1

MODULE II
A WORLD OF REGIONS AND IDEAS

Lesson 1 The Globe Divides

Lesson 2 Asian Regionalism

Lesson 3 Global Media Cultures

Lesson 4 The Globalization of

Religions

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MODULE II

A WORLD OF REGIONS AND IDEAS

INTRODUCTION

This module will explain the concept of the Global South and other
terminologies related to the classification of countries. This also talks about
the concept of regionalism in the different countries in the contemporary
world. Further, this will also discuss the global media cultures and how
globalization affects religious practices and beliefs

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Differentiate the Global South from the Third World globalization.

2. Identify the factors leading to a greater integration of the Asian
region.
3. Analyze how various media drive various forms of global
integration.
4. Analyze the relationship between religion and global conflict and,
conversely, global peace.

DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

1. There are two lessons in the module. While the lessons maybe long
and others short, the basic content are properly presented in every
lesson.

2. There is a need to read the lessons one by one without skipping any
of them. One lesson is the continuation of the next lesson. For some
parts that need further explanation, you may contact your tutor or
take note of this topic to be presented for the next meeting.

3. There are evaluation techniques at the end of each lesson. Please

answer them and be sure that you get the correct answer. If and
when you did not pass the checked learning activity or exercise, do
not proceed to the next lesson but instead go over again until you
have fully understand all the lessons. This is for your own good for I
would like you to understand all the given topics. There are also
other requirements like giving your ideas or own interpretation of
presented concepts, visiting websites and others, it is highly
suggested that you undergo these requirements.

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Lesson 1

 THE GLOBE DIVIDES

The Global Divides refers to the division of the world into two: the
rich countries (Global North) and the poor countries (Global South). How is
the world divided? The world is divided into those countries that
are industrialized, have political and economic stability, have
technological advancements, and have high levels of human
health, education and defense, and those countries that do not.

The North-South Divide (or Rich-Poor Divide) is the socio-economic

and political division that exists between the wealthy developed countries,
known collectively as “the North,” and the poorer developing countries
(least developed countries), or “the South.” Although most nations
comprising the “North” are in fact located in the Northern Hemisphere, the
divide is not primarily defined by geography. The North is home to four out
of five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and all
members of the G8. “The North” mostly covers the West and the First
World, with much of the Second World. The expression “North-South divide”
is still in common use, but the terms “North” and “South” are already
somewhat outdated. As nations become economically developed, they may
become part of the “North,” regardless of geographical location, while any
other nations which do not qualify for “developed” status are in effect
deemed to be part of the “South.”

PROBLEMS WITH DEFINING THE DIVIDE

Following the fall of the Soviet Bloc, which was commonly referred to
as the Second World, many of its constituent countries were reclassified as
developing, despite being geographically northern. At the same time,
geographically southern nations previously considered “developing,” such as
the East Asian Tigers or Turkey, have joined the modern First World, but are
classified inconsistently in maps showing the North-South divide. Similarly,
dependencies of developed nations are also classified as Southern, although
they are part of the developed world.

On an ideological level, some development geographers have argued

that current concentration on the North-South divide as the main organizing
principle for understanding the world economy has overlooked the role of
inter-imperial conflicts between the United States, Japan, and Europe.

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THE ORIGIN OF THE GLOBAL SOUTH

1. The Center and the Periphery
In the 19th century, the world was largely divided into
several empires, each of which possessed a “civilized” center and
peripheries that were more or less considered primitive or even
“barbaric.”
2. The Three Worlds
Alfred Sauvy, a French demographer, anthropologist, and
economic historian coined the term “Third World” in his
article, L'Observateur in 1952. More than half a century ago, the Cold
War was just starting. It was Western capitalism versus Soviet
socialism. But there was another group of countries. Many of them
were former colonies and none of them were squarely in either the
Western or the Soviet camp.
a. The First World
First World described the NATO& (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) countries and their allies, which were
democratic, capitalist, and industrialized. It included most of
North America and Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and
their allies.
b. The Second World
Second World described the communist-socialist states.
These countries were, like First World countries, industrialized.
It included the so-called Communist Bloc: Soviet Union,
Eastern Europe, China, Cuba, and friends.
c. The Third World
The Third World described those countries that did not align
with either the First World or Second World countries after World
War II and are generally described as less-developed
countries but are well on their way to becoming rich and
“developed. “It included the developing nations of Africa,
Asia, and Latin America.

*The Fourth World

Paul Farmer, a co-founder of the nonprofit Partners in
Health and a professor at Harvard Medical School, stated “And
it’s not like the First World is the best world in every way. It has
pockets of deep urban and rural poverty. That's the Fourth
World.
“The Fourth World was coined in the1970s, referring to
the nations of indigenous people that live within a country. These
groups often face discrimination and forced assimilation.
They are among the poorest in the world. They are
struggling, yet they had potential.

