Buildings 12 01747

buildings
Article
Development of a Framework to Support Whole-Life-Cycle
Net-Zero-Carbon Buildings through Integration of Building
Information Modelling and Digital Twins
Kaining Shen * , Lan Ding and Cynthia Changxin Wang
School of Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
* Correspondence: kaining.shen@unsw.edu.au
Abstract: Decision-making on whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings is critical for addressing

carbon emission and environmental problems. However, there is a lack of a data integration frame-
work and an open international standard approach integrating key decision variables to support
scientific computations and decision-making for whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings. Building
information modelling (BIM) is an open international standard representing building information.
Digital Twin (DT) can capture and monitor real-time building conditions to facilitate building opera-
tion. Integrating information acquired by DT with BIM has considerable potential to enable an open
international standard based computational representation of key decision variables throughout the
whole-building life cycle process. This paper aims to develop a novel conceptual framework that
integrates BIM and DT to support net-zero-carbon buildings. The framework is developed using
an open international standard approach and the ontology-based representation method, to define
key decision variables using entities, properties, and relationships, and integrates captured data via
DT. The research makes significant contributions to enable net-zero-carbon buildings and paves the
way for future research on an automated system to support decision-making for the whole-life-cycle
Citation: Shen, K.; Ding, L.; Wang, net-zero-carbon buildings.
C.C. Development of a Framework
to Support Whole-Life-Cycle Keywords: whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings; building information modelling; digital twins;
Net-Zero-Carbon Buildings through ontology-based representation method
Integration of Building Information
Modelling and Digital Twins.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747. https://
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101747
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Bo Hong Buildings are major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contributors
Received: 5 September 2022
to climate change and global warming. Given the importance of GHG emissions from
Accepted: 13 October 2022
buildings, efforts to alleviate energy intensity have been made through various initiatives,
Published: 20 October 2022
such as the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive and Net-Zero-Carbon Buildings
Framework from the UK Green Building Council [1]. The World Green Building Council
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
(WorldGBC) has defined a net-zero-carbon building as a highly energy efficient building
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
with all operational energy demand supplied from on-site and/or off-site renewable en-
published maps and institutional affil-
ergy to achieve net-zero carbon emissions associated with building operations [2]. The
iations.
WorldGBC has set up carbon emission goals for its whole-life carbon vision, calling for all
new buildings to be net zero in operation with at least 40% less embodied carbon from
2030, and all new buildings to be net zero covering both embodied and operational carbon
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
by 2050 [2].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. To achieve net-zero carbon emissions targets in buildings from a whole-life-cycle
This article is an open access article perspective, all stages during the full building lifecycle process need to be considered.
distributed under the terms and However, most existing research focuses on reducing carbon emissions in the design, con-
conditions of the Creative Commons struction and operational stages, respectively, rather than integrating all stages throughout
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the whole building life cycle process [3]. For example, the previous literature explored
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ decision-making on energy conservation and emission reduction during the building con-
4.0/). struction stage through contractor selection and building materials selection [4–7]. The
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101747 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 2 of 32
factors influencing building energy and carbon performance in the operational stage include
the operation, repair, maintenance and retrofit of energy systems [8–10]. There is a lack of a
data integration framework integrating all key decision variables across design, construc-
tion, and operational stages in the whole building process to support decision-making for
whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings [11,12].
In addition, an open standard for data is significant to the decision-making for carbon
emissions throughout the whole-building life cycle. It improves the consistency and
transparency of data and information, which also minimizes errors and reduces time in
the decision-making process. However, there is a lack of solutions that develop an open
international standard approach to integrate and represent key decision variables and
facilitate decision-making for embodied and operational carbon throughout all stages of
the building life cycle [13,14].
The integration of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Digital Twins (DT)
technologies has the potential to address these challenges and support the integrated
representation of key variables for supporting decision-making in whole-life-cycle net-zero-
carbon buildings. BIM provides an object-oriented model to facilitate the exchange and
interoperability of building information in a digital format [15]. It can be used to support
design analysis, improve design and construction efficiency, facilitate communication
between stakeholders, and monitor construction schedules and costs [16–18]. However,
there is a limitation to the use of BIM for capturing post-occupancy operational and
maintenance information in the operational stage [19,20].
The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) developed by BuildingSMART, is an open,
international, and neutral data exchange schema supporting BIM to enable the exchange of
models and information throughout the lifecycle of assets [21]. IFC supports a wide range
of geometric representations as well as rich semantic information, which defines building
objects, associated attributes and properties, and mutual relationships between those
objects, written in EXPRESS specification language [21]. However, the current IFC schema
is limited to providing adequate objects, properties, and relationships required for the
whole-life-cycle carbon assessment, especially in the operational stage [22,23]. Therefore, it
is necessary to extend the current IFC schema to incorporate additional objects, properties,
and relationships required for the whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon assessment.
Digital twin (DT) provides a digital information set that is virtually representative of
the static physical attributes, dynamic states, and processes of the built environment [24].
It can create a living model of the physical asset or system, which continually adapts to
changes in the environment or operation based on collected real-time sensory data and
information [25]. In the Architectural, Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector, DT
technologies are mostly applied in the use phase to enhance building operation, such as real-
time monitoring and data acquisition, and what-if analyses in building management [20,26].
Data collected via DT can be used to record and evaluate the existing state of the buildings,
which informs appropriate decisions on whether the building needs to be repaired, simply
maintained, or retrofitted [27,28]. However, there is a lack of research integrating data
captured from DT with BIM to enable an integrated computational representation of
key decision variables, to support whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings [20,29,30].
A novel framework is needed, which provides an open international standard based
computational representation through the integration of BIM/IFC and DT to integrate key
decision variables throughout the whole building process to facilitate decision-making and
the automated assessment of whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings.
To fill this gap, this paper aims to develop a novel conceptual framework that integrates
BIM and DT data to tackle the challenges in achieving net-zero-carbon buildings over the
whole building lifecycle. Specifically, the research objectives are: (1) to identify the key
decision variables that affect net-zero-carbon outcomes of buildings throughout the whole
lifecycle of the building process, including design, construction, and operational stages;
(2) to identify entities, properties, and relationships in current BIM/IFC schema that
represent the identified key decision variables, which will be conducted by mapping the
mapping the key variables with the existing IFC entities, properties, and relationshi
and (3) to develop a novel conceptual framework utilizing the ontology-based repres
tation, which extends the current BIM/IFC schema and integrates data from DT to supp
decision-making for the whole lifecycle of the building process.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 The significance of this paper is creating new opportunities to integrate3 ofBIM/IFC 32 a
DT technologies to provide a computational representation of key decision variables t
make the most significant contribution to gaining net-zero-carbon outcomes of buildin
key variables with the existing IFC entities, properties, and relationships; and (3) to develop
throughout the whole
a novel conceptual buildingutilizing
framework life cycle. The novel framework
the ontology-based willwhich
representation, paveextends
the way for
ture research on an automated system to support decision-making for the
the current BIM/IFC schema and integrates data from DT to support decision-making for whole-life-cy
net-zero-carbon buildings.
the whole lifecycle of the building process.
The significance of this paper is creating new opportunities to integrate BIM/IFC and
DT technologies to provide a computational representation of key decision variables that
2. Research Method
make the most significant contribution to gaining net-zero-carbon outcomes of buildings
The conceptual
throughout framework
the whole building life for supporting
cycle. the decision-making
The novel framework will pave the wayand automated
for future
research
sessment of on
theanwhole-life-cycle
automated systemnet-zero-carbon
to support decision-making
buildingsfor the whole-life-cycle
presented in this paper w
developed through four steps, as illustrated in Figure 1. Step 1 is the identification of k
decision variables
2. Research Methodthat affect whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon building outcomes at
sign, construction,
The conceptualoperational
framework stages. Key decision
for supporting variables areand
the decision-making identified
automated through
as- as
tematic literature
sessment of thereview which are
whole-life-cycle then categorised
net-zero-carbon buildingsinto three key
presented building
in this stages. Ste
paper was
developed through four steps, as illustrated in Figure 1. Step
is to identify existing BIM/IFC entities, properties, and relationships which can1 is the identification of key repres
decision variables that affect whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon building outcomes at design,
key decision variables affecting whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings. This step
construction, operational stages. Key decision variables are identified through a systematic
conducted through
literature mapping
review which thecategorised
are then identifiedinto decision
three key variables into the
building stages. Stepcurrent
2 is to BIM/I
schema. Step
identify 3 aims
existing to develop
BIM/IFC entities, an extension
properties, to the current
and relationships whichBIM/IFC to incorporate
can represent key de- k
cision variables affecting whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings.
decision variables affecting the whole-life-cycle carbon-emission outcomes of buildin This step is conducted
through mapping the identified decision variables into the current BIM/IFC schema. Step 3
that are not available in the existing BIM/IFC. Additional entities, properties, and relatio
aims to develop an extension to the current BIM/IFC to incorporate key decision variables
shipsaffecting
are created at the conceptual
the whole-life-cycle level to represent
carbon-emission outcomes ofthe key decision
buildings variables,
that are not available which
not available in the
in the existing existingAdditional
BIM/IFC. BIM/IFCentities,
schema. Step 4 isand
properties, to integrate
relationships thearedata captured
created at us
DT technology
the conceptual at level
operational stage
to represent intodecision
the key the extension
variables,described
which are not in available
Step 3. Thein theconcept
existing BIM/IFC
framework is developedschema. Step 4 is utilising
through to integratethe
theontology-based
data captured usingrepresentation
DT technology atmethod
operational stage into the extension described in Step 3. The conceptual framework is devel-
develop an extension to the existing IFC 4X3 schema and integrate DT technology to
oped through utilising the ontology-based representation method to develop an extension
cilitate decision-making
to the and automated
existing IFC 4X3 schema and integrate assessment
DT technology of to
the whole-life-cycle
facilitate decision-makingnet-zero-c
bon buildings.
and automated assessment of the whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings.
Figure 1. Research
Figure design
1. Research designand
and methodology
methodology forfor
the the development
development of the conceptual
of the conceptual framework.
framework.
, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 32
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 4 of 32
2.1. A Systematic Review for the Identification of Key Decision Variables for Whole-Life-Cycle
Net-Zero-Carbon 2.1.
Buildings
A Systematic Review for the Identification of Key Decision Variables for Whole-Life-Cycle
Net-Zero-Carbon Buildings
Systematic review methods were employed in this study to identify key decision var-
iables influencing theSystematic review methods were employed in this study to identify key decision
carbon emission outcomes of buildings throughout the whole build-
variables influencing the carbon emission outcomes of buildings throughout the whole
ing lifecycle. A rigorous analysis of the literature collected for this review was performed
building lifecycle. A rigorous analysis of the literature collected for this review was
to retrieve a complete,
performedreliable, and aup-to-date
to retrieve dataset.and
complete, reliable, Theup-to-date
review process
dataset.isThe
illustrated
review process is
in Figure 2, including
illustrated in Figure 2, including database selection, literature searchingdata
database selection, literature searching and selection, and and clas-
selection, and
sification. data classification.
Figure 2. Systematic literature

