Analysis of Semantic Relations in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines

ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS IN ALÁRÒYÉ NEWSPAPER HEADLINES
BY
ALÁDÉJÁNÀ ÀDÚRÀGBÈMI SAMUEL
MATRIC NO: 170107040
BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND
LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, ADÉKÚNLÉ AJÁṢIN UNIVERSITY,
ÀKÙNGBÁ-ÀKÓKÓ, ONDO STATE, NIGERIA.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS IN LINGUISTICS AND YORÙBÁ
APRIL, 2023
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research was carried out by ALÁDÉJÁNÀ ÀDÚRÀGBÈMÍ
SAMUEL with matric number 170107040 under the supervision of Dr. Simeon Ọláògún in
the Department of Linguistics and Languages, Faculty of Arts, Adékúnlé Ajáṣin University,
Àkùngbá-Àkókó, Ondo State, Nigeria.
_____________________ _____________________
Dr. Simeon Ọláògún Date
(Supervisor)
______________________ _____________________
Prof. O.T. Olúmúyìwá Date
(Head of Department)
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DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to those who don’t fit in, the proletariat and the queers.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I am grateful to my Orí, the custodian of my destiny for not going against
me and for providing me with good health, strength and understanding to carry on with my
education even when the going looked too difficult to endure.
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. S. O. Ọláògún for his constructive
comments, as well as invaluable mentality as we I went through the process of doing the
research. I am eternally grateful.
I also wish to express my gratitude to all my lecturers in the department of Linguistics and
Languages for their insightful knowledge, teaching, guidance, discussion, and inspiration
they share throughout my study at the university: my H.O.D., Prof. O.T. Olúmúyìwá, Prof.
Oyèbádé, Prof (Mrs) Adébò wálé,

̣ Dr. Ọláògún, Dr. (Mrs) Àgó yì,
̣ Dr. (Mrs) Arówóṣẹgbé ,̣ Dr.
Oshòdì, Dr. Ìbíkúnlé, Mrs. Aṣíwájú, Mr. Àlàbí, Mr. Emmanuel, Mrs. Osita and Mr. Olórò
and all the non-teaching staff in the department. Thank you for your support.
I would be remiss in not mentioning my family, especially my parents, Chief Aládéjánà
Olóyèdé Òjó and Mrs. Ọló rundáre