*The Fifth World

According to a teacher from Nairobi in the mid-seventies, the
Fifth World describes countries that are chanceless and mired in
perennial poverty.

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Note: These definitions are in the context of Social Structure.

It is a misnomer word to use to describe regions but this was used
during the World War 2 and during the Cold war.
3. MDCs and LDCs
"MDC" stands for More Developed Country and "LDC" stands for
Least Developed Country. This classification is used in grouping
countries based on factors including their GDP per capita, political
and economic stability, and human health, as measured by the
Human Development Index& (HDI).
In general, a country is considered an MDC when it has a GDP per
capita of more than US $4000, along with a high HDI ranking and
economic stability.

4. Developed and Developing Countries

The most commonly used and the most politically correct terms
to describe and differentiate between countries are
“developed" and "developing" countries. Developed countries
describes the countries with the highest level of development based
on similar factors to those used to distinguish between MDCs
and LDCs, as well as based on levels of industrialization

GLOBAL DIVIDES

GLOBAL NORTH
The Global North mostly covers the West and the First World, along with
much of the Second World.

GLOBAL SOUTH
The phrase “Global South” refers broadly to the regions of Latin
America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. It is one of a family of terms, including
“Third World” and “Periphery,” that denote regions outside Europe and
North America, mostly (though not all) low-income and often politically or
culturally marginalized. The use of the phrase Global South marks a shift
from a central focus on development or cultural difference toward an
emphasis on geopolitical relations of power. From its earliest days,
sociology had concepts for describing global difference (Dados, 2012).

The use of the phrase “Global South” marks a shift from a focus on
development or cultural difference toward an emphasis on geopolitical
power relations.

The Global South largely corresponds with the "Third World,

"developing countries, “less developed countries," and "less developed
regions." It can also include poorer "southern “regions of wealthy "northern"
countries. According to Jonathan Rigg, the term should not be
taken too literally, with the equator dividing the world in two.
Instead, it should be understood in the wider context of globalization. As
nations become economically developed, they may become part of
the “Global North", regardless of geographical location; similarly,

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any nations that do not qualify for "developed" status are in

effect deemed to be part of the “Global South”. According to Grovogui, the
Global South is not a directional designation or a point due south from a
fixed north. It is a symbolic designation meant to capture the
semblance of cohesion that emerged when former colonial entities
engaged in political projects of decolonization and moved toward
the realization of a postcolonial international order.

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES
Some people and organizations also came up with their own
terms to describe and differentiate the rich and poor countries.

a. Income-based Countries
The World Health Organization (WHO) categorizes countries as
low-income, lower-middle income, middle-income and high-
income countries.

b. Fat and Lean Economies

The Nigerian-American journalist Dayo Olopade uses the
adjectives "fat" and "lean" to represent a country’s economy.

c. Majority and Minority Worlds

If we are to categorize the rich and poor nations as majority and
minority world, who is the majority world, the rich or the poor? The
poor, why? Because the likelihood of being poor is higher than
being rich. All these terms point to common phenomena: the
underdevelopment of certain states/peoples and their lack of
representation in global political processes and the interstate
inequalities.

CAUSES OF GLOBAL SOUTH (ANCHORED IN LATINAMERICA)

1. Imperialism
A policy by which a nation extends its powers too other countries by
acquisition of lands, military force, etc. The rich natural
resources of Latin America made them a target for
economic dependence called free trade imperialism.
2. Capitalism
A political system by which a country’s trade and industry are
controlled by foreign investors/capitalists and not by the state. In
Latin America, the TNC’s determine the overall direction of their
economy.
3. Neocolonialism
A practice of using capitalism, globalization and cultural
imperialism instead of direct military force (imperialism) to further
colonize a country, especially previous dependent countries.
4. Neoliberalism
The corporations has a larger say in what happens in the
economy, whereas they operate in minimal restrictions (e.g.
tariffs, regulations).

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Effects of the Emergence of Global South

1. Dependency Theory
The practice by which core countries depend on periphery
countries as their resources to get raw materials (more like
exploitation of resources) while those in periphery sought
out the products made by core as their fundamental needs.

2. Emergence of Global Relations (from the experiences of Latin

American countries)
3. International Relations - concern on economic and
international insertion and foreign policy

How to Deal with International Affairs

a. Have own thinking to interpret reality and the nature
of international insertion from non-particular perspectives.
b. Appropriately apply theories that are produced by the
epistemic thinking of the North.
c. Discuss whether theory produced in core countries
should be replaced by concepts developed by Latin
American epistemology.