Figure reviewliterature
2. Systematic process review
for theprocess
identification of key decision
for the identification variables.
of key decision variables.
Scopus was selectedScopusaswas selected as database

the literature the literature database
in this in this
research research
because because
it has it has relatively
relatively
broader coverage on journal publications from well-regarded
broader coverage on journal publications from well-regarded sources, and better suits in- sources, and better suits
interdisciplinary research topics compared with other databases, such as Web of Science,
terdisciplinary research topics compared with other databases, such as Web of Science,
Google Scholar, and PubMed, as discussed some of the previous literature [31–35]. Scopus
Google Scholar, and PubMed, as discussed some of the previous literature [31–35]. Scopus
is also a better choice for ensuring the returned literature is relevant to the subject of
is also a better choice for ensuring the returned literature is relevant to the subject of the
the review.
review. The existing literature related to whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings in Scopus
The existingwas
literature related atokeyword
found utilizing whole-life-cycle
search. The net-zero-carbon
literature searchbuildings in Scopus
on key decision variables was
was found utilizing a keyword
carried out on thesearch. The literature
three stages of building search onconstruction,
design, key decisionand variables was stages in
operational
carried out on the three stages of building design, construction, and operational stages in to the
a systematic manner. A variety of interchangeable terms are used when referring
conceptAofvariety
a systematic manner. key decision variables affecting
of interchangeable net-zero-carbon
terms are used when building throughout
referring the lifecycle
to the
building process. For example, the term “energy” is used as an alternative to “carbon”
concept of key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building throughout the lifecy-
as carbon emissions associated with the initial construction, operation, maintenance, and
cle building process. For example, the term “energy” is used as an alternative to “carbon”
retrofit of a building, and is calculated based on the total energy consumption for each
as carbon emissions associated
building with
stage [36]. the initial
Several possibleconstruction,
combinations operation,
of these termsmaintenance,
were utilized and
for searching
retrofit of a building,
within and is calculated
Scopus, based search
and the keyword on thestrings
total energy
used in consumption
Scopus are given forineach
Table 1. The
building stage [36]. Several
search possible
timeframe wascombinations
set at 2010 and of more
these recently.
terms were utilized
Journals, for search-
book chapters, books,
ing within Scopus, and the keyword
dissertations, seminars, search strings
lecture posts areused in Scopus
considered in theare given inliterature
systematic Table 1.review, to
eliminate
The search timeframe was publication
set at 2010bias.
andThe initial
more search returned
recently. Journals, 464book
academic papers
chapters, in total.
books,
dissertations, seminars, lecture posts are considered in the systematic literature review, to
eliminate publication bias. The initial search returned 464 academic papers in total.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 5 of 32
Table 1. Literature search results for key decision variables affecting whole-life-cycle net-zero-
carbon buildings.
Stages Search Strings Time Period Number of Results

(“net zero carbon building” OR “net zero energy building”) AND
(building AND design AND stage) OR (“embodied carbon” OR
Design Stage After 2010 129
“operational carbon” OR “greenhouse gas emissions” OR “carbon
emissions” OR “carbon dioxide emissions”)
(building AND construction AND stage) OR (“embodied carbon”
Construction Stage After 2010 101
OR “operational carbon” OR “greenhouse gas emissions” OR
“carbon emissions” OR “carbon dioxide emissions”)
(“operation” OR “maintenance” OR “retrofit”) OR (“embodied
Operational Stage After 2010 234
carbon” OR “operational carbon” OR “greenhouse gas emissions”
OR “carbon emissions” OR “carbon dioxide emissions”)
Total 464
After the literature retrieval, a manual screening process was carried out to select the
most relevant papers before the systematic analysis of the targeted literature. The abstract
is firstly reviewed, and for some papers, the full texts were read through before deciding
whether the paper should be selected. As a result, 158 papers were selected for further
content analysis and identification of key decision variables.
The key decision variables identified through systematic review methods are classified
into three categories in alignment with design, construction, and operation.
2.2. Mapping the Identified Key Variables with the Existing IFC Entities, Properties and Relationships
After the key decision variables are identified from the literature, a mapping process
was carried out to identify the existing entities, properties, and relationships in the current
BIM/IFC schema that can represent the key decision variables affecting whole-life-cycle
As illustrated in Figure 3, the first step was to identify whether there are equivalent
existing entities in BIM/IFC that can represent the key decision variables. If such entities
exist, the key decision variables are mapped to the corresponding entities in the specific
IFC subschemas or domains. The second step is to identify whether there are equivalent
IFC properties and relationships to define the attributes and properties of these entities
that affect the carbon emission outcomes of buildings. If there are equivalent properties
and relationships, then no BIM/IFC extension is needed. If a property or relationship is
lacking, then an extension is required to define additional properties and relationships.
They are then linked to the existing entities to describe the properties of variables. For the
key decision variables that are not available in the existing BIM/IFC, an extension to the
current BIM/IFC schema is needed to create new entities, properties, and relationships to
represent these variables.
Buildings 2022,
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12,x1747
FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 32 6 of 32
Figure3.3.Mapping
Figure Mappingthethe identified
identified keykey decision
decision variables
variables with
with the the existing
existing BIM/IFCBIM/IFC
schema. schema.
2.3. Ontology-Based Representation Method

