger reducing agent than SO42-(aq) ➝ ∴ OH-(aq) is preferentially discharge.
§ Cu2+(aq) is a stronger oxidizing agent than H+(aq) ➝ ∴ Cu2+(aq) is preferentially discharge

Anode Cathode

4OH* (aq) → O( (g) + 2H( O(l) + 4e* Cu(, (aq) + 2e* → Cu(s)

§ Brown copper solids formed around the

cathode ➝ becomes thicker
§ Colourless gas bubbles are evolved
§ [Cu2+(aq)] ↓ ⇒ solutions turn from blue to
pale blue

2Cu(, (aq) + 4OH* (aq) → 2Cu(s) + O( (g) + 2H( O(l)

Why the pH of the electrolyte will gradually decreases?

§ As electrolysis proceeds, [Cu2+(aq)] & [OH-(aq)] ↓ ⇒ [H+(aq)] & [SO42-(aq)] ↑ ⇒ the solution
becomes H2SO4(aq) gradually ⇒ more acidic ⇒ pH of the electrolyte decreases

62
Electrolysis of dilute CuSO4(aq) using copper electrodes
§ Electrode : copper
§ Electrolyte : dilute CuSO4(aq)

Types of ions

From Cation Anion

Water H+(aq) OH-(aq)

Dilute copper(II) sulphate solution Cu2+(aq) SO42-(aq)

Redox Reaction & Observations

§ Cu(s) is a stronger reducing agent than both OH-(aq) & SO42-(aq) ➝ ∴ Cu(s) is preferentially
discharge.
§ Cu2+(aq) is a stronger oxidizing agent than H+(aq) ➝ ∴ Cu2+(aq) is preferentially discharge

Anode Cathode

Cu(s) → Cu(, (aq) + 2e* Cu(, (aq) + 2e* → Cu(s)

§ Brown copper solids formed around the

§ Cu dissolves gradually ➝ becomes thinner cathode ➝ becomes thicker

Cu(s)[anode] → Cu(s)[cathode]

Why the blue colour of CuSO4(aq) does not fade out?

§ Rate of consumption Cu2+(aq) & production of Cu2+(aq) are the same ⇒ [Cu2+(aq)] remains
unchanged

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Remarks
§ In reality, the mass of Cu(s) deposited on the cathode may be slightly less than the mass of Cu(s)
dissolved at the anode ➝ ∵ some Cu(s) adhered on the cathode may drop off.
§ If ONLY the copper cathode is replaced by graphite or platinum, the result will be the same.
§ But if the copper anode is replaced by graphite or platinum (inert electrodes), OH-(aq) ions will
be preferentially discharged to form O2(g) instead.

Mastering Electrolysis
§ You must be able to determine the half equation quickly, as well as the observation & change
in electrolyte.

Question 67

For each of the following set-up of electrolysis, write down the half equation at both cathode & anode,
the full redox equation, observation(s) (if any) and change in electrolyte.
You may draw the cell at the beginning to visualize the electrolysis.
a) Electrolyte: very dilute HCl(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Graphite Graphite

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

64
b) Electrolyte: dilute ZnBr2(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Graphite Graphite

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

c) Electrolyte: dilute Cu(NO3)2(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Copper Copper

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

65
d) Electrolyte: dilute Na2SO4(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Graphite Graphite

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

e) Electrolyte: dilute HI(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Graphite Graphite

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

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f) Electrolyte: conc. NaCl(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Graphite Graphite

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

g) Electrolyte: conc. MgBr2(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Graphite Graphite

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

67
h) Electrolyte: conc. Cu(NO3)2(aq)

Cathode Anode

Material Copper Graphite

Half Equation

Redox Equation

Observation

Change in
Electrolyte

Question 68

Which of the following methods can be used to obtain calcium from calcium compounds?
Electrolysis of a molten calcium compound
Electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a calcium compound
Heating calcium oxide with carbon
Heating calcium oxide strongly

Question 69

Which of the following methods can be used to obtain potassium from potassium compounds?
Electrolysis of a molten potassium compound
Electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a potassium compound
Heating potassium oxide with carbon
Heating potassium oxide strongly

Question 70 13 MCQ 05-04

Which of the following methods can be used to obtain lithium from lithium compounds?
Electrolysis of a molten Lithium compound
Electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a Lithium compound
Heating Lithium oxide with carbon
Heating Lithium oxide strongly

68
Question 71 14 MCQ 20-01

The diagram below shows the set-up of an experiment:

Which of the following methods may light up the light bulb?