4. Foreign Policy - public policies of states addressed to

international stage in order to promote or modify conditions
to enable security and economic well-being (development
policies).

Purpose of External Policies

a. Overcome underdevelopment.
b. Overcome dependence
c. Meet challenges imposed on them [Latin America] by global
powers.

Concepts and Theories in Latin America

Own Thinking Political Economy Approach
-one of the major theoretical approaches of international studies.-
explains more accurately the structural characteristics of relations among
developing societies & international system (analysis of international
relations).

Latin American Thinking Lines of Concern

a. Modeling of systemic structure (core-periphery model)
b. Interpretation of development & under-development
c. Proposals to overcome the condition of underdevelopment (main concern)

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Puig (1984) - no theory produced by the North that could effectively serve
the medium & small states to achieve more autonomous forms of
international insertion

Cervo (2008) - substitute theories with concepts. The search for an

own international insertion model is the reason that activates
certain epistemic communities to formulate their exclusive lines of
thought, because the particular thinking helps these communities to
develop an idea for their ruling classes of the role they want to play
in the world. (Cervo,2008)

Appropriateness of Applying Theories

North aims for universality; Latin is for development.

Replacement of Concepts Theory is used as methodological heuristic

tool that has been overvalued in recent decades’ due tote influence of
American intellectual production- needed for analysis of international
insertion& foreign policy from our own interpretations which could only
be attained if we reject theories developed in the core Mexico &
Colombia excluded- based on American theoretical formulations

AUTONOMY: CONCEPT, METHODOLOGICALTOOL & STRATEGY

Autonomy - one of the three fundamental issues in international
studies in the region (Muñoz, 1987)

Other two: Promote development and Relations with US

Latin American Countries Definition of Autonomy

Brazil ...is no longer defined by power

of a country to isolate &
control processes & external
events, but rather by its power to
participate and effectively
influence world affairs especially
in international organizations
&regimes of all types.(Russell
& Tokatlián,2010)
Argentina ...identified as independence
(Puig),distance &confrontation
with the US, also as the need to
come closer to power

BRAZIL - most important country at the "south of Equator"

Categories of Brazilian visions of Autonomy

1. Dichotomy - Autonomy through distance (Gelson Fonseca)
2. Autonomy through Participation

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3. Autonomy through Integration (Foreign Minister Lampreia) then

replaced by Autonomy through Diversification (under government of
Lula da Silva)

Autonomy through Diversification

- emphasizes on South-South cooperation in order to seek better
balance with North. It is also associated with "autonomy through
diversification" to emphasize South-South cooperation.
Big Peripheral States
These are those underdeveloped countries with large populations
and large territory, where industrial structures and significant
internal markets were established.

New State-Centered Instruments

1. Logistical State (Brazil)-It prioritizes South-South alliances and signs
trade agreements based on mutually beneficial reciprocal relations, under
conditions of symmetrical interdependence.

2. Plurinational State (Bolivia)- new way to understand and exercise

autonomy and rights of indigenous and regional communities.

Diplomacy of Peoples
framed in the need to manage a democratic revolution (Vargas, 2013)
Morales would claim that diplomacy of peoples was a "rather public, but
diplomacy of the people, not a state to state diplomacy" and that now it
would influence on state to state, nation to nation diplomacy.

The diplomacy of peoples is the approach of indigenous peoples to

indigenous peoples; businessman to businessman; armed forces to armed
forces; politicians to politicians.

These abstract formulations, concepts and methodological elements

are inspired by national examples or cases. And these have been used in
recent years to support and base some of the foreign policies of the region
and their respective international insertions.

Answer the following questions below.

1. It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the
world, particularly through the movement of goods, services, and
capital across borders.
2. It was the result of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade.
3. It is both a concrete local structure in which individuals or firms sell and
buy goods, and virtual institution across space where the same kind
of exchange occurs.
4. This historic event brought an end to the classical gold
standard.

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5. This area lacks a strong central government and possesses a

disproportionately small share of the world's wealth.
6. TNC –
7. GATT –
8. IMF –
9. IBRD –
10. WTO –

Lesson 2

 ASIAN REGIONALISM

Asian regionalism is the product of economic interaction, not political

planning. As a result of successful, outward oriented growth strategies,
Asian economies have grown not only richer, but also closer together.