2.3. Ontology-Based Representation Method
This research adopted the ontology-based representation method to develop an ex-
This
tension research
which adopted
incorporates keythe ontology-based
decision representation
variables affecting method tonet-zero-
the whole-life-cycle develop an ex
tensionbuildings
carbon which incorporates key decision
that are not available variables
in the existing affecting
BIM/IFC the Data
schema. whole-life-cycle
acquired fromnet-zero
carbon
DT were buildings
integrated withthat the
areBIM/IFC
not available
extensionin the existing
using BIM/IFC schema.
the ontology-based Data acquired
representation
from DTtowere
method, integrated
represent with variables
key decision the BIM/IFC at theextension using thestage.
building operational ontology-based
The ontology- represen
based
tationrepresentation method adapted
method, to represent in thisvariables
key decision research isatbuilt
the upon the ontology-based
building operational stage. The
knowledge
ontology-based representation, which ismethod
representation also consistent
adapted with
in the
thisontology
researchcomponents
is built uponin the
the ontol
IFC schema.
ogy-based knowledge representation, which is also consistent with the ontology compo
Ontology is a term derived from philosophy, which can be defined as “an explicit
nents in the IFC schema.
specification of a conceptualization” [37]. It provides explicit logical assertions about classes,
Ontology
instances, is a termand
and properties, derived from
provides philosophy,
a way to capture which can be
and convert defined
human as “an explici
knowledge
specification
into an explicitofformat
a conceptualization” [37]. It provides
that can be understandable explicit logical
by computers assertions
[38]. The about clas
ontology-
based representation method has been widely used by many previous researchers [39–44]. human
ses, instances, and properties, and provides a way to capture and convert
knowledge intorepresentation
Ontology-based an explicit format
can notthat candescribe
only be understandable
and connect by computers
knowledge but [38].
also The on
improve information sharing to a seamless degree among various application
tology-based representation method has been widely used by many previous researchers platforms.
IFC isOntology-based
[39–44]. an object-oriented representation
open standard developed
can notby buildingSMART
only describe and and is now aknowledge
connect widely bu
used data format for BIM to support platform-independent, open BIM processes [45–47]. The
also improve information sharing to a seamless degree among various application plat
ontology-based representation method adapted in this research is built upon the ontology-
forms.
based knowledge representation and is also consistent with the ontology components in
IFC
the IFC is an object-oriented
schema. IFC supports a wide openrange
standard developed
of geometric by buildingSMART
representations as well asand
richis now a
widely used data format for BIM to support platform-independent,
semantic information in all phases of the life cycle of a building. The IFC schema provides open BIM processes
[45–47].
an The ontology-based
ontology-based representation representation method adapted
of building information; in this research
that is, building is built
information is upon
the ontology-based
represented knowledge
with entities, representation
attributes, and properties, asandwell is
as also consistent
relationships with
to link the ontology
different
elements
components together.
in theTherefore, the ontology-based
IFC schema. IFC supportsrepresentation
a wide rangemethod was formalized
of geometric representations
using these three ontology components, entities, properties, and relationships,
as well as rich semantic information in all phases of the life cycle of a building. described The IFC
as follows:
schema provides an ontology-based representation of building information; that is, build
ing information is represented with entities, attributes, and properties, as well as relation
ships to link different elements together. Therefore, the ontology-based representation
method was formalized using these three ontology components, entities, properties, and
relationships, described as follows:
• Entities: also known as terms or concepts in a domain of discourse [39]. Entities, in
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 7 of 32
• Entities: also known as terms or concepts in a domain of discourse [39]. Entities, in

this research, represent key decision variables identified at the design, construction,
and operational stages. For example, “Renewable Energy System” represents solar
panels which captures the energy of sunlight converted into electricity. “Window
upgrades” represents the act of modifying existing windows designed for greater
energy efficiency during building operational stage.
• Properties: describe various properties, features, attributes, characteristics, or param-
eters of entities [48]. Properties, in this research, represent attributes of entities that
influence whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon outcomes of buildings. For example, “Effi-
ciency” refers to solar panel efficiency which is a measure of the amount of sunlight
falling on the surface of a solar panel and converted into electricity [49], “Temperature
set-point” defines the point at which a thermostat is set when operating heating and
cooling systems.
• Relationships: define relations between entities or develop the class hierarchy of
concepts [39]. Relationships, in this research, represent semantic connections among
various entities. For example, “Is determined by” expresses that the decision-making
for one entity is determined by another entity; “Is applied to” defines an action or
criterion being applied to an existing entity.
3. Results
3.1. Categories and Key Decision Variables Which Affect Net-Zero-Carbon Building Outcomes at
Design, Construction and Operational Stages
In this research, the identified key decision variables were categorized into a hierarchy
to enable mapping onto the ontology-based representation. The categories of variables
identified in this research are suitable for most scenarios but may vary depending on the
project and contract type.
3.1.1. Key Decision Variables in the Building Design Stage

Building design stage covers architectural and engineering design. During the archi-
tectural design phase, aspects affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes include the
building site, walls, floors and roof systems, shadings, windows, and room spatial layout
(Figure 4). Heating and cooling needs can be significantly reduced through passive design
strategies such as orientating the building in the best direction [50–54]. Influential factors
affecting the design of building envelope in achieving energy efficient buildings include
materials, type of construction, and insulation [55–59]. Other energy reduction methods in-
clude adjusting the window–wall ratio, utilizing triple glazing and shadings, and changing
the location and dimension of internal spaces [57,60–66].
During the engineering design phase, plans for the building’s energy systems and services
involve key decision variables that can influence building energy performance [67–73]. Typical
energy systems include heating, cooling, hot water, electrical lighting, building control systems,
home appliances, mechanical ventilation, and renewable energy systems [45,59,74–76]. For
each categorized item, the key relevant references are also provided in Figure 4.
Buildings 2022, 12,
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32
Figure 4. Summary
Summary of of categories
categories and
and key
key decision
decision variables
variables affecting
affecting net-zero-carbon
net-zero-carbonbuilding
buildingatat
design stage
design stage (key
(key relevant
relevant references
references are
are provided
provided to
toeach
eachcategory)
category)[45,50,53,54,56–59,65,66,69–77].
[45,50,53,54,56–59,65,66,69–77].
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 32
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3.1.2. Key Decision Variables in the Building Construction Stage