(1) Heating the calcium bromide powder until molten

(2) Adding deionized water to the calcium bromide powder
(3) Replacing the calcium bromide powder with bromine liquid

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

Question 72 14 MCQ 20-02

The diagram below shows the set-up of an experiment:

Which of the following methods may light up the light bulb?

(1) Heating the sodium iodide powder until molten

(2) Adding deionized water to the sodium iodide powder
(3) Replacing the sodium iodide powder with iodine solid

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (3) only
(2) and (3) only
(1), (2) and (3)

69
Question 73 15 MCQ 13-01

An electrolysis experiment is conducted using the set-up below:

What are the expected colors around X and Y after the experiment has been conducted for some
time?
X Y

Colorless Pink
Red Green
Yellow Red
Red Yellow

Question 74 15 MCQ 13-02

An electrolysis experiment is conducted using the set-up below:

What are the expected colors around X and Y after the experiment has been conducted for some
time?
X Y

Colourless Pink
Pink Colourless
Yellow Red
Red Yellow

70
Question 75 15 MCQ 02-02

Which of the following processes would NOT give oxygen?

Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid
Heating silver(II) oxide strongly
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate

Question 76

If 8.0 M aqueous solutions of the following compounds were electrolyzed using graphite
electrodes, which one would give hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen at the anode?
Silver nitrate
copper(II) sulphate
potassium hydroxide
sodium iodide

Question 77 19 MCQ 11-01

Consider the following electrolytic cells:

What would happen during electrolysis?

Hydrogen forms around A.
Chlorine forms around B.
Iron is oxidized around C.
Iron(II) ions form around D.

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Question 78 16 LQ 08-01

Consider the experimental set-up shown below:

a) In the above experiment, the bulb lights up when the Al2O3(s) becomes molten. (Atomic number
of Al = 13)
i) State the observation at carbon electrode X

ii) Write a half equation for the change that occurs at carbon electrode Y.

(2 marks)
b) Explain why the experiment should NOT be performed in a fume cupboard.

(1 mark)
c) Zinc-carbon cells are used in the above experiment. The equation below shows the reaction
that occurs in the zinc-carbon cells when the bulb lights up:
!3/)! (%) + !"(" 0*(#,) + ./(%) → 3/! )' (%) + !"(' (#,) + (! )(*) + ./0*! (#,)
i) Deduce in terms of change in oxidation number, the reducing agent in a zinc-carbon cell.

ii) Write a half equation for the change that occurs at the anode in a zinc-carbon cell.

(3 marks)

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3.4 必學電解應用： Electroplating
What is electroplating?

Electroplating is a process which coats a thin layer of metal (e.g. Ni) on the
surface of an object by electrolysis.

Introduction to Electroplating
Game Rule
Understand the principles of electroplating.

Why do we want to electroplate a metal on another object?

§ It can be used to prevent corrosion and to improve appearance for decoration.
§ Common examples include tin-plating of an iron food can and chromium-plating of a
motorcycle.
You don’t want your iPhone without any coating.

What if the object to be coated is plastic?

§ Plastic ➝ cannot conduct electricity
§ A layer of graphite or metal powder should be added to the surface of the plastic object before
electroplating

General Set-Up for Electroplating

Component Details

Cathode The object to be electroplated

Anode The metal used for electroplating

Electrolyte Soluble salt of the metal used for electroplating

73
Example: Nickel Plating
§ Cathode : the object
§ Anode : Ni(s)
§ Electrolyte : Nickel(II) sulphate, NiSO4(aq)

Types of ions

From Cation Anion

Water H+(aq) OH-(aq)

NiSO4(aq) Ni2+(aq) SO42-(aq)

Game Rule
Describe the anodic & cathodic reactions, overall reaction & observable changes of
electrolyte in electroplating.

Redox Reaction & Observations

§ Ni(s) is a stronger reducing agent than both OH-(aq) & SO42-(aq) ➝ ∴ Ni(s) is preferentially
discharge.
§ Ni2+(aq) is a stronger oxidizing agent than H+(aq) ➝ ∴ Ni2+(aq) is preferentially discharge

Anode Cathode

Ni(s) → Ni(, (aq) + 2e* Ni(, (aq) + 2e* → Ni(s)

§ Brown copper solids formed around the

§ Cu dissolves gradually ➝ becomes thinner cathode ➝ becomes thicker

Ni(s)[anode] → Ni(s)[cathode]

74
How can we obtain a shiny, even & firm metal layer on the object?
Remove any dirt or grease on the object
§ Physical Method : sandpaper
§ Chemical Method : acid to remove the metal oxide layer on its surface or alkali (e.g.
NaOH(aq)) to remove any grease present on it.