Evolution of Asian regionalism

Regionalism is an inspirational enterprise in human history. As well as being
inspirational, we can even say that it is quietly revolutionary since it involves the
reorganization of political, economic, cultural, and social lives along the lines of an
imagined region rather than according to the standard political unit of the nation-
state.
In order to understand the ideas of regionalism in Asia and speculate about the
future of Asian regionalism, it will be most helpful to trace the evolution of Asian
regionalism using four benchmarks: 1968, 1989, 1997, a n d 2010 (Shiraishi,
2011).
In 1968, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations was born with five original
members: Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore. The primary
goal of the ASEAN, as far as the United States and its friends were concerned, was to
consolidate Southeast Asia against communism, which was raging in the form of the
Vietnam War. Its focus was on security. The ASEAN was an outgrowth of the
stillborn
SEATO idea, which was envisaged as a type of Asian NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) organization against communism.
In 1989, the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) meeting was
institutionalized with the goal of monitoring and analyzing regional markets and
institutions as well as governing rules and norms for facilitating transparent and
EVOLUTION OF ASIAN REGIONALISM

Regionalism is an inspirational enterprise in human history. As well as

being inspirational, we can even say that it is quietly revolutionary since it
involves the reorganization of political, economic, cultural, and social lives
along the lines of an imagined region rather than according to the standard
political unit of the nation-state. In order to understand the ideas of
regionalism in Asia and speculate about the future of Asian regionalism, it

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will be most helpful to trace the evolution of Asian regionalism using four
benchmarks: 1968, 1989, 1997, and2010 (Shiraishi, 2011).

In 1968, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations was born with five
original members: Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, and
Singapore. The primary goal of the ASEAN, as far as the United States and
its friends were concerned, was to consolidate Southeast Asia against
communism, which was raging in the form of the Vietnam War. Its focus was
on security. The ASEAN was an outgrowth of the still born SEATO idea,
which was envisaged as a type of Asian NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) organization against communism. In 1989, the Asia Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC) meeting was institutionalized with the goal of
monitoring and analyzing regional markets and institutions as well as
governing rules and norms for facilitating transparent and efficient business
transactions in the region. Its focus was economic and its style was
technocratic. It was in a sense the growth of the idea of the Asia Pacific
economic cooperation mechanism envisaged by Saburo Okita and John
Crawford in the 1960sand 1970s. In 1989, the APEC was born with the United
States’ strong support.

In 1997, the ASEAN plus Three (Japan, Korea, and China) was
instituted. Japan, Korea, and China were major economic engines. Both the
ASEAN and the Three wanted to benefit from being closer each other. No
less important was the consideration to help the Three to talk to each other
regularly and without too much fuss. The Three were at odds when they
came together as a trio because of their insistence on face, rank, and
politics before they even reached the negotiation table. For example,
during negotiations it was necessary to use a room with three entrances and
a desk of a triangular shape. In the 2000s, the tide of globalization swept
through East and Southeast Asia as well as the rest of the world. The Three
registered more than 50% of their total trade as intra-regional (i.e., Japan,
Korea, and China) by the early 2000s. Japan and China competed over how
to adapt to the relentless tide of globalization via the politics of
membership, that is China’s insistence on the ASEAN plus Three formula
versus Japan’s new proposal to form the ASEAN plus Six (Japan, Korea,
China, India, Australia, and New Zealand) now labelled the East Asian
Summit. In 2010, the East Asian Summit decided to add two more members,
the United States and Russia. This has initiated a new phase for Asian
regionalism. The regionalism surrounding the big northeast Asian three is
becoming more comprehensive. In2006, the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP)
proposal was inaugurated as an economic partnership agreement among
small Asia Pacific countries such as Singapore. The TPP grew by 2010 into a
large and ambitious framework to liberalize economic transactions in the
Asia Pacific through adding new members, including the United States,

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Australia, and some other countries. The year 2010 was also marked by the
vigorous and deep advances into the region by two giants, China and the
United States. China engaged in assertive and largely unilateral actions in
the region, such as maritime security thrusts in the East China, South China,
and Bengal seas; resource exploitation in Myanmar, Vietnam, India, and
Indonesia; and investment in business firms in Korea and Japan. The United
States decided to depart from its ambiguity strategy to focus on an
engagement strategy. The United States has inaugurated and/or
consolidated security dialogues and military exchanges with India,
Indonesia, and Vietnam with a big package of scientific, technological,
military, and energy components. It is clear that by 2010 the stage was set
for a new evolution of Asian regionalism.

REGIONALISM VERSUS GLOBALIZATION (ARIOLA, 2018)

Regionalism is the process of dividing an [area into smaller segments called

regions. Example is the division of nation into states or provinces. Business
use regionalization as a total in management.

On the other hand, globalization is the process of international integration

arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other
aspects, such as technology, etc.

As to nature, globalization promotes the integration of economics across

state borders all around the world but regionalization is precisely the
opposite because it is dividing an area into smaller segments.

As to market, globalization allows many companies to trade on

international level so it allows free market but in' regionalized system,
monopolies are likely to develop.