̣ Ṣọlá for their financial and moral support during the
course of my study. May you reap the fruits of your labour. Amen. I also appreciate my
siblings: Tèmító pe
̣ ́ ̣ and Ọpé ỵ ẹmí Aládéjánà for their encouragement, support and positive
advice through the step of the way. I also appreciate the efforts of my friends, Akínbáni
Olúwáfé m
̣ i, Olúdáyò ̣ Joel, Òjó Abídèmí, Adéyẹmí Peace, Adùnọlá, Debby, Midex, Bímbó lá
̣
and all my colleagues in the department of Linguistics and Languages, you are all wonderful.
See you at the top.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Content v
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the Study 3
1.2 Purpose of the Study 5
1.3 Statement of the Problem 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Significance of the Study 6
1.6 Contribution to Knowledge 6
1.7 Summary 7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 8
2.0 Preliminaries 8
2.1 Theories of Meaning 8
2.1.1 The Ideational Theory of meaning 9
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2.1.2 Behaviourist Theory of meaning 10
2.1.3 Referential Theory of Meaning 11
2.1.4 Possible-world Theory of Meaning 13
2.1.5 Fregean Theory of Meaning 14
2.1.6 Verificationist Theory of Meaning 15
2.1.7 Truth-Conditional Theory of Meaning 16
2.1.8 Conceptual-role Theory of Meaning 18
2.1.9 Gricean Theory of Meaning 20
2.1.10 The Usage Theory of Meaning 21
2.2 Theoretical Framework 21
2.2 Entailment 21
2.3.1 Sources of Entailment 23
2.3.1.1 Lexical Sources of Entailment 23
2.3.1.2 Syntactic Sources of Entailment 24
2.3.2 Types of Entailment 23
2.3.2.1 Background Entailment 24
2.3.2.2 Foreground Entailment 25
2.4 Presupposition 27
2.3.1 Types of Presupposition 29
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2.4.1.1 Existential Presupposition 29
2.4.1.2 Active Presupposition 30
2.4.1.3 Factive Presupposition 30
2.4.1.4 Non-factive Presupposition 31
2.4.1.5 Structural Presupposition 31
2.4.1.6 Counter Factual Presupposition 32
2.5 Empirical Review 32
2.6 Summary 34
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 36
3.0 Preliminaries 36
3.1 Method of Data Collection 36
3.2 Method of Data Analysis 36
3.3 Validity of Instruments Used 37
3.4 Reliability of Instruments Used 37
3.5 Population and Sample 38
3.6 Summary 38
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 39
4.1 Entaiments in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 39
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4.1.1 Types of Entailment in Aláròyé newspaper headlines 39
4.1.1.1 Background Entailment 39
4.1.1.2 Foreground Entailment 41
4.1.2 Sources of Entailment in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 42
4.1.2.1 Lexical Source of Entailment (Hyponymy) in Aláròyé newspaper headlines 43
4.2 Presupposition in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 56
4.2.1 Types of Presupposition in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 56
4.2.1.1 Factive Presupposition 57
4.2.1.2 Existential Presupposition 58
4.2.1.3 Counter-factual Presupposition 59
4.2.1.4 Structural Presupposition 61
4.2.1.5 Non-factive Presupposition 62
4.2.1.6 Active Presupposition 63
4.3 Similarities and Differences between Entailment and Presupposition in
Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 65
4.4 Summary 66
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS 67
5.1 Discussion of Main Findings 67
5.1.1 Presuppositions in Aláròyé newspaper headlines 68
5.1.2 Entailments in Aláròyé newspaper headlines 71
5.2 Conclusion 72
REFERENCES 73
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CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
The concept of meaning is understood in a number of ways even when restricted to the study
of language. The term ‘meaning’ is used in a variety of ways and only some of these
correspond to the usual understanding of the notion of meaning. Akmajian (1977) has
identified more than different ways in which the verb ‘to mean’ and the noun ‘meaning’ can
be used. Lyons (1995) equally notes that although these different meanings are
distinguishable, they are not unrelated but just how they are related is difficult and
controversial.
Communication of meaning is the most obvious feature of language and yet the most
complex to study because of its subjective nature. Meaning as a central thesis of language is
obvious because that is what we primarily use language for: to communicate with one
another, to convey ‘what we mean’ effectively. However, Emma (2009) says the steps in
understanding the meaning of something said to us is so difficult to categorize and in most
cases, we are hardly conscious of the principles that underlie our meaning-making potentials.
Communication is meaningful language and an evaluation of people’s communicative
competence is, in fact, an evaluation of their meaning-creating potentials.
The press, one form of the media which has long become a means of communication, has an
important role as well as a potential power in our society. It has an important role in human’s
life since it gives people information about the surrounding situation or what is happening in
the world. Through the language used in the newspaper, people get information about various
news concerning economy, politics, sport or other local, national and international events. It
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is only through the mass media such as the newspaper that people know among other things,
how the president and cabinet work together to improve the country, how far the government
officials have run the democracy system in the country, what happens to the elite politicians
or how the economy condition in our country is. The newspaper has become the concern of
linguists for the way the information is written / presented to the readers and what meaning
the information can give. In reporting news in the newspapers, journalists are free to use
words and expressions, language style and linguistic structures. These differences in the
linguistic choices, the language style and the linguistic structures lead to different versions
and views of the same event in different newspapers. Therefore, people who read different
newspapers about the same event will get different perceptions about the event, based on the
journalists’ use of linguistic choices and linguistic structures. In other words, the sentences
about the same event written in different newspapers are always syntactically and
semantically different. When carefully studied, it is observed that headlines play different
conventional and pragmatic roles in language. Within the confines of syntax and semantics,
there are certain barriers to interpreting newspaper headlines (Hobbs, 1998). This is because
when a headline is not properly structured, it leads to misinterpretation of the intended
message. This could also be because the writers of newspaper headlines assume that the
reader has a previous knowledge about the story the writer intends to convey using the
headline. To avoid cases of misinterpretation, it is therefore important to structure newspaper
headlines appropriately, so as to convey the intended meanings.
On this note, this research focuses on the analysis of semantic relations in Aláròyé
newspaper’s headlines. In this study, we shall examine the background of the study, purpose
of the study, statement of the problem, research questions and significance of the study.
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1.1 Background of the Study
Semantics is that branch of linguistics in which the meaning of words and sentences of
languages is studied (Akwanya, 1979). Semantics is the technical term used to refer to the
study of meaning. The meaning of the word is determined by the words arrangements in
sentences in sentences or other words based on Palmer (1976). The meaning includes from a
variety of aspect of language. Kreidler (1998) states that semantics is a relation of words to
other words, and sentences to other sentences; to discuss the nature of language, the structure
of discourse and the distinction between lexical and grammatical meaning. Yule (2010:100)
states that linguistic semantics deals with the conventional meaning conveyed by the use
words, phrases, and sentences of a language. It is fact that meaning is a part of language and
the study of meaning has expanded to include not only the symbols referent relationship
(traditional ‘semantics’) but also the behavior that result from our language habit. Semantic
representations of sentences are constructed in the lexicon on the basis of the semantic
representations of words. Rauh (2016:16) says that “(general semantics) language influenced
not only our thinking, but also all human behaviour”. Words are sometimes called lexical
items or lexeme. Words meaning might be characterized not only in term of its component
features, but also in term of its relationship to other words. This approach is called as lexical
relation (Yule, 2010:104). Semantics which deals with the word meaning is called lexical
semantics or lexical relations. Lexical relations describe relationship among word meanings.
It is the study of how lexicon is managed and how the lexical meanings of lexical items are
related each other. There are several types of lexical relations, such as; homonym, polysemy,
synonymy, antonym, hyponymy, and metonymy (Saeed, 2009).
Semantics which deals with sentence meaning is called semantic relations or semantic
relationship.Semantic relationships are the associations that exist between the meanings of
words (semantic relationships at word level), between the meanings of phrases, or between
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the meanings of sentences (semantic relationships at phrase or sentence level). Semantic
relations include; linguistic ambiguity, disambiguation, presuppositions, entailment,
connotations etc.
It is certain that every newspaper carries headlines for its story, feature or article. Newspaper
headlines are the one of the interesting parts of news reports. Swan in Practical English Usage
(2005) defines headlines as the short title above the news reports. It gives an insight of what
the news report is about. Ogunsiji (1989: 97) states that headlines are arranged in a way that
can reveal fast the social, cultural, economic and political issues unfolding in a society at any
given time. They are designed to attract the readers by using catchy or interesting words or
phrases. If someone reads a newspaper or online news, they tend to look at the headlines first.
If they think it is interesting, then they continue to read the articles. To make them catchy, the
structures of headlines seem to be different than ordinary sentences. For instancethe writer
makes some linguistic choices which sometimes result in some semantic relations
(presuppositions and entailment,).
Aláròyé is a weekly newspaper written in Yorùbá language which serves the purpose of
informing, educating, entertaining and analyzing issues and events through the Yorùbá
culture. According to Fasan (2013), Aláròyé is today the best Yorùbá language newspaper in
Nigeria, adding that it is the most successful indigenous–languages newspaper of all times.
The Fourth Estate as cited by Salawu (2006:7) has this to say about the newspaper: The
emergence of Aláròyé newspaper in 1996 marked a milestone in the affairs of Yorùbá and,
indeed indigenous language press in Nigeria. Within a short time, this newspaper became
popular because of its arresting cover design and styles of headline-casting and story
presentation. It actually popularized reading of Yorùbá newspapers among the folks. It is the
largest local language newspaper with a circulation figure of not less than 150,000 per week.
It sells in Europe and several West African countries where the Yorùbá reside.
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A semantic analysis of the forms of linguistic ambiguity, presuppositions, entailments and
connotation found in Aláròyé newspaper headline is presented in this research.
1.2 Purpose of the study
The purpose of this research is to analyse the semantic relations in Aláròyé newspaper
headlines, it intends to do this by finding out the types of entailments and presupposition in
Aláròyé newspaper headlines, the triggers or sources of presupposition and entailments in
Aláròyé newspaper headlines and the similarities between these two semantic relations.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
The semantic relation between one sentence in an headline to the other can found in the truth
or the intention to be conveyed by the writer to the reader. People who do not understand the
relation of the headline or do not even know the entailment will not find out the truth of intent
that the writer wants to convey to the reader. When one proposition is related to the other one
or entails each other it has become a truth. In the same manner, the meaning of Yorùbá
newspaper headlines could be presumed by the reader because of the way the headline is
presented or the writers of newspaper headlines assume that the reader has a previous
knowledge about the story the writer intends to convey using the headline and write the
headlines in this view. The problem this study intends to deal with is how the sentences of the
headlines in Aláròyé newspaper show truth or semantic relations. On this note, this study will
examine presuppositions and entailments in Aláròyé newspaper headlines to study how the
Aláròyé newspaper headlines show semantic relations.
1.4 Research Questions
This study intends to answer the following research questions:
i. How does Aláròyé newspaper show semantic relations?
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ii. What types of semantic relations are found in Aláròyé newspaper headlines?
iii. What are the factors responsible for these semantic relations in Alároyé
newspaper headlines?
iv. What are the differences and similarities among these semantic relations found in
Aláròyé newspaper headlines?
1.5 Significance of the Study
Practically, the significance of this research is that it will enable other researchers in
linguistics who wishes to conduct a study for the same topic in semantics field as a source of
reference, it will also be of immense help to journalists, news writers and editors and even the
readers or reading public in drawing the attention of the readers towards making the readers
more focused in the story.
1.6 Contribution to Knowledge
This study has added to the body of knowledge on semantic relations in Yorùbá newspaper
headlines by examining presupposition and entailment as used in Aláròyé newspaper
headlines. A previous researcher on semantic relations have submitted that headlines with
clear presuppositions and strong entailments were more easily comprehended by readers than
those with weaker linguistic connections but this study emphasized that the need to know the
truth of the headline written as in entailment and presupposition is necessary to understand
the difference between the semantic relations in the headlines and by using presupposition
and entailment, the author of story can emphasize, draw attention, sympathy toward the
readers, and become a strategy to make the readers more focused in the story. Also this study
revealed that the difference between entailment and presupposition semantic relations can be
proved by using a negation test. When an entailing sentence is negated, it cannot entail the
subsequent statement or sentence. However, when a presupposing sentence is negated, it still
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follows the subsequent statement or sentence. These two semantic relations hold between
sentences in the headlines of Aláròyé newspaper headlines.
1.7 Summary
This chapter serves as an introduction to this study. The chapter has discussed the
background of the study, the purpose of the research, statement of the problem, research
questions, the significance of the study and contribution to knowledge.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.0 Preliminaries
This chapter centres on the review of literatures relevant to this study.It review some relevant
literatures on concepts such as the theories of meaning, presuppositions and entailment.
2.1 Theories of Meaning
Semantics deals with meaning in language. Just like every other discipline, there are theories
to explain in detail the nature of meaning in a principled and systematic way. Theory of
meaning can mean a number of things in the history of analytic philosophy of language. It
may denote an attempt to “analyze, elucidate, or determine the empirical content of, the
concept of meaning in general” (Sainsbury 1979: 127). Semantic theories explain the nature
of meaning by utilizing a finite set of rules to explain a variety of semantic phenomena. Any
theory of semantics should provide statements that explain meaning relationship – such as
ambiguity, anomaly, contradiction, tautology, paraphrase, entailment, synonymy, hyponymy.
This means that such a theory should be able to explain the inherent meaning characteristics
of words and sentences (Sankaravelayuthan2018:47). The following theories of meaning are
listed by Leopore in his write up on “Semantics: Study of meaning” in Encyclopaedia of
Britannica: the ideational theory of meaning, the behaviourist theory of meaning, the
referential theory of meaning, possible-world theory of meaning, Fregean theory of meaning,
verificationist theory of meaning, truth-conditional theory of meaning, conceptual-role
semantics, Gricean theory of meaning and the usage theory.
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2.1.1 The Ideational Theory of meaning
This theory was developed by the British empiricist philosopher, John Locke. The theory
explains that the meaning attached to words can be separated from the word themselves. This
means that meaning originates in the mind in the form of ideas. Words are just sensible signs
for the convenience of communication. Language is therefore, a mechanism for expressing
thoughts and thought is viewed as a succession of conscious ideas. The ideational theory is
mentalistic. Thus the meaning of a word is the mental image or idea of the word or the
expression generated in the mind of the speaker or hearer.
There is no attempt to define words and expressions using physical associations. Rather, the
range of possible meanings ascribed to a given word is that set of available feelings, images,
ideas, concepts, thoughts and inferences that can be produced as soon as a word is heard –
(Glucksberg 1975:50).
The ideational theory is perceived to be abstract or imprecise because of dependence on
mental images for decoding the meaning of words. Ideas may be too vague to comprehend.
There are also many words (especially the abstract ones) that do not have specific physical
realities, let alone mental manifestations. It is unthinkable that the mind can create an image
of what the senses cannot perceive. For instance, the image of the word ‘dog’ could be a
sleeping dog, a running dog, a beagle or a hound. And the image of a dog can correspond to
numerous words, e.g., ‘dog’, ‘warning’, ‘pet’, or ‘animal’.
The Ideational theory may not be able to account for synonymous expressions. It may also be
difficult to use the theory to explain the mental image conjured by sentences. Indeed,
sentences derive their meaning more from the word order.
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2.1.2 Behaviourist Theory of meaning
In an effort to render linguistic meaning public and the study of linguistic meaning more
“scientific,” the American psychologist B.F. Skinner (1904–90) proposed that the correct
semantics for a natural language is behaviouristic: the meaning of an expression, as uttered
on a particular occasion, is either (1) the behavioural stimulus that produces the utterance, (2)
the behavioural response that the utterance produces, or (3) a combination of both. Thus, the
meaning of “fire!” as uttered on a particular occasion might include running or calling for
help. But even on a single occasion it is possible that not everyone who hears “fire!” will
respond by running or calling for help. Suppose, for example, that the hearers of the utterance
include a fireman, a pyromaniac, and a person who happens to know that the speaker is a
pathological liar. The behaviourist account seems committed to the implausible view that the
meaning of fire! for these people is different from the meaning of fire! for those who run or
call for help.
The behaviourist account, like the ideational one, is also vulnerable to the objection based on
compositionality. Suppose that a person’s body recoils when he hears brown cow but not
when he hears either brown or cow alone. The meaning of brown cow, which includes
recoiling, is therefore not determined by or predictable from the meanings of brown and cow.
This approach has been influenced by the works of Watson Bloomfield and Skinner. Idealism
or mentalism in traditional semantics looks at meaning as something established in the
hearer’s or speaker’s mind. There is usually a non-physical process of thought, concept or
feeling generating a mental experience. On the other hand, Behaviourism relies on
observables and records of utterances. These observables and records are linked to their
relationships with the immediate situations that produce them.
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To the behaviourist, there is no belief in such mentalistic constructs as mind, concept and
ideas. As a result, there is no room for introspection as a means of obtaining valid
information since thoughts and feelings are usually personal. As a result of the highly
psychological dimension of this theory, human and animal behaviour is identical.
Experiences coming through the senses are the major sources of knowledge. There is
determinism in the affairs of the world. There are universal laws governing every situation.
As a result of this reliance on determinism, there is no predictability in evaluating human
behaviour.
2.1.3 The Referential Theory of Meaning
Reference is an apparent relation between a word and the world. Russell, following the 19th-
century British philosopher John Stuart Mill, pursued the intuition that linguistic expressions
are signs of something other than themselves. He suggested that the meaning of an expression
is whatever that expression applies to, thus removing meaning from the minds of its users and
placing it squarely in the world. According to referential semantics, all that one learns when
one learns the meaning of ‘tomato’ is that it applies to tomatoes and to nothing else. One
advantage of a referential semantics is that it respects compositionality: the meaning of red
tomato is a function of the meanings of red and tomato, because red tomato will apply to
anything that is both red and a tomato.
But what about expressions that apparently refers to nothing at all, such as unicorn? A
referential semantics would appear to be committed to the view that expressions such as
unicorn, Santa Claus, and Sherlock Holmes are meaningless. Another problem, first pointed
out by Frege, is that two expressions may have the same referent without having the same
meaning. The morning star and the evening star, for example, refer to the same object, the
planet Venus, but they are not synonymous. As Frege noted, it is possible to believe that the
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morning star and the evening star are not identical without being irrational (indeed, the
identity of the morning star and the evening star was a scientific discovery).
Examples such as these have led some philosophers, including Mill himself and Saul Kripke,
to conclude that proper names lack meaning. But the problem also affects common nouns,
including definite descriptions. The descriptions the first president of the United States and
the husband of Martha Washington apply to the same individual but are not synonymous. It is
possible to understand both without recognizing that they refer to the same person. It follows
that meaning cannot be the same as reference.
Referential theory is associated with Ogden and Richards (1922). According to referential
theory, the meaning of a word is the object it refers to in the external world. That actual
object is the referent. The connection between the words or expressions and their referents is
through the process of thought. The words or expressions are just symbols.
One major criticism of this theory is that there are many words without physical objects they
refer to. Such words are intelligent, ugly, rich, poor etc. which do not have the concrete
qualities of nouns may not have referents. Again, polysemous words (i.e. words with more
than one meaning) may have the additional problem of having more than one referent. Items
that belong to groups may not have physical objects that are identical. Every sub-group has
specific feature. Individual members of the smallest sub-groups also have their identities.
Therefore, we cannot talk about absolute identification for referents. The referential theory
may not have a way to explain the meaning of words in the categories of adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions and conjunctions.
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2.1.4 Possible-world Theory of Meaning
Perhaps unicorn is meaningful because of what it would apply to in certain circumstances,
though in actuality it does not apply to anything. And perhaps the descriptions the first
president of the United States and the husband of Martha Washington are not synonymous
because one can imagine circumstances in which the former would apply and the latter would
not, and vice versa. George Washington might not have become the first president, or Martha
might not have married him. Suppose that the meaning of an expression is determined not
only by what it applies to in the actual world but also by what it would apply to in different
“possible worlds.”
According to possible-world semantics, the meaning of a proper or common noun is a
function from possible worlds (including the actual world) to individuals or things: given a
possible world as input, the meaning returns as output the individual or thing that the noun
applies to in that world. The meaning of the first president of the United States determines
that that expression applies to George Washington in the actual world but to other individuals
in other possible worlds. This refinement of referential semantics does not compromise
compositionality, because the meaning of the first president of the United States is still a
function of the meanings of its constituent expressions in any possible world. The proposal
also seems to account for the difference in meaning between descriptions whose referents are
the same, and it seems to explain how an expression can fail to refer to anything and still be
meaningful.
Yet there are important problems with possible-world semantics. Chief among them is the
notion of a possible world itself, which is not well understood. In addition, it turns out that
possible-world semantics does not entirely dispose of objections based on co-referential but
non-synonymous expressions and non-referential but meaningful expressions. The
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expressions triangular and trilateral, for example, are not synonymous, but there is no
possible world in which they do not apply to exactly the same things. And the expression
round square appears to be meaningful, but there is no possible world in which it applies to
anything at all. Such examples are easy to multiply.
2.1.5 Fregean Theory of Meaning
According to Frege, the meaning of an expression consists of two elements: a referent and
what he called a “sense.” Both the referent and the sense of an expression contribute
systematically to the truth or falsehood (the “truth value”) of the sentences in which the
expression occurs.
Frege pointed out that the substitution of co-referring expressions in a sentence does not
always preserve truth value: if Smith does not know that George Washington was the first
president of the United States, then Smith believes that George Washington chopped down a
cherry tree can be true while Smith believes that the first president of the United States
chopped down a cherry tree is false. Frege’s explanation of this phenomenon was that, in
sentences such as these, truth value is determined not only by reference but also by sense.
The sense of an expression, roughly speaking, is not the thing the expression refers to but the
way in which it refers to that thing. The sense of an expression determines what the
expression refers to. Although each sense determines a single referent, a single referent may
be determined by more than one sense. Thus, George Washington and the first president of