3.1.2.To
Key Decision
deliver Variables in thebuilding,
a net-zero-carbon Building it Construction
is necessaryStage
to set up low-carbon perfor-
mance To deliver a net-zero-carbon building, it is necessary to setmaterials’
requirements in contracts and subcontracts, covering and products’
up low-carbon performance se-
lection, and energy-system
requirements in contracts and performance
subcontracts, criteria [59,78–81].
covering Contractor
materials’ selection
and products’ is also
selection,
crucial to the delivery
and energy-system of net-zero-carbon
performance buildings, which
criteria [59,78–81]. depends
Contractor on experience,
selection past
is also crucial
performance,
to the delivery expertise, and resources
of net-zero-carbon [82–84]. which
buildings, Selecting environmentally
depends responsible
on experience, sup-
past perfor-
pliers
mance,and sourcing
expertise, locally
and made[82–84].
resources materials throughenvironmentally
Selecting appropriate transportation
responsiblecan signif-
suppliers
and sourcing
icantly reducelocally madecarbon
embodied materials through appropriate
[4,59,85–89]. On-site energytransportation can significantly
and water consumption can
reduce embodied carbon [4,59,85–89]. On-site energy and water consumption
be lowered by utilizing renewable energy sources and choosing energy efficient appli- can be low-
ered by
ances utilizing
[90–92]. renewable
Waste energy sources
management andensure
strategies choosing
thatenergy
as muchefficient appliances
material [90–92].
as possible is
Waste management
reduced, reused, and strategies ensure
recycled that as much
[35,93–95]. material asmethods
Construction possible is reduced,
and reused, and
the operation of
recycled [35,93–95].
equipment Construction
and machinery were methods
also provedand the operation
to be of equipment
main sources of GHGand machinery
emissions in
were alsoconstruction
building proved to be in main sources
previous of GHG[88,96–101].
research emissions inThese
building construction
categorized itemsin with
previous
key
research [88,96–101].
relevant references areThese categorized
given in Figure items
5. with key relevant references are given in Figure 5.
Figure 5.5.Summary
Summaryof categories and key
of categories anddecision variables
key decision which affect
variables whichnet-zero-carbon building
affect net-zero-carbon
outcomes
building at construction
outcomes at stage (key relevant
construction stagereferences are provided
(key relevant to eachare
references category) [35,80,81,83–
provided to each
85,87–89,91,92,95,97,99,100].
category) [35,80,81,83–85,87–89,91,92,95,97,99,100].
Buildings 2022,
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Variables in
3.1.3. Key Decision Variables in the
the Building
Building Operational
Operational Stage
Stage
In the
theoperational
operational stage,
stage, energy
energy systems
systems operation,
operation, building
building management
management and
and mainte-
maintenance,
nance, and building
and building retrofit
retrofit are threeare three
major major affecting
aspects aspects affecting net-zero-carbon
net-zero-carbon per-
performance,
formance,
as as summarized
summarized from the keyfrom the key literature
literature (Figure 6).(Figure
Various6). energy
Varioussaving
energystrategies
saving strat-
for
operating energy systems
egies for operating energysuch as heating,
systems suchventilation,
as heating,and air conditioning
ventilation, and air(HVAC), appli-
conditioning
ances
(HVAC),and appliances
solar PV systems have PV
and solar beensystems
identified in previous
have studies [9,49,58,102,103].
been identified The
in previous studies
regular maintenance and repair of building assets enable potential failures to
[9,49,58,102,103]. The regular maintenance and repair of building assets enable potential be identified
and addressed
failures early to extend
to be identified service life
and addressed earlyand
to improve energylife
extend service performance
and improve [104–107].
energy
Upgrading
performancebuilding envelope
[104–107]. Upgradingand energy
buildingsystems
envelopeis also
and an efficient
energy solution
systems to an
is also reduce
effi-
energy demand
cient solution toduring
reduce building operation
energy demand [68,108–113].
during building operation [68,108–113].
Figure 6. Summary
Summaryofofcategories
categoriesand
andkey
keydecision
decisionvariables
variables which
which affect
net-zero-carbon building
outcomes at operational stage (key relevant references are provided to each category)
outcomes at operational stage (key relevant references are provided to each category) [9,49,58,102,106–113].
[9,49,58,102,106–113].
Buildings2022,
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12,1747
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of 32
3.2. Existing
3.2. Existing IFC
IFC Schema
Schema Which
Which Represent
Represent Key
Key Decision
Decision Variables
Variables That
That Affect
Affect Whole-Life-Cycle
Whole-Life-Cycle
Net-Zero-Carbon
Net-Zero-Carbon Buildings
Buildings
Through
Throughconducting
conductingthe
themapping
mappingprocess,
process,anan
outline of of
outline mapping results
mapping at the
results concep-
at the con-
tual level is given in Figure 7, which illustrates the correspondence between the categories
ceptual level is given in Figure 7, which illustrates the correspondence between the cate-
and keyand
gories decision variables
key decision and subschemas
variables and domains
and subschemas in BIM/IFC.
and domains in BIM/IFC.
Figure 7. An
Figure Anoutline
outlineofofmapping
mappingresults between
results thethe
between categories of key
categories decision
of key variables
decision and sub-
variables and
schemas and domains in BIM/IFC.
subschemas and domains in BIM/IFC.
3.2.1.
3.2.1. Existing
Existing IFC
IFCEntities,
Entities,Properties,
Properties,and
andRelationships
RelationshipsWhich
WhichRepresent
RepresentKey
KeyVariables at
Variables
Design Stage
at Design Stage
Categories
Categories and
and key
key decision
decision variables
variables that
that affect
net-zero-carbon buildings
buildings at
at design
design
stage such as the building site, wall, floor, and roof systems, shadings, windows, spatial
stage such as the building site, wall, floor, and roof systems, shadings, windows, spatial
layout, and energy systems are mapped onto the IFC entities, properties and relationships
layout, and energy systems are mapped onto the IFC entities, properties and relationships
in the core data subschemas, the shared element data subschemas, the resource definition
in the core data subschemas, the shared element data subschemas, the resource definition
data subschemas, and the architecture, building controls, electrical, and HVAC domains in
data subschemas, and the architecture, building controls, electrical, and HVAC domains
the IFC schema. A few key variables that are not available in the current IFC schema will
in the IFC schema. A few key variables that are not available in the current IFC schema
be defined in an extension, which will be described in Section 3.3.1. Most of key variables
will be defined in an extension, which will be described in Section 3.3.1. Most of key var-
at the design stage can be adequately defined by the current IFC schema; two examples are
iables at the design stage can be adequately defined by the current IFC schema; two ex-
given below:
amples are given below:
• The orientation of the building site can be defined by IfcSite in the core data sub-
• The orientation of the building site can be defined by IfcSite in the core data subsche-
schemas and IfcLocalPlacement in the resource definition data subschemas.
• maswall,
The and IfcLocalPlacement in theand
floor and roof systems resource definition data
their construction subschemas.
types can be represented by
• The wall, floor and roof systems and their construction types
IfcRoof, IfcWall, IfcCurtainWall, IfcSlab, IfcRoofType, IfcWallType, canIfcCurtainWallType,
be represented by
IfcRoof,
and IfcWall,In IfcCurtainWall,
IfcSlabType. IfcSlab,
addition, IfcCovering and IfcRoofType,
IfcCoveringType IfcWallType, IfcCurtain-
define the insulation in-
WallType, and IfcSlabType. In addition, IfcCovering and IfcCoveringType
stalled into the roof, ceiling, wall, and floor. These entities are all in the shared define
elementthe
insulation
data installed
subschemas. into the roof,
Additionally, theceiling,
materialwall, and floor.
properties These
of the entities
building are all insuch
envelope, the
shared element data subschemas. Additionally, the material properties
as thermal mass, durability, maintenance requirements and proportion of recycled con-of the build-
ing envelope,
tent, suchby
are described asdifferent
thermal IFC
mass, durability,
property sets,maintenance requirements and pro-
including Pset_MaterialThermal for
portion of recycled
IfcMaterial, content, Pset_EnvironmentalImpactIndicators,
Pset_ServiceLife, are described by different IFC property andsets, including
Pset_Environ-
Pset_MaterialThermal
mentalImpactValue for IfcMaterial, Pset_ServiceLife, Pset_EnvironmentalIm-
for IfcElement.
pactIndicators, and Pset_EnvironmentalImpactValue for IfcElement.
The diagrams in Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the mapping between existing IFC entities,
properties and relationships and corresponding categories and key decision variables at
the design stage.
dings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 32
The diagrams in Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the mapping between existing IFC entities,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 12 of 32
properties and relationships and corresponding categories and key decision variables at
the design stage.
Figure 8. Existing
FigureIFC entities, properties,
8. Existing IFC entities,and relationships
properties, representing representing
and relationships design categories and
design key
categories and key
decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at design stage.
decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at design stage.
Buildings 2022,12,
Buildings2022, 12,1747
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32
Figure 9. Existing IFC entities, properties,

Figure properties, and
and relationships
relationships representing
representingdesign
designcategories
categoriesand
andkey
key
decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at design stage (continued).
decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at design stage (continued).
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 14 of 32
3.2.2. Existing IFC Entities, Properties, and Relationships Which Represent Key Variables at
Construction Stage
Categories and key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon buildings at construc-
tion stage such as the selection of building materials and suppliers, energy use, water
use, and adoption of machinery and equipment are mapped to the IFC entities, properties
and relationships in the core data subschemas, shared element data subschemas, and the
architecture and construction management domains in the IFC schema. Some key variables
not available in the current IFC schema will be defined in an extension, which is described
in Section 3.3.2. Examples of key variables defined by existing IFC entities, properties and
relationships are given below:
• Decision variables in the selection of building materials and suppliers can be de-
fined by several property sets for IfcElement. Pset_EnvironmentalImpactValues and
Pset_EnvrionmentalImpactIndicators represent “Low embodied carbon materials” and
“Reuse of materials”. Pset_ManufacturerTypeInformation represents “Source of materials”.
• Energy use on the construction site is usually attributed to the construction equip-
ment and machinery, on-site transportation equipment and vehicles, and energy
systems. IfcConstructionEquipmentResource defines construction equipment; Ifc-
TransportElement defines on-site transportation equipment and vehicles; IfcQuantity-
Time measures time and hours of operating these equipment and vehicles. In addition,
IfcDistributionElement defines the use of various energy systems on site, including
heating and cooling, electrical lighting, hot water systems, and appliances. The energy
rating of energy systems can be defined by IfcDistributionElementType.
The diagram in Figure 10 illustrates the mapping between existing IFC entities, prop-
erties and relationships and corresponding categories and key decision variables at the
construction stage.
3.2.3. Existing IFC Entities, Properties, and Relationships Which Represent Key Variables at
Operational Stage
Categories and key decision variables that affect net-zero-carbon buildings at opera-
tional stage such as the operation of energy systems, maintenance, repair, and operations
procurement, and upgrading of building envelope, energy systems, and renewable energy
systems are mapped to the IFC entities, properties and relationships in the core data sub-
schemas and shared element data subschemas, and the architecture and HVAC domains
in the IFC schema. Key variables not covered in the current IFC schema will be defined
in an extension, which is described in Section 3.3.3. Examples of key variables defined by
existing IFC entities, properties and relationships are below:
• A key variable needs to be considered in the maintenance, repair and operations
procurement is whether the actual building condition is excellent, good, fair, or poor.
In the existing IFC schema, Pset_Condition is a property set of IfcElement, representing
the overall condition of a product based on an assessment considering various criteria,
measured on a scale of 1–10, or by assigning names such as good, fair, poor.
• Energy systems such as heating, cooling, hot water, and electrical systems are defined
by IfcDitributionElement in the core data subschemas. Building envelope includ-
ing windows, roof, walls, floor, shadings, and spaces can be represented by various
subtypes of IfcBuildingElement in the shared element data subschemas, such as IfcWin-
dow, IfcRoof, IfcCurtainWall, IfcWall, IfcSlab, and IfcShadingDevice, and IfcSpace in
the core data subschemas.
The diagram in Figure 11 illustrates the mapping between existing IFC entities, prop-
erties and relationships and corresponding categories and key decision variables at opera-
tional stages.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747
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Figure 10. Existing

Figure 10. Existing IFC
IFC entities,
entities, properties,
properties,and
andrelationships
relationshipsrepresenting
representingconstruction
constructioncategories
categories
and key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at construction stage.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 16 of 32
gs 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 32

and key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at construction stage.
Figure 11. Existing IFC11.