As to cultural 'and societal relations, globalization accelerate to

multiculturalism by free and inexpensive movement of people but,
regionalization does not support this.

As to aid, globalized international community is also more willing to come

to the aid of a country stricken by a natural disaster but, a regionalized
system does not involved in the affairs of other areas.

As to technological advances, globalization has driven great advances in

technology but advanced technology is rarely available in one country or
region.

The center of gravity of the global economy is shifting to Asia. The region’s
economy is already similar in size to those of Europe and North America,

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and its influence in the world continues to increase. In many Asian

countries, the cycle of poverty has been broken; in others, this historic aim
is within sight. Asia’s extraordinary success has brought new challenges—
while rapid economic growth remains a priority, citizens demand that it also
be sustainable and more inclusive. And Asia is now so important to the
world economy that it must also play a larger role in global economic
leadership. Regional economic cooperation is essential for addressing these
challenges.

Asia’s economic rise is unprecedented. The region is home to over half the
world’s population, produces three tenths of global output (in terms of
purchasing power), and consistently records the world’s highest economic
growth rates. The Asian “miracle” (World Bank 1993) did not end with the
1997/98 financial crisis a decade ago; for some countries, it marked the
beginning of renewed acceleration.

The question is no longer whether Asia will be central to the 21 st century

economy, but rather how it will exercise its prominent role and how its
dependence on the rest of the world has decreased.

How regionalism can benefit Asia

Regional cooperation, effectively structured and implemented, is a powerful

new tool in Asia’s policy arsenal. It can help Asia address regional challenges
as well as provide stronger foundations for its global role.

An integrated Asia can:

• link the competitive strengths of its diverse economies in order to boost

their productivity and sustain the region’s exceptional growth;

• connect the region’s capital markets to enhance financial stability, reduce

the cost of capital, and improve opportunities for sharing risks;

• cooperate in setting exchange rate and macroeconomic policies in order to

minimize the effects of global and regional shocks and to facilitate the
resolution of global imbalances;

• pool the region’s foreign exchange reserves to make more resources

available for investment and development;

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• exercise leadership in global decision making to sustain the open global

trade and financial systems that have supported a half century of
unparalleled economic development;

• build connected infrastructure and collaborate on inclusive development

to reduce inequalities within and across economies and thus to strengthen
support for pro-growth policies; and

• create regional mechanisms to manage cross-border health, safety, and

environmental issues better.

While Asian regionalism is primarily motivated by the desire to

advance welfare in the region, it would not do so by detracting from
development elsewhere. On the contrary, Asian regionalism can help to
sustain global economic progress at a time when other major regions are
reaching economic maturity.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Briefly discus the following questions below

1. Do you consider the Philippines as a third world country?

If YES, why? If NO why not?

2. How are globalization and regionalization confronted by Asian countries?

Explain.

Lesson 3

 GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

The mass media are seen today as playing a key role in enhancing
globalization, facilitating culture exchange and multiple flows of
information and image between countries through international news
broadcasts, television programming, new technologies, film and music. If
before the 1990’s mainstream media systems in most countries of the world
were relatively national in scope, since then most communication media
have become increasingly global, extending their reach beyond the nation-
state to conquer audiences worldwide. International flows of information

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have been largely assisted by the development of global capitalism, new

technologies and the increasing commercialization of global television,
which has occurred as a consequence of the deregulation policies adopted
by various countries in Europe and the US in order to permit the
proliferation of cable and satellite channels.

The rapid expansion of global communications in the 21st century can

be traced back to the mechanical advancements of technologies during the
course of the 18th and 19th centuries, which started mainly with the
invention of the telegraph in 1837, and included the growth in postal
services, cross-border telephone and radio communications and the creation
of a modern mass circulation press in Europe.

It was however the evolution of technologies capable of transmitting

messages via electromagnetic waves that marked a turning point in
advancing the globalization of communications. The emergence of
international news agencies in the 19th century, such as Reuters, paved the
way for the beginnings of a global system of codification. Nonetheless, it
was not until the 1960’s, with the launch of the first geo-stationary
communication satellites, that communication by electromagnetic
transmission became fully global, thus making the globalization of
communications a distinctive phenomenon of the 20th century (Thompson,
1995, 159).

a) From modernization and development theories to cultural

imperialism
Key theories in international communications grew out of
international relation studies. The “modernization” or development” theory
in the area of communication research emerged in the Cold War context and
were largely preoccupied with the ways in which the media could help
transform traditional societies to include them into the capitalism orbit.
Among the key theorists in this tradition was Wilbur Schramm with his
sponsored UNESCO work, Mass Media and national development – the role of
information in the developing countries. The idea was that international
communication media could be used as a tool to transfer the political-
economic model of the West to the growing independent societies of the
South. Schramm’s views was that the mass media could be used by elites to
raise the ambitions of the populations in developing countries, who would
cease to be narrow-minded and conformist and would be active in their own
self-development.