the United States have the same referent but different senses. The two belief sentences can
differ in truth value because, although both are about the same individual, the expressions
referring to him pick him out in different ways.
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2.1.6 Verificationist Theory of Meaning
Frege did not address the problem of how linguistic expressions come to have the meanings
they do. A natural, albeit vague, answer is that expressions mean what they do because of
what speakers do with them. An example of this approach is provided by the school of logical
positivism, which was developed by members of the Vienna Circle discussion group in the
1920s and ’30s. According to the logical positivists, the meaning of a sentence is given by an
account of the experiences on the basis of which the sentence could be verified. Sentences
that are unverifiable through any possible experience (including many ethical, religious, and
metaphysical sentences) are literally meaningless.
The basic idea underlying verificationism is that meaning results from links between
language and experience: some sentences have meaning because they are definable in terms
of other sentences, but ultimately there must be certain basic sentences, what the logical
positivists called “observation sentences,” whose meaning derives from their direct
connection with experience and specifically from the fact that they are reports of experience.
The meaning of an expression smaller than a sentence is similarly dependent on experience.
Roughly speaking, the meaning of an expression is given by an account of the experiences on
the basis of which one could verify that the expression applies to one thing or another.
Although the circumstances in which triangular and trilateral apply are the same, speakers
go about verifying those applications in different ways.
The case against verificationism was most ardently pressed in the 1950s by the American
philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine. He argued that experience cannot be used to verify
individual observation sentences, because any experience can be taken to verify a given
observation sentence provided that sufficient adjustments are made in the truth values of the
other sentences that make up the scientific theory in which the sentence is embedded. In the
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case of word meaning, Quine asked: What experience, or empirical evidence, could
determine what a word means? He contended that the only acceptable evidence is
behavioural, given the necessity that meanings be public. But behavioural evidence cannot
determine whether a person’s words mean one thing or another; alternative interpretations,
each compatible with all the behavioural evidence, will always be available. (For example,
what possible behavioural evidence could determine that by gavagaia speaker means “rabbit”
rather “undetached rabbit part” or “time-slice of a rabbit”?) From the under-determination of
meaning by empirical evidence, Quine inferred that there is no “fact of the matter” regarding
what a word means.
2.1.7 Truth-Conditional Theory of Meaning
Confronted with the scepticism of Quine, his student Donald Davidson made a significant
effort in the 1960s and ’70s to resuscitate meaning. Davidson attempted to account for
meaning not in terms of behaviour but on the basis of truth, which by then had become more
logically tractable than meaning because of work in the 1930s by the Polish logician Alfred
Tarski. Tarski defined truth for formal (logical or mathematical) languages in terms of a
relation of “satisfaction” between the constituents of a sentence and sequences of objects.
Truth is thereby determined systematically by the satisfaction of sentential constituents.
Tarski showed how to derive, from axioms and rules, certain statements that specify the
conditions under which any sentence of a given formal language is true.
Davidson’s innovation was to employ a Tarskian theory of truth as a theory of meaning.
Adopting Tarksi’s distinction between an “object language” (an ordinary language used to
talk about things in the world) and a “metalanguage” (an artificial language used to analyze
or describe an object language), Davidson proposed that a semantic theory of a natural
language is adequate just in case, for each sentence in the object language, the theory entails a
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statement of the form ‘S’ is true just in case p, where S is a sentence in the object language
and p is a translation of that sentence in the metalanguage. For the sentence snow is white, for
example, the theory should entail a statement of the form ‘snow is white’ is true just in case
snow is white. Tarski had already shown how to derive such statements. Davidson’s
appropriation of Tarski’s theory of truth thus rendered substantive the rough but venerable
idea that to give the meaning of a sentence is to give its truth conditions.
But how can such a truth-conditional semantics explain the phenomena for which Frege
invoked the notion of sense? The sentences George Washington chopped down a cherry tree
and the first president of the United States chopped down a cherry tree share truth conditions:
both are true just in case the individual who happens to be picked out by George Washington
and the first president of the United States chopped down a cherry tree. But the sentences are
not synonymous. Davidson suggested that the problem could be solved by constructing a
semantic theory for the language of any given speaker who uses these sentences. In order to
do so, one must observe the constraints of “radical interpretation”—in particular, the
“principle of charity,” which states that a speaker’s sentences should be interpreted in such a
way that most of them are counted as truthful. Interpretation proceeds as follows: collect the
sentences that a speaker “holds true,” then construct a semantic theory that entails for each of
those sentences a statement of the circumstances in which the speaker would hold that
sentence true. According to Davidson, any such theory will entail ‘George Washington
chopped down a cherry tree’ is true just in case George Washington chopped down a cherry
tree and ‘the first president of the United States chopped down a cherry tree’ is true just in
case the first president of the United States chopped down a cherry tree but not ‘George
Washington chopped down a cherry tree’ is true just in case the first president of the United
States chopped down a cherry tree or ‘the first president of the United States chopped down a
cherry tree’ is true just in case George Washington chopped down a cherry tree. The fact that
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the circumstances in which the speaker would hold true George Washington chopped down a
cherry tree are different from the circumstances in which he would hold true the first
president of the United States chopped down a cherry tree accounts for their difference in
meaning, thus solving Frege’s problem.
Although Davidson’s program was influential, most philosophers have remained sceptical of
the idea that a theory of truth can serve as a theory of meaning, in part because of objections
such as the following. Suppose that two speakers, A and B, are identical psychological twins,
so that their psychological states are essentially undistinguishable. Each speaker utters the
sentence I am 30 years old. Although they utter the same sentence, the referent of I as uttered
by A is different from the referent of I as uttered by B. The truth conditions of the two
utterances, therefore, will be different. According to the truth-conditional account, the
meanings of the two utterances must accordingly be different. It follows that A and B do not
understand, or mentally grasp, the meanings of their utterances. If they did, the fact that the
meanings are different would entail that A’s psychological state is different from B’s. But by
hypothesis their psychological states are the same. The advocate of the truth-conditional
account thus faces a dilemma: either meaning is not the same as truth conditions, or speakers
do not understand their utterances of sentences such as I am 30 years old.
2.1.8 Conceptual-role Theory of Meaning
In order to avoid having to distinguish between meaning and character, some philosophers,
including Gilbert Harman and Ned Block, have recommended supplementing a theory of
truth with what is called conceptual-role semantics (also known as cognitive-role,
computational-role, or inferential-role semantics). According to this approach, the meaning of
an expression for a speaker is the same as its conceptual role in the speaker’s mental life.
Roughly speaking, the conceptual role of an expression is the sum of its contributions to
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inferences that involve sentences containing that expression. Because the conceptual role
played byI is the same for both A and B, the meanings of the two utterances of I am 30 years
old are the same, even though the referent of I in each case is distinct. In contrast, the
meanings of George Washington chopped down a cherry tree and the first president of the
United States chopped down a cherry tree are different, even though they have the same truth
conditions, because the conceptual role of George Washington is different from that of the
first president of the United States for any speaker. Because the meanings of the two
sentences are different, the corresponding beliefs are different, and this explains how it is
possible for a person to affirm one and deny the other without being irrational.
Although the notion of conceptual role is not new, what exactly a conceptual role is and what
form a theory of conceptual roles should take remain far from clear. In addition, some
implications of conceptual-role semantics are strongly counterintuitive. For example, in order
to explain how the meaning of tomato can be the same for two speakers, conceptual-role
semantics must claim that the word plays the same conceptual role in the two speakers’
mental lives. But this is extremely unlikely (unless the speakers happen to be psychological
identical twins). As long as there is the slightest difference between them with respect to the
inferences they are prepared to draw using sentences containing tomato, the conceptual roles
of that word will differ. But then it is difficult to see how any sense could be made of
communication. If each speaker assigns a different meaning to tomato and presumably to
most other words, there is no common meaning to be communicated, and it is a mystery how
speakers understand one another. If, on the other hand, the same words have the same
meanings, it must follow that the words play the same conceptual roles, in which case there
would be no need for communication; each speaker would understand and believe exactly
what every other speaker does. In addition, conceptual-role semantics seems unable to
account for compositionality, since the conceptual role of the complex expression brown cow,
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in the speaker who fears brown cows but not all brown things or all cows, is not determined
by nor predictable from the conceptual roles of brown and cow.
2.1.9 Gricean theory of meaning
The British philosopher Paul Grice (1913–88) and his followers hoped to explain meaning
solely in terms of beliefs and other mental states. Grice’s suggestion was that the meaning of
a sentence can be understood in terms of a speaker’s intention to induce a belief in the hearer
by means of the hearer’s recognition of that intention.
Grice’s analysis is based on the notion of “speaker meaning” which he defines as follows: a
speaker S means something by an utterance U just in case S intends U to produce a certain
effect in a hearer H by means of H’s recognition of this intention. The speaker meaning of U
in such a case is the effect that S intends to produce in H by means of H’s recognition of that
intention. Suppose, for example, that S utters the sky is falling to H, and, as a result, H forms
the belief that the sky is falling. In such a case, according to Grice, S had several specific
intentions: first, he intended to utter the sky is falling; second, he intended that H should
recognize that he (S) uttered the sky is falling; third, he intended that H should recognize his
(S’s) intention to utter the sky is falling; and fourth, he intended that H should recognize that
he (S) intended H to form the belief that the sky is falling. In these circumstances, according
to Grice, the sky is falling has the speaker meaning that the sky is falling. The place of
conventional meaning in Grice’s conception of language appears to be that it constitutes a
feature of words that speakers can exploit in realizing the intentions referred to in his analysis
of speaker meaning.
Although Grice’s approach is not as popular as it once was, the general goal of reducing
meaning to the psychological states of speakers is now widely accepted. In this sense, both
Gricean semantics and conceptual-role semantics represent a return to the 17th century’s
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emphasis on inner or mental aspects of meaning over outer or worldly aspects. To what
extent semantic properties can be attributed to features of the human mind remains a deep
problem for further study.
2.1.10 The Usage Theory of Meaning
The German scholar, Wittgenstein (1953), developed this theory. It has been elaborated upon
by J. Firth and M.A Halliday. The usage theory is also referred to as the contextual or
operational theory of meaning. The major motivation was fear that the meaning of certain
classes of words could be lost if meaning were treated as just entities. According to the
theory, the meaning of a word or an expression is determined by the context of its use. It is
the effect created by a linguistic unit within a given context that expresses its full meaning.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
From the foregoing, it can be deduced that scholars propound theories based on what they
assume to be the shortcomings or failures of the preceding theories. However, the recent
theory, (the usage theory of meaning or otherwise called meaning in use theory) which was
developed by Wittgenstein and elaborated by J. R. Firth and M.A Halliday seems to be the
only theory which focuses on the meaning of a word or an expression based on the context of
its use which makes us to suggest that the context of a word or an expression should be
considered before any interpretation is assigned to such word or an expression. Therefore we
will adopt the usage theory of meaning and truth conditional theory of meaning to analyse the
semantic relations in Aláròyé newspaper headlines.
2.3 Entailment
Entailment is a relationship that applies between two sentences, where the truth of one
implies the truth of the other because of the meanings of the words involved (Goddard,
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1998:17). Based on Lyons (1995:117), entailment plays an important role in all theories of
meaning held between sentences. The examples of entailment can be seen below.
a. Achilles killed Hector (P)
b. Hector died (Q)
The first sentence, Q, necessarily implies or entails the second sentence, Q. If Achilles killed
Hector, then it is necessarily that Hector died. Lyons (1995) describes that entailment is a
relation between P and Q in which P and Q are the variables. If the truth of Q necessarily
follows the truth of P (and the falsity of Q necessarily follows the falsity of P), then P entails
Q. The symbol for the relation of entailment is double-shafted arrow or single-shafted arrow
(=› or →). Saeed (2009) gives the composite truth table for entailment as follows:
Composite Truth Table for Entailment
Entailment
P Q
T → T
F → T or F
F ← F
T or F ← T
From the table, the arrows (→ and←) are to show the direction of a relation
“when…then…”. Then, the first line above is read “when P is true, Q is true”, and the last
line is read “when Q is true, P can be either true or false”. The table also shows that only the
truth of the entailing sentence or the falsity of the entailed sentence has consequences for the
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other sentence. When P is false, Q can be either true or false; if people knew that Achilles
killed Hector, people would not know whether Hector was dead or alive. When Q is true, P
can be either true or false; if people know that Hector is dead, that does not tell anything
about whether Achilles killed him or not.
2.3.1 Sources of Entailment
There are two sources of entailments. They are lexical and syntactic sources of entailment.
2.3.1.1 Lexical Sources of Entailment
The lexical sources show a relationship of entailment between the entailing sentence and the
entailed sentence. The lexical source can also be called hyponymy as it shows a relation
between lexical items that can be a regular source for entailment between sentences from the
lexical relationship. Kempson claimed that “a relation of entailment arises between two
assertions whenever an argument or predicate in one assertion is hyponymous to an argument
or predicate in the other” (Kempson 1997:80), and on the same lines, Allan (1986:181)
asserted that “If two assertions differ only in the substitution of a hyponym for a super-
ordinate term, then one of the assertions entails the other”. Below is the example of a lexical
source of entailment:
a. I bought a dog
b. I bought an animal
c. I bought a living thing
Proposition (a) entails (b) and (c) since a dog is an animal and a living thing. However, as has
been previously realized in the truth table for entailments(Table 1), this relation is not
interchangeable, as (b) does not entail (a); and (c) does not entail (b) nor (a). In other words,
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hyponymy does not invariably entail the corresponding sentence with the super-ordinate
which is also called entailing sentence (Cruse 2000:150-160).
Hyponymy is a hierarchical sense relation which exists between two terms in which the sense
of one is included in the other (Finch 2000:166). Hyponymy can be thought of as a vertical
relation between lexical items, whereas other relations behave in a horizontal pattern, such as
synonymy. This equivalence between propositions creates a “mutual entailment”, an
entailment in which “the two sentences always express the same proposition” (Cruse
2000:30) such as the example given in (a) and (b) above. This example belongs to the first
degree of synonymy: the absolute synonymy, in which the items altered behave analogously
in all contexts. Case in point, two lexical items considered to be absolute synonyms will share
the same contextual conditions of appropriateness. In every context in which one is correct,
the other will be normal too.
2.3.1.2 Syntactic Sources of Entailment
The syntactic source of entailment is a source of entailment in which the sentences can be in
active or passive versions of the same sentence. Below are the examples of a syntactic source
for the entailment.
a. Adéọlá built this house
b. This house was built by Adeọlá
The syntactic source of entailment is not found in Yorùbá because Yorùbá language does not
attest passivisation.
2.3.2 Types of Entailment
According to Yule (2000:33), there are two types of entailment. They are: Background
entailment and Foreground entailment.
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2.3.2.1 Background Entailment
Background entailment is indicated when a sentence is true, it is necessarily related to the
truth of a number of entailments. The number of background entailment following the main
sentence is considered as logical concepts. Yule (1998:33) gives an example as follow:
1. Rover chased three squirrels.
a. Something chased three squirrels.
b. Rover did something to three squirrels.
c. Rover chased three of something.
d. Something happened.
When a speaker uttered Rover chased three squirrels, he is committed to the truth of those
background entailments or the three logical concepts. The speaker is unavoidably committed
to the truth of a very large number of background entailments. On any occasion of utterance
(1), the speaker denotes how these entailments are to be ordered, i.e., the speaker will interact
commonly by stressing which entailment is presumed to be more important for indicating the
intended meaning than any others.
An example of background entailment can also be found in Yorùbá:
2. Adé pa ejò lókó
Adé killed a snake at the farm
a. Nǹkan pa ejò lókó
Something killed a snake at the farm
b. Adé pa nǹkan lóko
Adé killed something at the farm
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c. Adé pa ejò níbikan
Adé killed a snake somewhere
d. Nǹkan ṣẹlè ̣ lóko
Something happened at the farm
In the example given above, it is observed that when the speaker uttered Adé pa ejò lókó, he
is committed to the truth of the background entailments a-d.
2.3.2.2 Foreground Entailment
The second order of entailment is foreground entailment. While background entailment gives
information related to the context, foreground entailment contributes to the main point of the
sentence (Blass, 1990:137). Yule (1998:33) in his pragmatics book adds that foreground
entailment is the main assumption of the speaker. Therefore, the background entailment
exists to help the hearer in finding the foreground entailment. There are some special
linguistic devices which could indicate the foreground entailment. They are cliffing and
stressing. Yule (1998:33) argues that a speaker sometimes will give a stress in their
utterances. The stressed part can be assumed as the foreground which is very useful to help
the hearer in interpreting the intended meaning of the speaker. Yule (1998:33) presents the
example of stressing in the following sentences.
1. Bob chased THREE rabbits.
2. BOB chased three rabbits.
Both sentences share the same grammatical structure, but in (2), the focus is on Bob and the
main presumption is that someone chased three rabbits.
An example of foreground entailment can also be found in Yorùbá:
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3. OLÈ já àpò Tolú gbà
THIEF snatched Tolú’s bag
In the example above, the focus is on the thief, therefore the main presumption would be that
someone snatched Tolú’s bag.
2.4 Presupposition
Saeed (2009) points out that presupposition means making assumption(s) of a sentence or an
utterance. Potts (2014) also adds that the presuppositions of a sentence or an utterance are the
pieces of information that the speaker assumes (or acts as if she assumes) in order to be
meaningful in the current context. In presupposition, there is usually a piece of information
which the speaker assumes the hearer already knows. This assumption is based on some
shared background knowledge between the speaker and the hearers. An outsider in the circle
of communication may be at a loss.
Presupposition has two concepts from two semanticists; Frege and Strawson (Katz, 1973).
The first concept is that presupposition is a condition under which a sentence expressing an
assertive proposition to state a truth or a falsehood. The other is that the presupposition of a
sentence logically follows from the sentence and also its negation. From the two concepts, it
can be understood that the concepts deal with the truth of presupposition and also the
negation of the sentence.
Based on the concepts, semanticists, including Saeed (2009) can construe two approaches
used in a presupposition. The first approach is from semantic point of view. Sentences are
viewed as external objects and meaning is as an attribute of sentences. The semantic
presupposition is related to conventional aspects of the meanings of specific words and
constructions. The second approach is from the pragmatic point of view. It views sentences as
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the utterance of individuals engaged in communication. The pragmatic presupposition is
purely speaker actions. In other words, the importance of the approaches to presupposition is
to know the listener’s knowledge. The examples of presupposition can be seen below.
a. John’s brother has just gotten back from Lagos.
b. >>John has a brother.
The sentence (a) presupposes the sentence (b) and it can be explained that John has a brother
is part of the assumed background of John’s brother has just got back from Lagos. The
symbol ‘>>’ indicates “presupposes”.
A composite truth table for presupposition can be used to explain this. Lyons (1995)
describes that presupposition is a relation between p and q in which p and q are the variables.
The symbol for the relation of presupposition is an arrow (→).
Composite Truth Table for Presupposition
Presupposition
P Q
T → T
F → T
T or F ← T
The table above shows that if p (the presupposing sentence) is true then q (the presupposed
sentence) is true, but if p is false, then q is still true. Then, if q is true, p can be either true or
false. From the example, it is true that John’s brother has come back from Lagos, and it is
also true that John has a brother. If it is false that John’s brother has come back from Lagos,
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the presupposition that John has a brother still survives. Finally, if it is true that John has a
brother, it does not tell anything about whether he has comeback from Lagos or not.
2.3.1 Types of Presupposition
Yule (2000: 27) claims that presupposition has been associated with the use of a large
number of words, phrases, and structures. These linguistic forms are considered to be
indicators of potential presupposition, which can only become actual presupposition in
context with speakers. Thus, he states six types of presupposition, they are; existential
presupposition, active presupposition, lexical presupposition, structural presupposition, non-
factive presupposition and counter factual presupposition.
2.4.1.1 Existential Presupposition
It is the assumption assumed to be committed to the existence of the entities named by the
speaker and assumed to be present in possessive constructions and the noun phrases. We can
consider the following examples in Yule (1996:28):
a. Jane’s house is new. >> Jane has a house.
b. My mother’s dress is dirty. >> My mother exists and that she has a dress.
c. The king of Persia is old. >> There is a king of Persia.
d. Àdìgún ra ilè ̣ sÍbàdàn. >> Àdìgùn ní ilè ̣ nÍbàdàn
e. Wó ṇ ṣí fásitì náà wá sí Àkùngbá. >> Fásitì wà ní Àkùngbá
In addition, the use of a proper name like Jane, or an NP like the king of Persia and Àdìgún
presupposes the existence of the entities named (Yule, 1996:28).
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2.4.1.2 Active Presupposition
In this type, the use of one form with its stated meaning is conventionally interpreted with the
presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is expressed.
Verbs like, manage, stop, forget, remember, neglect, fail, and bother are some verbs that are
used in this type in English.
a. She stopped smoking. >> She used to smoke.
b. Jane forgot to pay the bill. >> She did not pay the bill.
c. Fúnmi ò kó ṣe
̣ ́ ̣ mó .̣ >> Fúnmi ń kó ṣe
̣ ́ ̣ té ḷ è ̣
In sentence (a), the asserted meaning is that she succeeded in quitting smoking and in
sentence (b), it is asserted that the act was unintentional. In sentence (c), the asserted meaning
is that Fúnmi is no longer an apprentice. So, the use of a particular expression is taken to
presuppose another concept (Yule, 1996:28).
2.4.1.3 Factive Presupposition
It is the assumption that is true and can be identified by some verbs such as know, realize,
regret, be, aware, odd, and glad. According to Saeed (2009:107), factive verbs are verb
phrases that presuppose the truth of their complement clause. They are also called factives
because the presupposed information that is following the verbs can be treated as a fact. See
the below examples (Saeed, 2009:107):
a. Michael didn’t realize that Cano was wrong. >> Cano was wrong.
b. Cano regrets telling us. >> Cano told us.
c. Hawila is glad that is over. >> It is over.
d. Mo mó ̣ pé ó rí mi. >> Ó rí mi
e. Làmídì rí i pé ó dirun. >> Ó dirun
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2.4.1.4 Non-factive Presupposition
It is the assumption that is assumed not to be true and which is identified by presence of some
verbs such as dream, imagine, claim, suppose, suggest, believe, and assume. Consider the
following examples (Yule, 1996:30):
a. I dreamt that I was rich. >> I was not rich.
b. We imagined that we were in Hawaii. >> We were not in Hawaii.
c. He pretended to be ill. >> He was not ill
d. A rò pé ó lọ. >> Kò lọ
e. Ṣọlá lá àlá pé òun ra mó tò.