Figure entities,
Existingproperties, andproperties,
IFC entities, relationships
and representing design categories
relationships representing designand
categories and key
key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at operational stage.
decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at operational stage.
3.3.Framework
3.3. A Conceptual A Conceptual Framework BIM
for Integrating for Integrating BIM
and Digital and to
Twins Digital Twins
Support to Support Whole-Life-Cycle
Whole-Life-
Net-Zero-Carbon
Cycle Net-Zero-Carbon BuildingsBuildings
Figure
Figure 12 presents the12 presents the
conceptual conceptual
framework framework
developed developed
in this research,inwhich
this research,
sup- which sup-
ports whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings through the
ports whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings through the integration of BIM and DT integration of BIM and DT
data. The framework is composed of two segments. The first
data. The framework is composed of two segments. The first segment consists of the on- segment consists of the
ontology components in the existing BIM/IFC schema, which
tology components in the existing BIM/IFC schema, which uses existing IFC entities, prop- uses existing IFC entities,
properties,toand
erties, and relationships relationships
represent to represent
key decision keyaffecting
variables decision net-zero-carbon
variables affecting net-zero-carbon
out-
outcomes of buildings at design, construction,
comes of buildings at design, construction, and operational stages. and operational stages.
The second segment is the development of an extension to existing BIM/IFC schema
to define represent key decision variables that are not available in the existing BIM/IFC
schema. By utilizing the ontology-based representation method, additional entities and
also defined to present connections between entities within each key stage, and across all
stages of the whole-building lifecycle. These newly added entities and properties are then
connected with existing IFC entities via defined relationships. Data captured at opera-
tional stage via DT are also integrated into the BIM/IFC schema extension.
The following sections explain the newly added entities, properties, and relation-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 17 of 32
ships, how an extension is linked to the existing IFC schema, and how DT data are inte-
grated into the extension.
Figure 12. Conceptual

Figure 12. Conceptualframework
frameworktotosupport
supportwhole-life-cycle
whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon
net-zero-carbon buildings
buildings through
through the
the integration of a building information model and digital twin data.
integration of a building information model and digital twin data.
3.3.1.The
An second
Extension Representing
segment Key Decision
is the development of Variables
an extension at Design StageBIM/IFC schema
to existing
to define
At the represent key decision
design stage, variables
categories and key that are notvariables
decision availableaffecting
in the existing BIM/IFC
net-zero-carbon
schema. By
buildings utilizing
that are not the ontology-based
available in the current representation
IFC schemamethod, additional
include: types entities
of window and
films,
properties are created to define key variables at each key building
home appliances, and renewable energy systems (solar PV systems). To represent these stage. Relationships are
also defined to present connections between entities within each
categories and variables, 4 new entities, 11 new properties, and 1 new relationship were key stage, and across all
stages of
added to the
the whole-building
current IFC schema lifecycle.
usingThese newly added entities
the ontology-based and properties
representation method,areillus-
then
connected
trated with existing
in Figure 13. IFC entities via defined relationships. Data captured at operational
stageThere
via DT arerelationships
four also integrated areinto the BIM/IFC
presented in Figureschema
13. “Isextension.
installed to” is a new relation-
The following sections explain the newly added entities,
ship to specify that one entity is installed to another entity. “contains” properties,isand relationships,
an existing rela-
how an extension is linked to the existing IFC schema, and how DT
tionship capable of expressing a containment relationship between entities. “Is composed data are integrated into
the extension.
of” is an existing relationship that can represent the composition relationship between
entities. “Has the property of” is an existing relationship that supports the connection be-
3.3.1. An Extension Representing Key Decision Variables at Design Stage
tween entities and their properties or attributes.
At the
By using design
thesestage, categoriesthe
relationships, and key decision
connections variables
among affecting
existing and newnet-zero-carbon
entities and
buildings that are
properties are established: not available in the current IFC schema include: types of window
films, home appliances, and renewable energy systems (solar PV systems). To represent
• “Window film” is a new entity created to represent a thin polymer film containing
these categories and variables, 4 new entities, 11 new properties, and 1 new relationship
an absorbing dye or reflective metal layer that can be installed on the interior or ex-
were added to the current IFC schema using the ontology-based representation method,
terior in
illustrated of Figure
glass surfaces.
13. “Is installed to” is a new relationship, which aims to link
“Window
There four relationships areopening
film” to existing presented elements.
in FigureThis13.is “Is
established
installedtoto”
describe
is a new therela-
in-
stallation
tionship of a film
to specify that ononea entity
window. “Film types”
is installed is a new
to another property
entity. addedistoan
“contains” “Window
existing
film”, connected through “has the property of”, which defines
relationship capable of expressing a containment relationship between entities. “Is different types of com-
win-
dow films.
posed of” is an existing relationship that can represent the composition relationship between
•entities.
“Home “Has appliances”
the property is a of”
newisentity createdrelationship
an existing to representthat domestic
supportsappliances includ-
the connection
ing washing machines, dishwashers,
between entities and their properties or attributes. cloth dryers, and office equipment. Several new
By using these relationships, the connections among existing and new entities and
properties are established:
• “Window film” is a new entity created to represent a thin polymer film containing an
absorbing dye or reflective metal layer that can be installed on the interior or exterior
of glass surfaces. “Is installed to” is a new relationship, which aims to link “Window
film” to existing opening elements. This is established to describe the installation of a
film on a window. “Film types” is a new property added to “Window film”, connected
through “has the property of”, which defines different types of window films.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 18 of 32
• “Home appliances” is a new entity created to represent domestic appliances including

washing machines, dishwashers, cloth dryers, and office equipment. Several new
properties are enriched to describe variables relating to home appliances that affect
energy
energy consumption,
consumption,including
including“Energy
“Energyrating”,
rating”, “Energy saving
“Energy features”,
saving “Capacity”,
features”, “Capac-
“Service
ity”, “Service life”, “Function type”, and “Recycling potential”. They are to
life”, “Function type”, and “Recycling potential”. They are linked “Home
linked to
appliances” via “has the property of”.
“Home appliances” via “has the property of”.
•• “Solar
“Solar PV
PV systems”
systems” is is aa new
new entity
entity created
created to to represent
represent solar
solar PV
PV systems.
systems. “Battery
“Battery
system”
system” is is also
alsoaanew
newentity
entityto to define
define stand-alone
stand-alone PV PV systems
systems that that
havehave battery
battery stor-
storage. “Is composed of” connects “Battery system” to “Solar
age. “Is composed of” connects “Battery system” to “Solar PV systems”. Four new PV systems”. Four
new properties
properties are added
are added to define
to define variables
variables of solar
of solar PV systems
PV systems that that affect
affect building
building en-
energy use, including “size”, “system types”, “power output”,
ergy use, including “size”, “system types”, “power output”, and “efficiency”. and “efficiency”.
•• Building
Building elements
elementsand andenergy
energysystems
systemswhich
whichinfluence building
influence buildingenergy
energy useuse
andandcarbon
car-
emissions are contained in a “Building”, involving “Building envelope”,
bon emissions are contained in a “Building”, involving “Building envelope”, “Shad- “Shadings”,
“Openings”, “Heating
ings”, “Openings”, and cooling
“Heating systems”,
and cooling “Hot water
systems”, “Hotsystems”, “Electrical
water systems”, lighting
“Electrical
systems”, “Building control systems”, “Home appliances”, ‘Mechanical
lighting systems”, “Building control systems”, “Home appliances”, ‘Mechanical ven- ventilation”,
and “Solar PV systems”. Building elements and energy systems have a number of
tilation”, and “Solar PV systems”. Building elements and energy systems have a
attributes and properties to define significant decision variables affecting net-zero-
number of attributes and properties to define significant decision variables affecting
carbon buildings at design stage. “Building” is further composed of “Space”, which has
net-zero-carbon buildings at design stage. “Building” is further composed of
the property of “Spatial layout” and can define function allocation and the dimensions
“Space”, which has the property of “Spatial layout” and can define function alloca-
of different spaces.
tion and the dimensions of different spaces.
Figure 13. Illustration