The dependency theories the 1960’s and 1970’s were perceived as an

alternative approach grounded in neo-Marxism, and which adopted a
theoretical framework that saw capitalism and inequality as a key
perspective in understanding the impact of power relations on global
communications. According to the argument, transnational corporations
based in the North engaged in a web of interdependency with the economies
of the South, setting the terms of global trade, dominating markets,
production and labour. Dependency theorists and Latin American scholars
argued that these economic relations worked within an exploitative

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dependency model that promoted American capitalist mentality in

developing countries (Mattelart, 1979). Development was thus shaped in a
way that benefitted largely the developed nations, maintaining the
peripheral countries in a continuous position of dependence. Latin American
scholars stressed that it was Western media companies that were reaping
the rewards of the modernization programmes, and that they were actually
reaching out to the South in order to conquer new markets for their
products.

b) Cultural globalization theories: from homogenization to hybridity

The cultural imperialism theories of the 1960’s and 1970’s have thus
given way to the “cultural globalization” perspectives which have
predominated media scholarship in the 90’s, indicating for some a shift
away from a more neo-Marxist rigid one-way model of cultural domination
towards a more sophisticated analysis and appreciation of “multidirectional
flows” across countries, acknowledging the emergence of regional markets,
the resistance of media audiences to American culture and the diversity in
the forms of engagement with media texts. Various theorists have updated
the cultural imperialism theories nonetheless in the context of the
persistence of inequalities of power and wealth between countries, the
unevenness of flows and increasing media concentration and
commercialization, arguing for its relevance still in the context of the
expanding power of transnational media corporations situated in the rich
West.
Below are example of hybridity:

 The extent to which the mass media have assisted in

reinforcing American cultural supremacy throughout the world
due to the dominance of Hollywood films and the export of US
television series continues to be the subject of debate. In the
context of the decline of the cultural imperialism thesis, most
critics have moved away from understanding global culture as
synonymous with homogenization, or cultural synchronization
or “McDonaldization”, recognising diversity and the impact of
reverse flows on Western cultures. Here homogenization is
understood as the degree of convergence of media systems
towards formats that originated in the US.
 The example of the export of Brazilian telenovelas to Portugal,
as well as the emergence of regional media markets and
cultural production and distribution centers in developing
countries, such as the Bollywood film industry in India.

Globalized Culture, Globalized Markets

Globalization as a world economic trend generally refers to the lowering of
economic trade borders, but it has much to do with culture as well. Just as
transfer of industry and technology often encourages outside influence

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through the influx of foreign money into the economy, the transfer of
culture opens up these same markets.

Contemporary globalization is a phenomenon extremely difficult and

controversial because there are two sides to this story. It is seen as a new
form of contemporary world development which seeks to be inclusive and
integrative because it has a powerful impact on economy, politics, and
many other fields.

The new findings, especially those in the field of information

technology, computer networks and telecommunications transport systems ,
have contributed to connecting markets and regions having an
unprecedented impact so far on the movement of capital and peoples.

Development of IT (Information Technology) has led to photograph

the world reduced to such an extent that reduced the time distances
between the various parts of the world no matter how far or close they may
be. Through globalization of social and economic processes in addition to
the powerful connections of different countries and peoples but also
reached a mutual dependency of the largest ever among their midst.

Three factors that have affected the process of economic globalization.

1. Improvements in transportation and communication technology have
reduced the cost of transporting goods, services and factors of production
and communicating economically useful knowledge and technology.
2. Taste of individuals and societies have generally but not universally,
favored taking advantage of the opportunities provided by the declining cost
of transportation and communication through increasing economic
integration
3. The character and pace of economic integration have been
significantly influenced by public policies, although it is not always in the
direction of increasing economic integration.

You will be asked to pick an Asian musical act that became internationally
famous. Answer the following questions:

1. Where did the musical act/artist originate?

2. In which countries did the artist become famous?

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3. How did the artist become famous?

4. Why do you think the artist became famous?

Lesson 4

 THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGIONS

Globalization refers to the historical process by which all the world's

people increasingly come to live in a single social unit. It implicates religion
and religions in several ways. From religious or theological perspectives,
globalization calls forth religious response and interpretation. Yet religion
and religions have also played important roles in bringing about and
characterizing globalization. Among the consequences of this implication for
religion have been that globalization encourages religious pluralism.
Religions identify themselves in relation to one another, and they become

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less rooted in particular places because of Diasporas and transnational ties.