̣ >> Ṣọlá ò ra mó tò
̣
2.4.1.5 Structural Presupposition
It is the assumption that is associated with the use of certain words and phrases and assumed
to be true, for example, WH question construction in English are conventionally interpreted
with the presupposition that the information after wh-form is already known to be the case.
Consider the following examples in (Mohammed, 2009:77):
a. When did he leave? >> He left.
b. Where did you buy the bike? >> You bought the bike.
c. Did she wash the dishes? >> Either she washed or did not
An example of structural presupposition can also be found in Yorùbá:
d. Wó ṇ tún ti mú àwọn onígbèsè náà. >> Wó ṇ tí mú àwọn onígbèsè té ḷ è ̣
e. Kó lá
̣ tún ti sá lọ. >> Kó lá
̣ ti sá lọ té ḷ è ̣
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2.4.1.6 Counter Factual Presupposition
It is the assumption that what is presupposed is not only untrue, but it is opposite of what is
true, or contrary to fact. That is, these triggers presuppose the falsehood of the proposition in
the complement clause, as in the following examples (Siagian, Pangaribuan&Toruan2009:5):
a. If you were my friend, you would have helped me >> you are not my friend.
b. If I were not busy, I would have helped you. >> I am busy.
An example of counter factual presupposition can also be found in Yorùbá:
c. Bi mo bá lówó, màá kó lé.