Figure 13. Illustration of
ofan
anextension
extensionofofadditional
additionalentities,
properties, and
and relationships
relationships to repre-
to represent
sent key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at design stage, and the
key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at design stage, and the links to
links to the existing IFC entities.
the existing IFC entities.
3.3.2. An Extension Representing Key Decision Variables at Construction Stage

At construction stage, categories and key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon
buildings that are not covered in the current IFC schema include: developing energy per-
formance goals in the contract, contractor selection, transportation types, on-site energy
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 19 of 32
3.3.2. An Extension Representing Key Decision Variables at Construction Stage

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW At construction stage, categories and key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon19 of 32
buildings that are not covered in the current IFC schema include: developing energy
performance goals in the contract, contractor selection, transportation types, on-site energy
use,
use, waste
waste management,
management, andand construction
construction method.
method. In In this
thisresearch,
research,23
23new
newentities,
entities,88new
new
properties, and 4 new relationships were used to represent these categories and
properties, and 4 new relationships were used to represent these categories and variables.variables.
Figure
Figure 14
14 shows
shows the
the new
new entities, properties and
entities, properties and relationships
relationships andand their
their connections
connectionsto to
existing IFC entities through the ontology-based representation
existing IFC entities through the ontology-based representation method.method.
Figure 14.
Illustration of
of an
anextension
extensionofofadditional
additionalentities,
entities,properties,
properties,and
and relationships
relationships to to repre-
represent
sent key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at construction stage, and
key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at construction stage, and the
the links to the existing IFC entities.
links to the existing IFC entities.
The connections
The connections between
between existing
existing and
and new
new entities
entitiesand
andproperties
propertiesare
areestablished
establishedvia
via
aa range
range of
of relationships.
relationships. Three
Three examples
examples are
are given
given below:
below:
• “Developing energy performance goals in the contract” is composed of two variables:
“Energy system performance criteria” and “Material selection criteria”. “Material se-
lection criteria” is what the “Selection of building materials and suppliers” is based
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 20 of 32
• “Developing energy performance goals in the contract” is composed of two variables:

“Energy system performance criteria” and “Material selection criteria”. “Material se-
lection criteria” is what the “Selection of building materials and suppliers” is based on.
“Low embodied carbon materials”, “Reuse of materials”, and “Source” are subclasses
of “Material selection criteria”, connected via “Is a type of” relationship.
• Three decision-making actions apply to “Building products and materials” affecting
energy consumption and carbon emissions, which include “Selection of building ma-
terials and suppliers”, “Supplier/manufacturer selection”, and “Waste management”.
“Waste management” enables reducing, reusing, and recycling building materials and
is further composed of site operations, and material storage and handling.
• “Construction method” is also an important variable at the construction stage, and
“Conventional construction”, “Prefabrication construction” and “Mixed construction”
are three typical types of construction method. The use of “Machinery and equipment”,
“On-site transportation equipment/vehicles”, and the selection of “Transportation
types” are determined by “Construction method” in many projects. Three properties
are linked to “Transportation types” to define decision variables that affect carbon
emissions during transportation, including “Transportation distance”, “Transportation
modes”, and “Air pollution performance of transportation vehicles”.
3.3.3. An Extension Representing Key Decision Variables at Operational Stage

At the operational stage, categories and key decision variables affecting net-zero-
carbon buildings that are not available in the existing IFC schema include: the operation of
energy systems such as heating and cooling systems, hot water systems, electrical lighting
systems, home appliances and solar PV systems, and building retrofit such as upgrading
of building envelope, energy systems and renewable energy systems. In this research, 19
new entities, 11 new properties, and 1 new relationship were developed, as illustrated
in Figure 15, which are connected to the existing IFC schema using the ontology-based
representation method.
As shown in Figure 15, there are 5 types of relationships. Existing relationships are “Is
composed of”, “Has the property of”, “Is a type of”, and “contains”. One new relationship
is “Is applied to”. Through these relationships, the connections between existing and new
entities and properties were established; two examples are given as follows:
• New operation-based actions are created and applied to existing building service
systems: “Operating heating and cooling systems” is applied to “Heating and cooling
systems”; “Operating hot water systems” is applied to “Hot water systems”; “Operat-
ing electrical lighting systems” is applied to “Electrical lighting systems”; “Operating
home appliances” is applied to “Home appliances”; “Operating solar PV systems”
is applied to “Solar PV systems”. A few new properties are established to define
the decision variables that affect building carbon emissions in operating energy sys-
tems, including “Time and hours of use” and “Temperature set-point”. Two types
of properties are specifically applied to “Operating home appliances”. “Energy sav-
ing features” defines features that allow for appliances such as washing machines,
dishwashers, and clothes dryers to use less energy. “Maximum number of users per
device” defines whether devices such as office equipment are for individual use or
common/group use.
• “Repair and maintenance” is a newly added action entity applied to building envelope
components and energy systems to describe the repair and maintenance of these
elements and systems. “Maintenance schedule” is a new property of “Repair and
maintenance” to represent the interval scheduled for maintenance. This action entity is
composed of various construction activities and linked to entities at construction stage,
since the key decision variables for repair are the same as the construction variables.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747
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of 32