Globalization further provides fertile ground for a variety of non-
institutionalized religious manifestations and for the development of
religion as a political and cultural resource.

Religious Perspectives on Globalization

A great many religious commentators understand globalization as at
once a largely economic, imperialistic, and homogenizing process. They
share the economic/mass cultural/political perspective, evaluating
globalization as anywhere from a threatening challenge to the manifestation
of evil in our world. In many respects globalization in this segment of the
literature is a successor term for what used to be censured as the capitalist
system or cognate terms. Accordingly, globalization results in violence and
the unjust oppression of the majority of people around the world. It
threatens local and indigenous cultures, imposing a particularly heavy
burden on women. It is the chief cause of global and local environmental
degradation, again to the principal detriment of the mass of marginalized
humanity. Such theologically inspired positions are not restricted to the
representatives of a particular religious tradition.

CURRENT STATE OF RELIGION IN THE GLOBALIZING WORLD

Religion, as one of the important aspects of contemporary society, has also
been affected by globalizing forces in diverse ways resulting in, at least,
three different forms of religious responses to globalization as follows.

1. Resurgence of Religion in the Global Society.

The aforementioned secularization theory refers to a long-held
conviction among the vast majority of Western social theorists that
religion is a declining force and eventually will be only an historical
memory. Contrary to this prophecy, the world today shows the
religion is not dying. According to Berger, secularization theory
promoted by historians and social scientists is “essentially mistaken”
for global society of world today is “as furiously religious as it ever
was, and in some places more so than ever.” He argues that, on one
hand, modernization has secularizing forces, even more so in some
places than in others. But, on the other hand, it also has generated
counter-secularization movements. It is also certain, he adds, that
modernization has caused the loss of power among religious
institutions particularly in the Western societies. Yet, in the level of
individual lives, religious beliefs and practices have continued to
persist.
For Berger, the persistence of religion in global society has to
do with the complicated relation between religion and modernity.
The relation between these two is not homogenous, one dominates
the other. Instead, it is characterized as complicated as shown by
two following strategies.

2. The Emergence of Religious Fundamentalism

It is worth noting that current global secular world witnesses the
resurgence of conservative-traditionalist religious movements. These

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movements have been often labelled as “fundamentalism” by media

and scholarly publications, though historically the term refers a
specific religious movement in American Protestantism, which
rejected biblical criticism and the teaching of evolutionism and held
biblical literalism and strong patriarchal authority.

3. New Roles and Identities of Religion

Facing problems and challenges generated by globalization and
modernity, religion has developed new roles and identities as their
strategies to continue to participate in the globalizing world.

4. The Rise of Religious Environmentalism

New roles of religion in the global society can be seen particularly in
the involvement of religious individuals, institutions and groups in
environmental problems and ecological issues. Matters like global
warming, overpopulation, ozone depletion, habitat destruction, and
waste disposal have become a global concern not only of environment
activists, but also of religious leaders and elites. This religious
environmentalism can be seen, among others, in the statement by
Pope John Paul II in 1989,“Peace with God the Creator, Peace with
All of Creation,” the first papal statement on Catholic church on
ecology, and “the elevation of ecological concern to a level
comparable with peace and justice on its list of applied religious
priorities” by World Councils of Church in its 1999 meeting.

GLOBALIZATION ENGENDERING GREATER RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with
overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one another.
Essentially, the world’s leading religious traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism,
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values such as human dignity,
equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions
maintain the Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not
do to others.” Therefore, through such religious values, globalization
engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics,
and society.

In political areas, globalization has built global political forums that

integrate cultural, ethnic, and religious differences—ideologies that were
once perceived as dividing the world—through a large number of
international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and the World
Health Organization (WHO), as well regional organizations like the European
Union (EU), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African
Union (AU). When discussing issues such as international peace and security,
health issues, poverty, and environment, these organizations generally share
many of the same basic commitments as religious traditions—mainly peace,
human dignity, and human equality, as well as conflict resolution in which
they actively engage in negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy.

In addition to these political organizations, religious communities

such as the Roman Catholic Church, the World Council of Churches, and the

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Jewish Diaspora also take part in international affairs. For instance, they
have taken part in events such the Jubilee 2000, an international effort
advocating for cancelling Third World debt by the year 2000, and the World
Faiths Development Dialogue, an effort of international faith leaders along
with the World Bank to support development agendas corresponding to the
UN’s Millennium Development Goals. Furthermore, religious organizations
have, themselves, been involved in interreligious dialogue.