Use low current to prevent the formation of H2(g)

§ H2(g) will also be formed on the surface of the object if a very high current is used.
§ The gas bubbles hinder the deposition of the plating metal on the surface of the object.
§ The plating metal may flake off easily (NOT firm).

Why the electrolyte we use should an aqueous solution containing the

metal ions of the plating metal (e.g. NiSO4(aq) for nickel)?
§ As electrolysis proceeds, the concentration of NiSO4(aq) does NOT change.
§ Amount of Ni2+(aq) formed at the anode = amount of Ni2+(aq) discharged at the cathode
§ The colour intensity of the green electrolyte remains unchanged.

Environmental Impact of the Electroplating Industry

Game Rule
Understand the environmental impact of electroplating industry.

§ Effluent : waste water containing harmful substances

Waste Effect Measure

§ increase the rate of corrosion of § Acid can be neutralized by

Acids & Alkalis metal object Na2CO3/Ca(OH)2
§ kill aquatic lives § Alkali can be neutralized by H2SO4

§ can be oxidized by Cl2(aq/g) to give

Cyanides, CN-(aq) harmless substances
§ Highly toxic
§ Kill aquatic lives
§ humans may also get poisoned by § can be removed by addition of
Heavy Metal Ions eating organisms accumulated NaOH(aq)/Na2CO3(aq), followed
[e.g. Ni2+(aq), by filtration of the precipitates
with them
Cu2+(aq), Cr3+(aq))
formed.

75
How the addition of NaOH(aq)/Na2CO3(aq) removes heavy metal ions?
§ Cu(, (aq) + 2OH* (aq) → Cu(OH)( (s) (blue)
§ Cr ), (aq) + 3OH* (aq) → Cr(OH)) (s) (green)
§ Ni(, (aq) + CO(*
) (aq) → NiCO) (s) (green)

Question 79

In an experiment of electroplating nickel on a copper object, which of the following combinations is

correct?
Anode Cathode Electorate
copper object nickel CuSO4(aq)
copper object nickel NiSO4(aq)
nickel copper object CuSO4(aq)
nickel copper object NiSO4(aq)

Question 80

A fork which is made of metal M can be silver-plated by the set-up shown below:

When a current has been passed through the solution for some time, which of the following will occur?

(1) The mass of the fork will increase.

(2) Silver ions will be reduced at the cathode.
(3) The metal M will go into solution as ions.
(4) Silver ions will migrate to the silver electrode.

(1) and (2) only

(1) and (4) only
(2) and (3) only
(2) and (4) only

76
Question 81

Which of the following set-ups shown below can best be used to anodize an aluminum object?

Question 82 14 MCQ 11-01

The diagram below shows a set-up in which lead is being plated on a spoon:

Which of the following statements concerning the above set-ups is correct?

Q can be lead(II) sulphate.
M must be lead.
The spoon is connected to the negative pole of the battery.
Electrons flow from M to the spoon through the solution.

77
Question 83 14 MCQ 11-02

The diagram below shows a set-up in which silver is being plated on a spoon:

Which of the following statements concerning the above set-ups is correct?

Electrons flow from M to the spoon through external circuit.
The spoon is connected to the positive pole of the battery.
M must be silver.
Q can be silver chloride.

Question 84 16 MCQ 12-01

The diagram below shows the set-up used in an electroplating experiment involving four iron rods:

On which of the following iron rods would hydrogen gas be produced?

Rod I
Rod II
Rod III
Rod IV

78
Question 85

A student tries to plate a copper ring with nickel using the setup below:

Which of the following combinations is correct?

Anode Cathode Electrolyte
copper ring nickel rod Ni2+(aq)
copper ring nickel rod Cu2+(aq)
nickel rod copper ring Ni2+(aq)
nickel rod copper ring Cu2+(aq)

Question 86

A student tries to electroplate an iron ring with nickel using the set up shown below.

Which of the following combinations is correct?