̣ >> Mi ò lówó
d. Bí ààrẹ bá dé, a fún wa níṣé .̣ >> Ààrẹ ò tí ì dé.
2.5 Empirical Review
Different researchers have studied semantic relations, and each researcher has focused on an
aspect of the semantic relations: Khalil (2002) in an article entitled ‘Entailment in Meaning’
studied entailment as the most central truth relation in semantics, as it is a type of semantic
dependence that holds between one sentence and another. However, this study did not study
the application of entailment in identity and inclusion relations in general, and it did not
present the cases where entailment can hold in these relations.
Marnala (2011) in his article “an analysis of entailment found in cosmetic and fast food
advertisement” reveals that there are two types of entailment used in cosmetic and fast food
advertisements which are one-way entailment which occurs 10 times in cosmetic and fast
food advertisements and two-way entailment which only occurs 6 times. He concluded by
saying that the dominant type of entailment in the advertisement was one-way entailment
with 10 times or 62.5%.
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Kozareva and Hovy (2012) in their study, “The Use of Semantic Relations in Newspaper
Headlines”, analyzed the use of semantic relations in a corpus of newspaper headlines. They
found that certain types of semantic relations, such as causation and temporal relations, were
more common in headlines than others.
Mirkin & Berant in their article “Recognising Entailment within Discourse” reveals that
discourse interacts with semantic entailment inference and that even rather simple methods
for addressing discourse can have a substantial positive impact on the performance of
entailment inference. Overall, they suggested that entailment systems should extensively
incorporate discourse information, while developing sound algorithms for addressing various
discourse phenomena.
Another study by Li and Zhang (2015), “The Role of Semantic Relations in Newspaper
Headlines” examined the use of semantic relations in Chinese newspaper headlines. They
found that certain types of semantic relations, such as coordination and causation, were more
frequently used in headlines than others.
The study of entailment analysis conducted by Yesi Rahmawati (2017) in “A Semantics
Analysis of Entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie” found one-way entailment, two-
way/mutual entailment, negative entailment, and metaphorical entailment in the movie. One-
way entailment reaches the highest frequency and negative entailment the least one to occur.
The most entailment found in the movie is ordered based on the foreground as it is applied 33
times. The author employs contexted clauses and context matching approaches to detect
entailment in the movie.
Guocai Zeng (2018) in their study, “The Effect of Presupposition and Entailment on Headline
Comprehension” found that headlines with clear presuppositions and strong entailments were
more easily comprehended by readers than those with weaker linguistic connections.
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Ilọri (2022) in his paper “The Semantics of Yorùbá Presupposition Triggers” reveals that the
negation of the set of propositions having the additive presupposition trigger, náà, cannot
entail such propositions but their corresponding negations. He futher stated that the
interpretation of certain factive verbs in the language may result in presupposition failure in
contexts where the experiencer referent in the main clause is not co-referential with the
subject of the embedded complementizer (pé-) clause. Lastly, he mentioned that the
presupposition triggered by the preverbal item sì ‘still, again’ may be entailed or non-
entailed; and survives under negation by entailing the negated form of the concerned
preposition.
In sum, semantic relations have received considerable attention from linguist and language
researchers, but the need to undertake further studies on the semantic relations in Yorùbá
newspaper headlines propels the necessity for this study. Thus, this study purports to add to
the world of knowledge broadly on semantic relations and specifically on Aláròyé newspaper
headlines by analyzing the semantic relations in the context of Aláròyé newspaper headlines.
It aims to do so by seeking an answer to a basic question: What are the semantic relations
found in Aláròyé newspaper headlines? What are the factors responsible for these semantic
relations in Alároyé newspaper headlines? And what are the differences and similarities
between these semantic relations found in Aláròyé newspaper headlines?
2.6 Summary
In this chapter so far, I have been able to review the existing literatures on the theories of
meaning where we examined the different theories of meaning as mentioned by Leopore in
his write up on “Semantics: Study of meaning” in Encyclopedia of Britannica. In like
manner, I explained semantic relations like entailment, it’s sources and types, and
42
presuppositions and its types. Also, I adopted the usage theory of meaning truth conditional
theory of meaning as the theoretical framework of this research.
43
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Preliminaries
This chapter focuses on the methods and procedures adopted for this research and they are
discussed under the following; methods of data collection, methods of data analysis, validity
of instrument used, reliability of instrument used, population and sample of the study.
3.1 Method of Data Collection
In order to study the analysis of semantic relations in Aláròyé newspaper headlines, the
weekly Aláròyé newspapers published between 6th of April, 2021 to 24th of August, 2021
were collected first. After the headlines were collected, the researcher performed data
reduction where data which considered unimportant for research were eliminated and the
researcher will only focus on the data which related with the research. The headlines of the
newspaper were then extracted which will serve as the primary data source for this research.
3.2 Method of Data Analysis
This research is analysed using the qualitative approach. According to Polkinghorne (2005:
137), “qualitative research is inquiry aimed at describing and clarifying human experience as
it appears in people’s life and researchers using qualitative approach gather data that serve as
evidence for their distilled description”. It means qualitative is a research approach where the
researcher presents the data using a description. The materials which can be analyzed using a
qualitative approach can be textbooks, newspapers, web pages, speeches, television
programs, advertisements, musical compositions, or any of a host of other types of
documents.
44
The researcher used some steps to analyse the 20 newspapers published between 6th of April
and 24th of August, 2021. Firstly, the researcher identified and classified the headlines that
contain the type of semantic relations (entailment and presupposition) into their respective
semantic relations. Secondly, the researcher analysed the semantic relations using a
qualitative research method. Lastly, the researcher made the conclusion about semantic
relations in Aláròyé newspaper headlines and made an important statement that covers all the
result of this research.
3.3 Validity of Instrument Used
Validation of instrument refers to the quality of data gathering instruments or procedures,
which measures what is supposed to be measured (Kothari, 2004). To ensure the validity of
the data for this study, the data was personally collected by the researcher. In doing this, the
researcher studied the headlines of the newspaper and the semantic relations were extracted
and analysed.
Also, to ensure the validity of the instrument used for this study; the data needed for this
research was presented to the supervisor for approval.
3.4 Reliability of Instrument Used
Reliability of instrument used is a way of ensuring that any instrument used for measuring
experimental variables gives the same result every time. A test can be valid but not reliable.
To ensure the reliability of the instrument used for this research, the results of the tests
conducted were re-evaluated to check whether it gives the same result. Also, the researcher
administers a second test different but equivalent to the first.
45
3.5 Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
The population is a region consisting of generalization objects /subjects that have certain
qualities and characteristics are determined by the researchers to learn and then be deduced
(Sugiyono 2011:61). It means the population can be subjects in one place that is investigated
by the researcher. The population of this study comprises of Aláròyé newspaper.
A sample is a smaller group of elements drawn through a definite procedure from an
accessible population. The sample is part of the amount or characteristics possessed by the
population. What is learned from the sample, the conclusion will be applied to the population
(Sugiyono 2011:62). The sample for the study consists of all the headlines of Alaròyé
newspaper headlines published between 6th of April, 2021to 24th of August, 2021 which
totals up to 240 headlines.
The sampling method adopted for selecting the newspaper analyzed was purposive sampling
method. Purposive sampling is taking the data by non random sampling. The researcher has
chosen the subject of the research that matched with the research goal (Sugiyono, 2010). The
purposive sampling method adopted helped to limit data to only those which are needed for
the purpose of this research, it classified the acquired data and selects the data required. In the
end, the information that is not needed was discarded.
3.6 Summary
This chapter has been able to describe the systematic procedures for data collection and data
analysis. The researcher has been able to explain the methods of data collection for this study.
Also, the researcher made known the method of data analysis and the validity of instrument
used, reliability of instrument used and the population and sample of the study.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Preliminaries
This chapter presents the analysis of the data collected through the use of the resources drawn
from headlines in Aláròyé newspaper. The chapter examines the semantic relations of the
headlines such as entailment and presupposition..
4.1 Entaiments in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines
4.1.1 Types of Entailment in Aláròyé newspaper headlines
There are two types of entailments which are background entailment and foreground
entailment. These two types of entailments are found in Aláròyé newspaper headlines.
4.1.1.1 Background Entailment
Data 1
a. Ajínigbé mé ̣ta kó só wo