In terms of economics, as the economy of the major countries of the

world has grown, the main religions of each of those countries have also
grown financially, providing more financial resources for religions to spread
their beliefs. For example, although it may seem as an old tactic, missionary
work—especially in light of globalization—is strong in many Third World
countries where religious representatives convert the natives. As a result,
the major religions today have scattered across the globe—Christianity
turning “southern” and “black,” Islam turning “Asian,” and Buddhism
turning “white” and “western.” Still holding on to their original territorial
spaces where their shrines exist, religions are fulfilling their general purpose
of spreading their beliefs to people all over the world.

Finally, religion has tremendously benefited from technological

advancements. For example, websites provide information and explanations
about different religions to any person regardless of his or her geographical
location, as well as provide the opportunity to contact others worldwide and
hold debates which allow religious ideas to spread. Furthermore, television
allows for religious channels that provide visual religious teachings and
practices. Hence, by making the leap onto the information superhighway,
which brings religious teachings into every home and monitor in a global
setting, religions have come together into one setting.

GLOBALIZATION CREATING BACKLASH OF RELIGIOUS PAROCHIALISM

Since globalization is considered as “the first truly world revolution,”
“all revolutions disrupt the traditions and customs of a people”—that is,
“people’s very security, safety, and identity.” As globalization disrupts
traditional communities, causes economic marginalization, and brings
mental stress, individuals feel these less desirable consequences of
globalization. With religion’s power to “convey a picture of security,
stability, and simple answers” through stories and beliefs—unlike economic
plans, political programs, or legal regulations—individuals turn to religion.

First, globalization breaks down traditional communities and replaces

them with larger, impersonal organizations. As globalization creates a
“global village,” it dramatically alters what individuals traditionally
understood themselves by—“citizenship,” “nationality,” and “immigration.”
For instance, the European Union (EU) does not call their members by
country of origin but rather by their greater title, European citizens.
Moreover, such organizations set universal standards upon all members,
causing individuals to believe that they are not fairly represented. As a
result, feeling that these organizations have shattered their “protective

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cocoon” that has shielded them in the past, many individuals find comfort in
religion.

Second, globalization brings economic marginalization. For example,

as transnational corporations increasingly take over the role of the state’s
involvement in the economic sector, the government loses its status as a
welfare provider. Moreover, increasing the gaps between those who have
benefit from the global market (generally the West) and those who have
been left behind (generally the Global South), globalization is seen as
“Western imperialism,” as well as “Americanization.” For instance,
globalization “encourage[es] people to buy American goods and services,
which ultimately “undermines deep-rooted communal values. “Simply put,
individuals are bombarded with McDonald’s, Nike, and MTV.

Lastly, globalization causes mental stress. Although globalization

allows for crisscrossing borders, it also leaves individuals worrying about
losing work, status, or other privileges. Moreover, since globalization favors
material prosperity as the aim of life over inner peace, individuals focus on
attaining some material possession such as a house, car, game, or simply
any object. When they attain such item(s), however, they find themselves
empty inside and, therefore, realize that inner peace can never be achieved
through material possessions.

SUMMATIVE TEST

For items 1-10. Read and analyze the statements. Write

A, if both statements are true and correct
B, if only the first statement is correct
C, if only the second statement is correct
D, if both statements are wrong.

1. A: World system theory is a multidisciplinary macro scale approach to world history

and social change which emphasizes the world system as a primary unit of social
analysis.

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B: World system deals with inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which
divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries. .

2. A: The term global governance is sometimes referred to as world governance.

B: Global governance is not a singular system.

3. A: Globalization is grounded on the Theory of Comparative Advantage.

B: The Theory of Comparative Advantage states that countries that are good at
producing particular good are better off exporting it to countries that are less efficient
at producing that good.

4. A: Several people lose their jobs when companies import cheap labor or materials or
shift production abroad.
B: Workers face pay cut demands from employers who often threatens to export jobs.

5. A: The main function of the United Nations is to maintain peace and security for all
of its member-states.
B: The United Nation does not have its own military.

6. A: The United Nations aims to protect human rights and provide humanitarian
assistance when
needed.
B: The United Nations plays an integral part in social and economic development
through its
UN Development Program.

7. A: Global media support the creation of new communities.

B: The internet does not only facilitate communication across the globe but supports
the growth of new social communities.

8. A: The relationship between religion and globalization is antagonistic- one of struggle

and conflict.
B: Religion and globalization can also be seen as partners in historical change.

9. A: Religion became an integral part of colonization and later on globalization.

B: Religion has been a major feature in some historical conflicts and the most recent
wave of modern terrorism.

10. A: Media provides an extensive transnational transmission of cultural products.

B: Media contribute to the formation of communicative networks and social
structures.

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GECC 107 – The Contemporary World Module II