Figure 15. Illustration of
of an
an extension
extension of
of additional
additional IFC
IFC entities,
properties, and
and relationships
relationships to
to
represent
represent key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at operational stage,
key decision variables affecting net-zero-carbon building outcomes at operational stage,
and the links to the existing IFC entities.
and the links to the existing IFC entities.
3.3.4. An
An Integrated Conceptual Framework with Connected Entities throughout Design,
Construction, and
Construction, and Operational
Operational Stages
Stages
There are
There are complex
complex relationships
relationships between
between entities
entities across
across different
different stages
stages of
of the
thewhole-
whole-
building life cycle. Figure 16 presents an example of the integrated conceptual framework
building life cycle. Figure 16 presents an example of the integrated conceptual framework
Buildings 2022,12,
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of of3232
developed
developed using
using an
an ontology-based representationmethod,
ontology-based representation method,where
wherethere
thereare
arenot
notonly
onlyre-re-
lationships between entities within each building stage, but also relationships
lationships between entities within each building stage, but also relationships between between
entities
entities across
across design,
design, construction,
construction, andand operational
operationalstages.
stages.For
Forexample,
example,thetheentity
entity“Se-
“Se-
lection of building materials and suppliers” in the construction stage is connected
lection of building materials and suppliers” in the construction stage is connected to the to the
entity of “Building envelope” at the design stage, which is composed of
entity of “Building envelope” at the design stage, which is composed of “Wall”, “Floor”,“Wall”, “Floor”,
“Roof”,
“Roof”,“Shading”,
“Shading”,and and“Window”.
“Window”.The Theentity
entity“Operating
“Operatingheating
heatingand
andcooling
coolingsystems”
systems”at
the operational
at the operationalstage alsoalso
stage hashas
a connection
a connectionwith the the
with entity “Heating
entity andand
“Heating cooling systems”
cooling sys-
at the design
tems” stage. stage.
at the design Entities such such
Entities as “Repair and maintenance”,
as “Repair and maintenance”,“Wall upgrades”,
“Wall and
upgrades”,
”Hot water system upgrades” are all composed of “Procurement and
and ”Hot water system upgrades” are all composed of “Procurement and on-site con- on-site construction”,
which is linked
struction”, whichto is
entities
linkedattothe construction
entities stage.
at the construction stage.
Figure 16.
Illustrationofof
examples of connected
examples entities
of connected throughout
entities design,
throughout construction,
design, and oper-
construction, and
ational stages in the conceptual framework.
operational stages in the conceptual framework.
3.4. Integrate
3.4. Integrate Data Captured by by Digital
Digital Twin
Twin into
into an
an Extension
Extension toto BIM/IFC
BIM/IFC Schema
Schema
Data acquired
Data acquired from
from DT DT can
can be
be integrated
integrated withwith BIM/IFC,
BIM/IFC,including
includingboth
bothexisting
existingandand
new entities, properties, and relationships to represent key decision variables
new entities, properties, and relationships to represent key decision variables affecting net- affecting
net-zero-carbon
zero-carbon outcomes
outcomes of buildings.
of buildings. ThisThis is achieved
is achieved through
through threethree steps:
steps: datadata acqui-
acquisition,
sition, data processing, and data representation
data processing, and data representation (Figure 17). (Figure 17).
The data
The data acquisition
acquisition mechanism
mechanism is is the
the foundation
foundationof ofDT,
DT,which
whichgenerally
generallyutilizes
utilizestwo
two
approaches:taking
approaches: takingsnapshots
snapshotsand andcapturing
capturing changes
changes [114].
[114]. Various
Various techniques
techniques can can be
be used
used
for forcollection,
data data collection, including
including internet
internet of things
of things (IoT)(IoT) devices
devices and wireless
and wireless sensor
sensor net-
networks
works
such as such
quickas quick response
response (QR) codes,(QR)andcodes,
randomandcollection
random collection
devices such devices such as tele-
as telephones [115].
phones
In [115]. In these
this research, this research, these are
technologies technologies are usedconditions
used to monitor to monitorofconditions
buildingsof(as build-
built)
ingsequipment
and (as built) and equipment
during duringoperation
the building the building operation
phase, includingphase, includingenvelope,
the building the building
such
as windows, walls, floors, roof, and shadings, and energy systems such as heating,such
envelope, such as windows, walls, floors, roof, and shadings, and energy systems as
cooling,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 23 of 32
heating, cooling, and hot water systems. Thus, a variety of as-built building information
and hot water systems. Thus, a variety of as-built building information that represents key
that represents key decision variables affecting embodied and operational carbon at the
decision variables affecting embodied and operational carbon at the operational stage is
operational stage is acquired through DT.
acquired through DT.
The second step
The second stepisisdata
dataprocessing,
processing,whichwhich includes
includes data
data storage
storage andand
datadata transmis-
transmission.
sion.
The captured data are stored and transferred to the next level for integration with with
The captured data are stored and transferred to the next level for integration BIM.
BIM. To ensure
To ensure net-zero-carbon
net-zero-carbon assessment
assessment is based
is based on real-time
on real-time building building information;
information; this is
this is essential
essential to achieve
to achieve low latency
low latency in data in processing
data processing
[116].[116]. Communication
Communication technol-
technologies
ogies used for data transmission include short-range coverage access
used for data transmission include short-range coverage access network technologies such network technolo-
gies suchnear-field
as WiFi, as WiFi, near-field communication,
communication, mobile-to-mobile,
mobile-to-mobile, and widerand widersuch
coverage coverage
as 4G,such
5G,
as
long-term evolution and low-power wide-area networks [117,118]. WiFi is the mostiswell-
4G, 5G, long-term evolution and low-power wide-area networks [117,118]. WiFi the
most
known well-known wireless local-area
wireless local-area network technology
network technology and has been and widely
has been widelytoutilized
utilized transmitto
transmit
data [115].data [115].
After
After the
the DT
DTdata
dataareareacquired
acquiredand andprocessed,
processed,theythey areare
integrated
integratedwithwithBIM/IFC
BIM/IFC ex-
tension using the ontology-based representation method as described
extension using the ontology-based representation method as described in Section 2.3 in Section 2.3 (Fig-
ure 17). Three
(Figure ontology
17). Three components
ontology are utilized
components to represent
are utilized the identified
to represent data, including
the identified data,
entities, properties, and relationships. The ontology-based data representation
including entities, properties, and relationships. The ontology-based data representation is the core
method for method
is the core integrating BIM/IFC extension
for integrating BIM/IFC and DT data,and
extension whichDT is alsowhich
data, the focus of this
is also the
research. Theresearch.
focus of this existing IFCTheschema
existingandIFCextension
schema are anddeveloped
extension based on ontologies
are developed based with
on
rich semantics.
ontologies withThrough the ontology-based
rich semantics. Through therepresentation
ontology-based method, DT datamethod,
representation can be inte-
DT
grated
data can with newly added
be integrated withentities, properties,
newly added andproperties,
entities, relationships andin the IFC extension.
relationships in the IFCIn
this way, DT
extension. dataway,
In this canDTbe data
linked
cantobethe 3D model
linked to the 3Dandmodel
semantic information
and semantic in the IFC
information in
extension.
the IFC extension.
Figure
Figure 17.
17. Integration
Integration of
of BIM/IFC
BIM/IFCand
andDT
DTdata.
data.
A variety
variety of of data
data acquired
acquiredby byDTDTcancanbe beintegrated
integratedintointoananextension
extensiontotorepresent
represent a
subset
a subset of of
keykeydecision
decisionvariables affecting
variables net-zero-carbon
affecting net-zero-carbon outcomes of buildings
outcomes at oper-
of buildings at
ational stagestage
operational as presented in Figure
as presented 15. As shown
in Figure 15. AsinshownFigurein18,Figure
DT can 18,beDT
used
canto be
capture
used
the status ofthe
to capture thestatus
building envelope
of the building and energy systems
envelope and energyto support
systems building management
to support building
management
and maintenance and maintenance
and identify and identify
building buildingtoproblems
problems support to supportretrofit
building building retrofit
decision-
decision-making. These captured data will inform the corresponding
making. These captured data will inform the corresponding key variables at the opera- key variables at the
operational
tional stageare
stage that that are presented
presented in an extension
in an extension to BIM/IFC
to BIM/IFC schemaschema in Section
in Section 3.3.3
3.3.3 (Figure
(Figure
15). 15).
Figure 19 illustrates the process of integrating data captured by DT into an extension
involving data
data acquisition
acquisitionvia viaDT,
DT,data
dataprocessing,
processing,and andthe
theontology-based
ontology-based representation
representation of
data captured by DT. DT data can be captured through several data
of data captured by DT. DT data can be captured through several data acquisition tech- acquisition technologies
such as IoT
nologies suchdevices
as IoT and wireless
devices andsensor networks.
wireless sensor After data processing,
networks. After data data captured
processing, by
data
DT can be integrated into an extension through the ontology-based
captured by DT can be integrated into an extension through the ontology-based data rep- data representation, as
explained below.
resentation, as explained below.
There are
There are two
two types
types ofof data that can
data that can be
be captured
captured by by DT,
DT, including
including actual
actual building
building
condition, and the upgrades of the building envelope and energy
condition, and the upgrades of the building envelope and energy systems (Figure 18). systems (Figure 18).
Existing conditions of building envelope and energy systems can
Existing conditions of building envelope and energy systems can be captured via DT in be captured via DT in
the operational stage and then be processed and integrated into the
the operational stage and then be processed and integrated into the extension. These data extension. These data
can reveal
can reveal the
the building
building status
status andand fault
fault location
location forfor maintenance
maintenance and and operation,
operation, which
which
will
will affect the operational or embodied carbon at the operation stage. This
affect the operational or embodied carbon at the operation stage. This information
information
can facilitate decision-makers in identifying problems and establishing energy efficiency
strategies in maintenance, operation and retrofit for carbon reduction.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 24 of 32

can facilitate decision-makers in identifying problems and establishing energy efficiency
strategies in maintenance, operation and retrofit for carbon reduction.
Figure 18.
Figure Datacaptured
18. Data capturedbybyDT
DTatat operational
operational stage
stage which
which affect
affect decision-making
decision-making for net-zero-
for net-zero-car-
carbon
bon building.
building.
Upgrades of
Upgrades the building
of the building envelope
envelope and
and energy
energy systems
systems can
can also
also be
be acquired
acquired from
from DT
DT
which are then processed and integrated into the extension. The information
which are then processed and integrated into the extension. The information can supportcan support
retrofitting decision-making
retrofitting decision-making based
based on
on the
the as-built
as-built condition
condition of
of building assets, tracking
building assets, tracking of
of
retrofitting, and
retrofitting, and updating
updating building status after
building status after retrofit,
retrofit, to
to improve
improve energy
energy efficiency
efficiency at the
at the
building operation stage. Figure 19 presents an example of how these data can be
building operation stage. Figure 19 presents an example of how these data can be captured captured
by DT
by DT and
and represented
represented using
using the
the ontology-based
ontology-based representation
representation method
method andand integrated
integrated
into an extension at the operational stage. These data are outlined as
into an extension at the operational stage. These data are outlined as below: below:
•• “Roof, wall, floor