̣ ́ ̣ ọló p̣ àá ní márosè ̣ Èkó s`Íbàdàn (P)
Three kidnappers got caught by the police at Lagos-Ibadan expressway
The headline above necessarily commits to the truth of a very large number of background
entailments i.e. some information related to the context of the headline can be generated since
there is no word that is being focused in the headline. The following propositions can be
deducted from the headline as the background entailment.
b. Awọn kan kó só wo

̣ ́ ̣ ọló pàá
̣ ní márosè ̣ Èkó s`Íbàdàn (Q)
Some people got caught by the police at Lagos-Ibadan expressway
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c. Ajínigbé mé ̣ta kó só wo
̣ ́ ̣ àwọn kan ní márosè ̣ Èkó s`Íbàdàn (R)
Three kidnappers got caught by some people at Lagos-Ibadan expressway
d. Nǹkan ṣẹlè ̣ ní márosè ̣ Èkó s`Íbàdàn (S)
Something happened at Lagos-Ibadan expressway
e. Ajínigbé mé ̣ta kó só wo

̣ ́ ̣ ọló p̣ àá níbikan
Three kidnappers got caught by the police somewhere
If the headline above is to be presented formally, it would be presented (in a basic way) as
P→ (Q, R, S, T). This is so because the headline P is committed to the truth of a large
number of background entailments (Q, R, S, T), even more than those included here.
Another example of a background entailment in Aláròyé newspaper headline is:
Data 2
a. Àwọn òyìnbó bínú pátápátá sí Bùhárí nítorí ìpakúpa tí wó ṇ ń pààyàn ní Nàìjíríà(P)
White people are angry at Buhari because of the merciless killings in Nigeria.
The headline above necessarily commits to the truth of a very large number of background
entailments i.e. some information related to the context of the headline can be generated since
there is no word that is being focused in the headline. The following propositions can be
deducted from the headline as the background entailment.
b. Àwọn kan bínú pátápátá sí Bùhárí nítorí ìpakúpa tí wó ṇ ń pààyàn ní Nàìjíríà(Q)
Some people are angry at Buhari because of the merciless killings in Nigeria.
c. Àwọn òyìnbó bínú pátápátá sí ààrẹ nítorí ìpakúpa tí wó ṇ ń pààyàn ní Nàìjíríà(R)
White people are angry at the president because of the merciless killings in
Nigeria
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d. Àwọn òyìnbó bínú pátápátá nítorí ìṣè ḷ è ̣ kan ní Nàìjíríà(S)
White people are angry because of an occurrence in Nigeria.
If the headline above is to be presented formally, it would be presented as P→ (Q, R, S). This
is so because the headline P is committed to the truth of a large number of background
entailments (Q, R, S), even more than those included here.
Based on the examples of background entailments in Aláròyé newspaper headlines presented
above, it is apparent that the necessity for background entailment in Aláròyé newspaper
headline constrains the writers of the headline to give a background information regarding the
headline.
4.1.1.2 Foreground Entailment
Data 3
a. BÀBÁ ÌJẸ̀ṢÀ pàdánù iṣé ̣ olówó ńlá látàrí è ṣ ùn ìfipábánilòpò ̣ (P)
BÀBÁ ÌJẸ̀ṢÀ lost a huge contract following a rape allegation
There are some occasions where headline writers prioritize certain entailments first,
depending on the information they want the reader to notice first in the headline. This is
usually done by stressing certain parts of the proposition, indicating which part of the
proposition (headline) are the most relevant for the readers. In the headline above, it can be
observed that the focus of the headline is on Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à, it indicates that it is Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à that
lost a huge contract, therefore the foreground entailment of the headline will be:
b. Ẹnìkan pàdánù iṣé ̣ olówó ńlá látàrí è ṣ ùn ìfipábánilòpò ̣ (Q)
Somepne lost a huge contract following a rape allegation
However, if the focus of the headline is shifted to “iṣé ̣ olówó ńlá” (huge contract) in the
headline above, the foreground entailment will be:
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c. Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à pàdánù nǹkan látàrí è ṣ ùn ìfipábánilòpò ̣ (R)
Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
̣ lost something following a rape allegation
Another example of foreground entailment in Aláròyé newspaper headline is:
Data 4
a. ÀWỌN AṢỌ́BODÈ ÀTI ÌJỌBA ń fi àyè w

̣ ò Kòrónà lu aráàlú ní jìbìtì ni o – Kúnlé
Afọláyan (P)
CUSTOM OFFICERS AND THE GOVERNMENT is using Corona testing to scam
citizens – Kúnlé Afọláyan
In the headline above, it can be observed that the focus of the headline is on àwọn aṣó bodè
̣ àti
ìjọba, it indicates that it is the custom officers and the government that are scamming the
citizens, therefore the foreground entailment of the headline will be:
b. Àwọn kan ń fi àyè w

̣ ò Kòrónà lu aráàlú ní jìbìtì ni o – Kúnlé Afọláyan (Q)
Some individuals are using Corona testing to scam citizens – Kúnlé Afọláyan
However, if the focus of the headline is shifted to “àyè w

̣ ò Kòrónà” in the headline above, the
foreground entailment will be:
c. Àwọn aṣó bodè

̣ àti ìjọba ń fi nǹkan lu aráàlú ní jìbìtì ni o – Kúnlé Afọláyan (R)
Custom officers and the government is using something to scam citizens – Kúnlé
Afọláyan
4.1.2 Sources of Entailment in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines
The sources of entailments could either be lexical or syntactic but syntactic source of
entailment cannot be found in Yorùbá because Yorùbá language does not attest passivisation
50
or passive constructions. Therefore, this analysis will only examine one source of entailment;
lexical sources of entailment.
4.1.2.1 Lexical Source of Entailment (Hyponymy) in Aláròyé newspaper headlines
Data 5
a. Ìjọba fé ẹ ́ ̣ fi ọgbó ṇ mú Sunday Ìgbòho àti àwọn àgbààgbà tí wó ṇ jọ ń jókòó (P)
The government wants to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that sit
together with him
b. Wó ṇ fé ẹ ́ ̣ fi ọgbó ṇ mú Sunday Ìgbòho àti àwọn àgbààgbà tí wó ṇ jọ ń jókòó (Q)
They want to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that sit together with
him
As seen from the data above, the first sentence (entailing sentence) necessarily entails or
implies the second sentence (entailed sentence). The sentence P holds a truth value, and the
truth of Q follows logically from the truth of P. That is, if the proposition “The government
wants to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that sit together with him” is true, then,
“They want to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that sit together with him” is also
true. If the truth of Q necessarily follows the truth of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q).
However, the falsity of Q also necessarily follows the falsity of P. This can be exemplified
below as (c) and (d):
c. Ìjọba ko fé ẹ ́ ̣ fi ọgbó ṇ mú Sunday Ìgbòho àti àwọn àgbààgbà tí wó ṇ jọ ń jókòó (P)
The government does not want to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that
sit together with him
d. Wó ṇ ko fé ẹ ́ ̣ fi ọgbó ṇ mú Sunday Ìgbòho àti àwọn àgbààgbà tí wó ṇ jọ ń jókòó (Q)
They don’t want to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that sit together
with him
51
As exemplified in the data above, if Q is the entailing sentence and P is the entailed sentence,
then the falsity of Q is the falsity of P. That is, if they do not want to craftily arrest Sunday
Ìgbòho and the elders that sit together with him, then it means that the government does not
want to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that sit together with him.
From the foregoing, it can be summarised that since the truth of P is also the truth of Q and
the falsity of Q is also the falsity of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q) and Q entails P (P ← Q).
A composite truth table can be used to explain this according to Saeed (2009):
Table 2: A composite truth table for entailment
P Q
T → T
F ← F
From the table above, the arrows (→ and ←) are to show the direction of a relation
“if…then…”. Then, the first line above can be read a “if P is true, then Q is true”, and the last
line can also be read as “if Q is false, then P is also false”. The table also shows that only the
other sentence.
However, if it is the case that “Ìjọba fé ẹ ́ ̣ fi ọgbọ́n mú Sunday Ìgbòho àti àwọn àgbààgbà tí
wọ́n jọ ń jókòó” (P) is false, then the entailed Q does not necessarily hold any entailing
relation to P, as Huang’s (2007:16) definition of entailment stated that “P entails Q, if and
only if (iff) the truth of P guarantees the truth of Q”. They might want to craftily arrest
Sunday Ìgbòho and the elders that sit together with him but that does not necessarily mean
that it is the government that wants to arrest him and the elders that sit together with him, so
there is not a clear relation between P and Q, therefore rendering this entailment invalid.
52
In the case of Q being false, if they do not want to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho and the
elders that sit together with him, then it must mean that the government does not want to
craftily arrest him and the elders that sit together with him, making it also hold a false value.
Nonetheless, when the second proposition Q is decoded first and holds a true value, this does
not imply the necessary truth value accordance in P, meaning that the entailments does not
necessarily take effect.
A composite truth table can be used to explain this:
P Q
F → T or F
T or F ← T
The conclusion that can be drawn from the table and the explanation above is that the
entailing relation between propositions will not automatically occur when P has a false truth
value, or Q has a true truth-value. This openness is what the table above presents as “T or F”.
The data a-d shows the relationship between ìjọba and wọ́n, this is a case of hyponymy.
Data 6
a. Blessing pa ìyá rè ̣ sínú oko n`Ílè -̣ Olújí, ó ní ò ro

̣ ̀ ̣ pásítò ̣ ṣó ọ ̀ sì
̣ àwọn lòun tè ḷ é (P)
Blessing killed his mother inside a farm in Ilè -Olúji,

̣ he said that he followed his
church pastor’s instruction
b. Ìyá Blessing kú sínú oko n`Ílè -̣ Olújí (Q)
Blessing’s mother died inside farm in Ílè -Olújí

̣
53
From the data presented above, it can be observed that the entailing sentence (P) necessarily
implies the entailed sentence (Q). The entailing sentence (P) holds a truth value, and the truth
of Q follows logically from the truth of P. That is, if “Blessing pa ìyá rè ̣ sínú oko n`Ílè -Olújí,
̣
ó ní ọ̀rọ̀ pásítọ̀ ṣọ́ọ̀sì àwọn lòun tè lé”

̣ is true, then, “Ìyá Blessing kú sínú oko n`Ílè -Olújí”
̣ is
also true. If the truth of Q necessarily follows the truth of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q).
c. Blessing kò pa ìyá rè ̣ sínú oko n`Ílè -̣ Olújí, ó ní ò ro

̣ àwọn lòun tè ḷ é (P)
Blessing did not kill his mother inside a farm in Ilè -Olúji,
̣ he said that he followed his
church pastor’s instruction
d. Ìyá Blessing kò kú sínú oko n`Ílè -̣ Olújí (Q)
Blessing’s mother did not die inside farm in Ílè -Olújí

̣
As exemplified in the data above, if Q is the entailing sentence and P is the entailed sentence,
then the falsity of Q is the falsity of P. That is, if Blessing did not kill his mother inside a
farm in Ilè -Olúji,

̣ then it means that Blessing’s mother did not die inside farm in Ílè -Olújí.
̣
the falsity of Q is also the falsity of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q) and also, Q entails P (P ←
Q).
A composite truth table can be used to demonstrate this:
P Q
T → T
F ← F
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other sentence.
However, if it is the case that “Blessing pa ìyá rè ̣ sínú oko n`Ílè -Olújí,
̣ ó ní ọ̀rọ̀ pásítọ̀ ṣọ́ọ̀sì
àwọn lòun tè lé”