Solution X Anode Cathode
Iron(II) sulphate solution Iron ring Nickel rod
Iron(II) sulphate solution Nickel rod Iron ring
Nickel(II) sulphate solution Iron ring Nickel rod
Nickel(II) sulphate solution Nickel rod Iron ring

79
Question 87 2019 MC 11

Consider the following electrolytic cells:

What would happen during electrolysis?

Oxygen forms around A.
Chlorine forms around B.
Hydrogen forms around C.
Iron(II) ions form around D.

80
Question 88 12 LQ 05-01

In order to prepare 45 dm3 of 0.015 M CuSO4(aq), an inexperienced electroplating worker added the
required exact amount of CuSO4.5H2O(s) to water in a plastic container. He then stirred the mixture
with an iron rod until the CuSO4 5H2O(s) dissolved completely. Finally, he sent a sample of the solution
to the Quality Control Laboratory for analysis, but found that the concentration of CuSO4(aq) was
lower than 0.015 M.
a) With the aid of a chemical equation, explain why the concentration of the CuSO4(aq) prepared
was lower than 0.015 M.

(2 marks)
b) The worker used the prepared CuSO4(aq) to coat a layer of copper on a metallic object by
electrolysis. He used an unreasonably high voltage and found that some bubbles were formed
on the object and the copper layer easily flaked off.
i) Explain why copper can be coated on the metallic object by electrolysis.

ii) Suggest what bubbles were, and explain why the copper coating is easily flaked off.

(3 marks)
c) Draw a labelled diagram of the experimental set-up used in a laboratory for coating a layer of
copper on a metallic object.
(3 marks)

81
Question 89

A student carried out a copper-plating experiment in the laboratory using the set-up shown below:

a) Explain why copper(II) sulphate can conduct electricity in this set-up.

(1 mark)
b) What would be observed at the carbon anode during the experiment? Explain with an
appropriate half equation for the reaction involved.

(2 marks)
c) In the copper-plating industry, copper is used as the anode instead of carbon. Why?

(2 marks)

82
d) In a copper-plating factory, the waste water is treated with potassium hydroxide solution to
remove the, copper(II) ions present before discharge.
i) Suggest TWO reasons why it is necessary to remove the copper(II) ions from the waste
water before discharge.

ii) 10.0 dm3 of a sample of waste water require 1.5 dm3 of 7.0 M potassium hydroxide
solution for complete removal of the copper(II) ions present. Calculate the concentration,
in mol dm-3, of copper(II) ions in the sample.

(4 marks)

83
Jot your note

84
Jot your note

85
Electrochemical Series
Oxidizing Power Oxidizing Agent Reducing Agent Reducing Power

K ' (aq) + e( ⇌ K(s)

Weakest Oxidizing Strongest Reducing
Ca#' (aq) + 2e( ⇌ Ca(s)
Agent Agent
Na' (aq) + e( ⇌ Na(s)

Mg #' (aq) + 2e( ⇌ Mg(s)

Al"' (aq) + 3e( ⇌ Al(s)

Zn#' (aq) + 2e( ⇌ Zn(s)

Fe#' (aq) + 2e( ⇌ Fe(s)

| ↑
| Sn#' (aq)
+ 2e (
⇌ Sn(s) |
| |
| Pb#' (aq) + 2e( ⇌ Pb(s) |
| |
| 2H' (aq) + 2e( ⇌ H# (s) |
| |
SO#( '
! (aq) + 4H (aq) + 2e
(
⇌ SO# (g) + 2H# O(l)
| |
| Cu#' (aq) + 2e( ⇌ Cu(s) |
| |
| O# (g) + 2H# O(l) + 4e( ⇌ 4OH( (aq) |
| |
| I# (aq) + 2e( ⇌ 2I( (aq) |
| |
↓ Fe"' (aq) + 3e( ⇌ Fe#' (s) |
Ag ' (aq) + e( ⇌ Ag(s)

NO( '
" (aq) + 2H + e
(
⇌ NO# (g) + H# O(l)

Br# (aq) + 2e( ⇌ 2Br ( (aq)

Cr# O#( '

$ (aq) + 14H (aq) + 6e
(
⇌ 2Cr "' (aq) + 7H# O(l)

Cl# (aq) + 2e( ⇌ 2Cl( (aq)

Strongest Oxidizing MnO( (aq) + 8H' (aq) + 5e( Weakest Reducing
! ⇌ Mn#' (aq) + 4H# O(l
Agent Agent
F# (aq) + 2e( ⇌ 2F ( (aq)

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