“Roof, wall, floor upgrades”
upgrades” informs the upgrades
informs the of roof,
upgrades of roof, wall,
wall, and
and floor
floor elements
elements
such
such as upgrading the materials and construction types, replacing insulation and
as upgrading the materials and construction types, replacing insulation and
changing finishes.
changing finishes.
• “Window upgrades” informs the upgrades of windows such as the location and
• “Window upgrades” informs the upgrades of windows such as the location and win-
window–wall ratio.
dow–wall ratio.
• “Shading upgrades” informs the upgrades of shadings such as the location, types,
• “Shading upgrades” informs the upgrades of shadings such as the location, types,
and size.
and size.
• “Heating and cooling system upgrades” informs the upgrades of heating and cooling
• “Heating and cooling system upgrades” informs the upgrades of heating and cooling
systems such as the system types and location of portable heaters and air-conditioners.
systems such as the system types and location of portable heaters and air-condition-
• “Hot water systems” informs the upgrades of hot water systems such as the system
ers.
types. The upgrading of solar hot water system is further linked to “Solar PV system”.
• “Hot water systems” informs the upgrades of hot water systems such as the system
• “Electrical lighting systems” informs the upgrades of electrical lighting systems such
types. The upgrading of solar hot water system is further linked to “Solar PV sys-
as the light bulb types and fittings.
• tem”. appliances” informs the upgrades of home appliances such as washing ma-
“Home
• “Electrical
chines, lighting systems”
dishwashers, informs
cloth dryers andthe upgrades
office of electrical
equipment, lighting
particularly systems
their types. such
• as the light bulb types and fittings.
“Solar PV systems” informs the upgrades of rooftop solar PV panels such as the size
• “Home
and appliances”
system types. informs the upgrades of home appliances such as washing ma-
chines, dishwashers, cloth dryers and office equipment, particularly their types.
• “Solar PV systems” informs the upgrades of rooftop solar PV panels such as the size
and system types.
Buildings 2022,12,
x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 25
ofof3232
Figure 19. Illustration of DT data integrated into extension using the ontology-based representation
Figure 19. Illustration of DT data integrated into extension using the ontology-based representation
method to represent key decision variables at operational stage.
method to represent key decision variables at operational stage.
4. Discussions
4.1. Implication of the Framework
Most of the existing research has dealt with decision variables related to carbon
emissions in individual stages rather than the whole-building life cycle process. There
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 26 of 32
is a lack of a data integration framework integrating key decision variables to support

whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings. This paper has filled this gap by developing
a novel data integration framework to integrate key decision variables throughout the
whole-life-cycle building process, including building design, construction, and operational
stages, to support decision-making and automated assessment of the whole-life-cycle
Secondly, little of the research has considered an open international standard approach
integrating key decision variables affecting carbon emission throughout the whole building
life cycle process. BIM/IFC is an open international standard to represent building infor-
mation, significant to supporting decision-making on the whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon
buildings. However, limited research explored BIM for integration with the building oper-
ational stage. DT can capture and monitor real-time building conditions to facilitate the
building operational stage. Therefore, this paper contributes to the body of knowledge by
integrating DT data into BIM, which provides an integrated computational representation
of key decision variables during the whole-building life cycle. Based on that, this paper
developed a novel conceptual framework by using an international standard approach, and
the ontology-based representation method, which extends the current BIM/IFC schema
and integrates data from DT to support the decision-making and automated assessment of
the whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings.
This paper provides general guidance to the built environment industry, and informs
practitioners such as architects, designers, suppliers, contractors, subcontractors, and
facility managers, of key decision variables that have significant contributions to the
net-zero-carbon outcomes of buildings, to facilitate their decision-making process in their
specific area, which contributes to the whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings. The novel
conceptual framework can pave the way for future research on an automated system to
support well-informed decision-making on the whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings.
4.2. Research Limitations and Potential Future Works

There are several limitations in this research, which suggest the need for future studies.
Firstly, three main building lifecycle stages were considered in this research: the building
design, construction, and operational stages. While this research acknowledges that there
are a variety of variables influencing the carbon emission outcomes of buildings specific
to each project, the focus of this research is on key decision variables that make the most
significant contribution to gaining net-zero-carbon outcomes for buildings, rather than
providing an exhaustive list of all the decision variables involved. In addition, all identified
key variables are classified into different levels and categories using hierarchies. Although
the categories of variables are not suitable for every scenario, which may vary depending
on the project type and contract type, the aim is to better organize the large number and
wide variety of variables that need to be recognized. Future research can extend the scope
to cover more building stages, such as the demolition, recycling, and reuse of building
materials stages, to promote a more comprehensive approach to achieving net-zero-carbon
buildings throughout the whole building life cycle.
Secondly, this research addresses the challenges involved in achieving whole-life-cycle
net-zero-carbon emissions and focuses on the reduction in both embodied and operational
carbon emissions, without considering the increasing use of solar energy. While this
research mainly uses residential buildings for context, the contributions of this research can
be applied to all building types.
Furthermore, the novel framework was developed at the conceptual level, based on
key decision variables identified through a systematic literature review. All key variables
were carefully identified from the published literature, providing findings from previous
research in this area, and a rigorous review was carried out to ensure the effectiveness
and reliability of the framework. An empirical investigation of gathering feedback on
the framework from built-environment practitioners can further improve the conceptual
framework. In addition, the dynamic nature of sensor data over time is not considered in
Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 27 of 32
this research, which could be further investigated in future research. Finally, as, usually,
a conceptual framework is developed as a generic model [119], implementation in any
specific software is outside the scope of this paper. The details of software implementation
for the integration of BIM and DT can be considered in future work, for example, visual
programming such as Dynamo and Grasshopper could potentially be utilized for the
integration of real-time sensor data and BIM, which provides a bi-directional link between
the design tool and the building performance simulation [120,121].
5. Conclusions
There are many challenges in the achievement of net-zero-carbon buildings over the
whole building life cycle. This research tackles the challenge by developing a novel con-
ceptual framework using an open international standard approach and ontology-based
representation method, able to define key decision variables affecting the whole-life-cycle
net-zero-carbon building outcomes using entities, properties, and relationships, and inte-
grates the captured data via DT.
Firstly, a range of key decision variables that affect net-zero-carbon outcomes of
buildings in the design, construction and operational stages were identified through a
systematic literature review. Then, existing IFC entities, properties and relationships
representing key decision variables were identified through a mapping process. For key
variables that were not available in the existing BIM/IFC schema, an extension to the
current BIM/IFC was developed to define new entities, properties, and relationships
by utilizing an ontology representation method. In addition, building operational data
required in the BIM/IFC extension, which can be obtained from DT, were also defined for
integration into the extension.
A novel conceptual framework was developed to support whole-life-cycle net-zero-
carbon buildings, through integrating BIM and DT. The framework consists of the existing
IFC entities, properties, and relationships, and an extension at the conceptual level, which
defines the identified key variables and also integrates DT data into the extension. The
framework fills the current knowledge gap and creates new opportunities to integrate
BIM/IFC and DT technologies to provide a computational representation of key decision
variables that make the most significant contribution to gaining net-zero-carbon outcomes
for buildings, addressing the challenges involved in achieving whole-life-cycle net-zero-
carbon emissions.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.S., L.D. and C.C.W.; methodology, K.S., L.D. and C.C.W.;
formal analysis, K.S., L.D. and C.C.W.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S., writing—review and
editing, K.S., L.D. and C.C.W.; supervision, L.D. and C.C.W. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Abstract: Decision-making on whole-life-cycle net-zero-carbon buildings is critical for addressing

Buildings 2022, 12, 1747. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101747 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 4 of 32

Figure 2. Systematic literature

Scopus was selectedScopusaswas selected as database

Stages Search Strings Time Period Number of Results

2.3. Ontology-Based Representation Method

• Entities: also known as terms or concepts in a domain of discourse [39]. Entities, in

3.1.1. Key Decision Variables in the Building Design Stage

3.1.2. Key Decision Variables in the Building Construction Stage

Figure 9. Existing IFC entities, properties,

Figure 10. Existing

gs 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 32

Figure 11. Existing IFC11.

Figure 12. Conceptual

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 32

• “Home appliances” is a new entity created to represent domestic appliances including

Figure 13. Illustration

3.3.2. An Extension Representing Key Decision Variables at Construction Stage

3.3.2. An Extension Representing Key Decision Variables at Construction Stage

• “Developing energy performance goals in the contract” is composed of two variables:

3.3.3. An Extension Representing Key Decision Variables at Operational Stage

Figure 15. Illustration

Buildings 2022, 12, 1747 24 of 32

•• “Roof, wall, floor

is a lack of a data integration framework integrating key decision variables to support

4.2. Research Limitations and Potential Future Works

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