̣ (P) is false, then the entailed Q does not necessarily hold any entailing
relation to P, as Huang’s (2007:16) definition of entailment stated that “P entails Q, if and
only if (iff) the truth of P guarantees the truth of Q”. Blessing’s mother might have died
inside the farm in Ílè -̣ Olújí but that does not necessarily mean that it was Blessing that killed
her, so there is not a clear relation between P and Q, therefore rendering this entailment
invalid.
In the case of Q being false, if Blessing’s mother did not die inside farm in Ílè -Olújí,
̣ then it
must mean that Blessing did not kill his mother inside a farm in Ilè -Olújí,
̣ making it also hold
a false value. Nonetheless, when the second proposition Q is decoded first and holds a true
value, this does not imply the necessary truth value accordance in P, meaning that the
entailments does not necessarily take effect.
P Q
F → T or F
T or F ← T
55
The conclusion that can be drawn from the table and the explanation given above is that the
The data a-d shows the relationship between pa and kú, this is a case of hyponymy.
Data 7
a. Tírélà tẹ ọmọ pa lỌ̀́báǹtokò P
Trailer ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò
b. Nǹkan tẹ ọmọ pa lỌ̀́báǹtokò Q
Something ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò
It can be observed from the data presented above that the entailing sentence (P) necessarily
of Q follows logically from the truth of P. That is, if “Tírélà tẹ ọmọ pa lỌ̀́ báǹtokò” is true,
then, “Nǹkan tẹ ọmọ pa lỌ̀́ báǹtokò” is also true. If the truth of Q necessarily follows the
truth of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q).
c. Tírélà kò tẹ ọmọ pa lỌ̀́báǹtokò P
Trailer did not run over a child at Ọbáǹtokò
d. Nǹkànkan kò tẹ ọmọ pa lỌ̀́báǹtoko Q
Nothing ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò
As seen in the data above, if Q is the entailing sentence and P is the entailed sentence, then
the falsity of Q is the falsity of P. That is, if nothing ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò, then it
means that trailer did not run over a child at Ọbáǹtokò.
56
the falsity of Q is also the falsity of P, then Pentails Q (P→ Q) and also, Q entails P (P ←
Q).
P Q
T → T
F ← F
“if…then…”. Then, the first line above can be read a “if Pis true, then Qis true”, and the last
line can also be read as “if Qis false, then P is also false”. The table also shows that only the
other sentence.
However, if it is the case that “Trailer ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò” (P) is false, then the
entailed Q does not necessarily hold any entailing relation to P, as Huang’s (2007:16)
definition of entailment stated that “P entails Q, if and only if (iff) the truth of P guarantees
the truth of Q”. A trailer might not have ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò but that does not
necessarily mean that nothing ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò, so there is not a clear relation
between P and Q, therefore rendering this entailment invalid.
In the case of Q being false, if nothing ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò, then it must mean that
trailer did not run over a child at Ọbáǹtokò, making it also hold a false value. Nonetheless,
when the second proposition Q is decoded first and holds a true value, this does not imply the
necessary truth value accordance in P, meaning that the entailments does not necessarily take
57
effect. That is, something could run over a child at Ọbáǹtokò but it might not necessarily
mean that it was a trailer.
P Q
F → T or F
T or F ← T
The data a-d shows the relationship between tírélà and nǹkan, this is a case of hyponymy.
Data 8
a. Àwọn agbébọn jí èèyàn mé ṭ a gbé nílùú Òṣú P
Gunmen kidnapped three people in Òṣú
b. Àwọn kan jí èèyàn mé ṭ a gbé nílùú Òṣú Q
Some people kidnapped three people in Òṣú
of Q follows logically from the truth of P. That is, if “Àwọn agbébọn jí èèyàn mé ta
̣ gbé nílùú
Òṣú” is true, then, “Àwọn kan jí èèyàn mé ta

̣ gbé nílùú Òṣú” is also true. If the truth of Q
necessarily follows the truth of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q).
58
c. Àwọn agbébọn kò jí èèyàn mé ṭ a gbé nílùú Òṣú P
Gunmen did not kidnap three people in Òṣú
d. Àwọn kan kò jí èèyàn mé ṭ a gbé nílùú Òṣú Q
Some people did not kidnap three people in Òṣú
the falsity of Q is the falsity of P. That is, if some people did not kidnap three people in Òṣú,
then it means that gunmen did not kidnap three people in Òṣú.
Q).
P Q
T → T
F ← F
other sentence.
59
However, if it is the case that “gunmen kidnapped three people in Òṣú” (P) is false, then the
the truth of Q”. Some people might not have kidnapped three people in Òṣú but that does not
necessarily mean that gunmen did not kidnap three people in Òṣú, so there is not a clear
relation between P and Q, therefore rendering this entailment invalid.
In the case of Q being false, if some people did not kidnap three people in Òṣú, then it must
mean that gunmen did not kidnap three people in Òṣú, making it also hold a false value.
Nonetheless, when the second proposition Q is decoded first and holds a true value, this does
not imply the necessary truth value accordance in P, meaning that the entailments does not
necessarily take effect. That is, some people could have kidnapped three people in Òṣú but it
might not necessarily mean that it was gunmen that kidnapped the three people.
P Q
F → T or F
T or F ← T
The data a-d shows the relationship between Àwọn agbébọn and Àwọn kan, this is also case
of hyponymy.
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Data 9
a. Àwọn ọmọ ẹgbé ̣ òkùnkùn pa èèyàn mé ṭ a l`Óṣogbo P
Cultists kill three people in Òṣogbo
b. Àwọn èèyàn mé ṭ a kú ní Óṣogbo Q
Three people died in Òṣogbo
of Q follows logically from the truth of P. That is, if “Àwọn ọmọ ẹgbé ̣ òkùnkùn pa èèyàn
mé ta
̣ l`Óṣogbo” is true, then, “Àwọn èèyàn mé ta
̣ kú ní Óṣogbo” is also true. If the truth of Q
necessarily follows the truth of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q).
c. Àwọnọmọ ẹgbé ̣ òkùnkùn kò pa èèyàn mé ṭ a l`Óṣogbo P
Cultists did not kill three people in Òṣogbo
d. Àwọnèèyàn mé ṭ a kò kú ní Óṣogbo Q
Three people did not die in Òṣogbo
the falsity of Q is the falsity of P. That is, if cultists did not kill three people in Òṣogbo, then
it means that three people did not die in Òṣogbo.
the falsity of Q is also the falsity of P, then Pentails Q (P→ Q) and also, Q entails P (P ←
Q).
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P Q
T → T
F ← F
other sentence.
However, if it is the case that “cultists kill three people in Òṣogbo” (P) is false, then the
the truth of Q”. Three people might have died in Òṣogbo but that does not necessarily mean
that it was gunmen that killed them, so there is not a clear relation between P and Q, therefore
rendering this entailment invalid.
In the case of Q being false, if three people did not die in Òṣogbo, then it must mean that
cultists did not kill three people in Òṣogbo, making it also hold a false value. Nonetheless,
when the second proposition Q is decoded first and holds a true value, this does not imply the
necessary truth value accordance in P, meaning that the entailments does not necessarily take
effect.
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P Q
F → T or F
T or F ← T
Data 10
a. Àwọn àgbààgbà Yorùbá péjú síbi ìsìnkú YínkaÒdúmákin P
Yorùbá elders were present at Yínká Òdúmákin’s burial
b. Àwọn ènìyàn péjú síbi ìsìnkú YínkaÒdúmákin Q
People were present at Yínká Òdúmákin’s burial
of Q follows logically from the truth of P. That is, if “Àwọn àgbààgbà Yorùbá péjú síbi
ìsìnkú Yínka Òdúmákin” is true, then, “Àwọn ènìyàn péjú síbi ìsìnkú Yínka Òdúmákin” is
also true. If the truth of Q necessarily follows the truth of P, then P entails Q (P→ Q).
a. Àwọn àgbààgbà Yorùbá kò péjú síbi ìsìnkú Yínka Òdúmákin P
Yorùbá elders were not present at Yínká Òdúmákin’s burial
b. Àwọn ènìyàn péjú kò síbi ìsìnkú Yínka Òdúmákin Q
People were not present at Yínká Òdúmákin’s burial
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the falsity of Q is the falsity of P. That is, if cultists did not kill three people in Òṣogbo, then
it means that three people did not die in Òṣogbo.
Q).
P Q
T → T
F ← F
other sentence.
4.2 Presupposition in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines
4.2.1 Types of Presupposition in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines
There are six types of presupposition and these six types were identified in Aláròyé
newspaper headlines. They are factive presupposition, existential presupposition, counter-
factual presupposition, structural presupposition, non-factive presupposition and active
presupposition.
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4.2.1.1 Factive Presupposition
Data 11
1. Ojúṣe ìjọba àpapò ̣ ni láti tó jú

̣ gbogbo è ỵ à, bí wó ṇ ṣẹ ń ṣègbè lé ỵ ìn àwọn kan kò dára
tó – Ẹlé ṛ ìnmọ (P)
It is the duty of the federal government to cater to every tribe/ethnic groups, it is not
good enough how they are being bias towards one group – Ẹlé rìnmọ
̣
2. >>Ìjọba àpapò ̣ kò tó jú

̣ gbogbo è ỵ à (Q)
The federal government did not cater to all tribe/ethnic groups
From the data presented above, it can be observed that the first sentence (P) presupposes the
second sentence (Q) and it can be explained that Ìjọba àpapọ̀ kò tọ́jú gbogbo è yà
̣ is part of the
assumed background of Ojúṣe ìjọba àpapọ̀ ni láti tọ́jú gbogbo è yà,

̣ bí wọ́n ṣẹ ń ṣègbè lé yìn
̣
àwọn kan kò dára tó. The sentence P and Q above is categorized as factive presupposition
because it is triggered by the phrase “Ojúṣe ìjọba àpapò ̣ ni...” to refer to the reality or facts
that it is really the duty of the government to cater to every tribe/ethnic groups. The use of
this phrase indicates that what follow is facts. The symbol ‘>>’ indicates “presupposes”.
A composite truth table for presupposition can be used to explain the presupposition in
proposition P and Q:
Table 14: Composite Truth Table for Presupposition
P Q
T → T
F → T
T or F ← T
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The table above shows that if P (the presupposing sentence) is true then Q (the presupposed
sentence) is true but if P is false, then Q is still true. Then, if Q is true, P can be either true or
false. From the example, it is true that it is the duty of the federal government to cater to
every tribe/ethnic group, it is not good enough how they are being bias towards one group,
and it is also true that the federal government did not cater to all tribe/ethnic group. If it is
false that it is the duty of the federal government to cater to every tribe/ethnic group, it is not
good enough how they are being bias towards one group, the presupposition that the federal
government did not cater to all tribe/ethnic group still survives. Finally, if it is true that the
federal government did not cater to all tribe/ethnic group, it does not tell us anything about
whether it is the duty of the federal government to cater to every tribe/ethnic group or not.
4.2.1.2 Existential Presupposition
Data 12
a. Òkèlè ńlá tó nira láti gbé mì ni ikú Yínká Òdúmákin – Ọò ṇ i
Yínká Òdúmákin’s death is a bitter pill to swallow – Ọọ̀ni
b. >>Yínká Òdúmákin ti kú
Yínká Òdúmákin is dead
As seen in the data above, first sentence (P) presupposes the second sentence (Q) and it can
be explained that Yínká Òdúmákin is dead is part of the assumed background of Òkèlè ńlá tó
nira láti gbé mì ni ikú Yínká Òdúmákin. The sentence P and Q above is categorized as
existential presupposition because it assumes the existentiality of Yínká Òdúmákin. The use
of the name “Yínká Òdúmákin” and death in the data presupposes the existence of the person
named. The symbol ‘>>’ in proposition Q indicates “presupposes”.
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P Q
T → T
F → T
T or F ← T
The table above shows that if P (the presupposing sentence) is true then Q(the presupposed
false. From the example, it is true that Yínká Òdúmákin’s death is a bitter pill to swallow, and
it is also true that Yínká Òdúmákin is dead. If it is false that Yínká Òdúmákin’s death is a
bitter pill to swallow i.e. if Yínká Òdúmákin’s death is not a bitter pill to swallow, the
presupposition that Yínká Òdúmákin is dead still survives. Finally, if it is true that Yínká
Òdúmákin is dead, it does not tell us anything about whether Yínká Òdúmákin’s death is a
bitter pill to swallow or not.
4.2.1.3 Counter-factual Presupposition
Data 13
a. Bí aríran kan bá sọ pé ìbò máa wáyé ní 2023, Yorùbá sì máa wà níbè ,̣ iró ̣ ńlá ni –
Sunday Ìgbòho (P)
If a soothsayer says that an election will hold in 2023, and Yorùbá will be there, it is a
big lie – Sunday Ìgbòho
b. >>Ìbò yẹ ko wáyé ní 2023 (Q)
An election ought to hold in 2023
In the data presented above, the proposition P presupposes the proposition Q and it can be
explained that Ìbò yẹ ko wáyé ní 2023 is part of the assumed background of Bí aríran kan bá
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sọ pé ìbò máa wáyé ní 2023, Yorùbá sì máa wà níbè ,̣ irọ́ ńlá ni. The two propositions above
can be categorized as counter-factual presupposition. Based on Yule’s theory, counter-factual
presupposition has a meaning that what is presupposed is not only true but it is the opposite
of what is true (contrary to facts). The sentence “Bí aríran kan bá sọ pé ìbò máa wáyé ní
2023, Yorùbá sì máa wà níbè ,̣ irọ́ ńlá ni” and “Ìbò yẹ ko wáyé ní 2023” is contrary to the fact
that an election will hold in 2023. The trigger in sentence P initiates the falsehood of the
proposition with the complement clause “Bí aríran kan bá sọ pé ìbò máa wáyé ní
2023...”According to Yule, the characteristic of counterfactual presupposition is identified by
IF-clauses.
The symbol ‘>>’ in proposition Q indicates “presupposes”.
P Q
T → T
F → T
T or F ← T
false. From the example, it is true that if a soothsayer says that an election will hold in 2023,
and Yorùbá will be there, it is a big lie, and it is also true that an election ought to hold in
2023. If it is false that if a soothsayer says that an election will hold in 2023, and Yorùbá will
be there, it is a big lie i.e. if a soothsayer did not say that an election will hold in 2023, the
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presupposition that an election ought to hold in 2023 still survives. Finally, if it is true that an
election will hold in 2023, it does not tell us anything about whether if a soothsayer says that
an election will hold in 2023, and Yorùbá will be there, is a big lie or not.
4.2.1.4 Structural Presupposition
Data 14
a. Àwọn agbébọn tún jí ọmọléèwé mé ẹ ̀ ẹ ́ ḍ ógún kó ní Zamfara (P)
Gunmen have kidnapped fifteen school children in Zamfara again
b. >>Àwọn agbébọn ti jí ọmọléèwé kó té ḷ è ̣ (Q)
Gunmen have kidnapped school children before
The first proposition P presupposes the second proposition Q in the data above, it can be
explained that àwọn agbébọn ti jí ọmọléèwé kó té le

̣ ̀ ̣ is part of the assumed background of
àwọn agbébọntún jí ọmọléèwé mé ẹ ̀ ẹ ́ dógún

̣ kó ní Zamfara. The propositions above can be
categorized as structural presupposition. Structural presupposition is the assumption from a
certain sentence structure where the information presented in the sentence is already
considered as the truth (Yule, 1996). The part of the sentence structure contains words and
phrases. The speaker can use such structures to treat information as presupposed and accepted
it to be true by the listener. The writer of this headline assumes that the readers already know
that school children have been kidnapped before, hence the reason for the structure of the
headline. The trigger for this presupposition is “tún” which means again.
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P Q
T → T
F → T
T or F ← T
false. From the example, it is true that gunmen have kidnapped fifteen school children in
Zamfara again, and it is also true that gunmen have kidnapped school children before. If it is
false that gunmen have kidnapped fifteen school children in Zamfara again i.e. if gunmen
have not kidnapped fifteen school children in Zamfara again, the presupposition that gunmen
have kidnapped school children before still survives. Finally, if it is true that gunmen have
kidnapped school children before, it does not tell us anything about whether gunmen have
kidnapped fifteen school children in Zamfara again or not.
4.2.1.5 Non-factive Presupposition
Data 15
a. Wó ṇ ní nítorí Sunday Ìgbòho l`Ọbásanjó ̣ ṣe ṣàbè w

̣ ò sílè ̣ Bè ṇ nè ̣ (P)
They said Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin because of Sunday Ìgbòho
b. >>Ọbásanjó ̣ ṣàbè w
̣ ò sílè ̣ Bè ṇ nè ̣ (Q)
Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin
explained that Ọbásanjó ̣ ṣàbè w

̣ ò sílè ̣ Bè ṇ nè ̣ is part of the assumed background of wọ́n ní
nítorí Sunday Ìgbòho l`Ọbásanjó ̣ ṣe ṣàbè wò

̣ sílè ̣ Bè nne
̣ ̀ .̣ The propositions above can be
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categorized as non-factive presupposition. Non-factive presupposition is the assumption that
is assumed to be untrue. It can be identified by words like imagine, pretend, dream, etc. The
use of “wọ́n ní” in wọ́n ní nítorí Sunday Ìgbòho l`Ọbásanjó ̣ ṣe ṣàbè wò

̣ sílè ̣ Bè nne
̣ ̀ ̣ which could
mean “they said” or “apparently” shows that the assumption is not true based on facts unlike
factive presupposition.
P Q
T → T
F → T
T or F ← T
false. From the example, it is true that they said Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin because of
Sunday Ìgbòho, and it is also true that Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin. If it is false that they
said Ọbásanjọ́ paid a visit to Benin because of Sunday Ìgbòho i.e. if they did not say
Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin because of Sunday Ìgbòho, the presupposition that Ọbásanjó ̣
paid a visit to Benin still survives. Finally, if it is true that Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin, it
does not tell us anything about whether they said Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin because of
Sunday Ìgbòho or not.
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4.2.1.6 Active Presupposition
Data 16
a. Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à kọ óúnjẹ sílè ̣ láhàámó ̣ ọlọpàá (P)
Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
̣ refuses to eat in police custody
b. >>Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à wà láhàámó ̣ ọlọpàá (Q)
Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
̣ was in police custody
explained that Bàbá Ìjè ṣà

̣ wà láhàámọ́ ọlọpàá is part of the assumed background of Bàbá
Ìjè ṣà
̣ kọ óúnjẹ sílè ̣ láhàámọ́ ọlọpàá. The propositions above can be categorized as active
presupposition. In active presupposition, the use of one form with its stated meaning is
conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is
expressed. In sentence P, the asserted meaning is that Bàbá Ìjè ṣà

̣ refuses to eat in police
custody and in sentence Q, it is asserted that Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à was in police custody. So, the use of
a particular expression is taken to presuppose another concept (Yule, 1996:28).
P Q
T → T
F → T
T or F ← T
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false. From the example, it is true that Bàbá Ìjè ṣà

̣ refuses to eat in police custody, and it is
also true that Bàbá Ìjè ṣà

̣ was in police custody. If it is false that Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
̣ refuses to eat in
police custody i.e. if Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à did not refuse to eat in police custody, the presupposition that
Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
̣ was in police custody still survives. Finally, if it is true that Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
̣ refuses to
eat in police custody, it does not tell us anything about whether Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
police custody or not.
4.3 Similarities and Differences between Entailment and Presupposition in Aláròyé
Newspaper Headlines
The difference between entailment and presupposition in Aláròyé newspaper headlines can be
proved by using a negation test. When an entailing sentence is negated, it cannot entail the
subsequent propositions. However, when a presupposing sentence is negated, it still follows
the subsequent propositions. These two semantic relations hold between sentences in the
headlines of Aláròyé newspaper headlines. For example:
Data 17
̣ lỌ̀́tà (P)
1. Wó ṇ yìnbọn pa tọkọ-tìyàwó mó lé
They shot a couple dead in their house in Ọ̀ tà
2. Tọkọ-tìyàwó kú lỌ̀́tà (Q)
A couple is dead in Ọ̀ tà
The headline above can be negated. Negating proposition P above simply means that
proposition Q can be either true or false. In other words, the entailment fails i.e. it does not
entail the subsequent propositions. Therefore, for example saying that They did not shoot a
couple dead in their house in Ọ̀ tà leaves completely open the question of whether or not a
73
couple is dead in Ọ̀tà. Nevertheless, this would not be so if the relationship was one of
presupposition. In the headline below, the proposition P presupposes (assumes) the truth of
Q:
Data 18
a. Wó ṇ ti sìnkú Pásítò ̣ Dáre, ọmọ Bàbá Adébóyè (P)
They have buried Pastor Dáre, the child of Bàbá Adébóyè
b. Pásítò ̣ Dáre, ọmọ Bàbá Adébóyè kú (Q)
Pásítọ̀ Dáre, the child of Bàbá Adébóyè died
But even if the proposition P is negated in the headline above, the presupposition survives in
proposition Q i.e. it still follows the subsequent propositions. For example, saying that they
have not buried Pastor Dáre, the child of Bàbá Adébóyè does not rule out the fact that Pásítọ̀
Dáre, the child of Bàbá Adébóyè died. Therefore, it can be argued that the difference between
presupposition and entailment in Aláròyé newspaper headlines is that denying the
presupposing sentence (headline) does not affect the presupposition whereas negating the
entailing sentence destroys the entailment.
The similarity between presupposition and entailment in Aláròyé newspaper headlines is that
the so-called presuppositions are just background entailments i.e. among the background
entailments that can be inferred from a headline, presupposition will always be one of them.
For instance the sentence wọ́n ti sìnkú Pásítọ̀ Dáre, ọmọ Bàbá Adébóyè has the same structure
of background entailments as the proposition Pásítọ̀ Dáre, ọmọ Bàbá Adébóyè kú. The
alleged presupposition is simply the first background entailment, hence the statement
indicates that Pásítọ̀ Dáre, ọmọ Bàbá Adébóyè kú.
4.4 Summary
A great deal of the problems of communication in Yorùbá newspaper headlines derives from
the misinterpretation of the grammatical and sentential meaning. It is always profitable to
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explore the full range of meaning from the point of view of grammar and sentence. This we
have attempted in this chapter. In this chapter, we have studied semantic relations in Aláròyé
newspaper headlines in two dimensions: entailments and presupposition. Under entailment,
we studied about the types of entailments in Aláròyé newspaper headlines and lexical source
of entailment in Aláròyé newspaper headlines which can also be called hyponymy, we
emphasized in our analysis that when a headline in Aláròyé newspaper is true, it necessarily
relates to the truth of a number of entailments. Under presupposition, we identified factive,
existential, counter-factual, non-factive, active and structural presuppositions in Aláròyé
newspaper headlines.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS
5.0 Preliminaries
This chapter presents the main findings of the result, conclusion and recommendations of the
study on the basis of the analysis and interpretation of collected data that has been in
discussed in chapter four. The conclusion is drawn based on the formulated research
questions outlined in chapter one.
5.1 Discussion of Main Findings
This study sets out to examine the semantic relations in Aláròyé newspaper headlines.
Semantic relations are the associations that exist between the meanings of words (semantic
relationships at word level), between the meanings of phrases, or between the meanings of
sentences (semantic relationships at phrase or sentence level). From the data analyses, I found
two semantic relations in Aláròyé newspaper headlines; they are entailments and
presuppositions. It is observed that assuming the meaning of headlines can be confusing for
the readers because they have different ideas or interpretations for the headlines.
Occasionally, the reader of the headlines can have a little misunderstanding because they do
not share the same idea as the person who wrote the headline. Therefore, they need to know
the truth of the headline written as in entailment and presupposition is necessary to
understand the difference between the semantic relations in the headlines. The difference
between entailment and presupposition semantic relations can be proved by using a negation
test. When an entailing sentence is negated, it cannot entail the subsequent statement or
sentence. However, when a presupposing sentence is negated, it still follows the subsequent
76
statement or sentence. These two semantic relations hold between sentences in the headlines
of Aláròyé newspaper headlines.
5.1.1 Presuppositions in Aláròyé newspaper headlines
The analysis revealed that Aláròyé newspaper headlines to some extent were identical in
employing factive presupposition, existential presupposition, counter-factual presupposition,
non-factive presupposition, active presupposition and structural presuppositions. If a sentence
comes with a presupposition, then negation is relevant, because negation is presupposition-
denying. From the data analysis, it was found that the dominant type of presupposition used
in Aláròyé newspaper headlines is existential presupposition. This case happens because the
writers use existential presupposition to emphasize or draw the attention of the readers to the
existence or otherwise of the entities being named. For example in data 13, the use of the
name “Yínká Òdúmákin” and ‘death’ in the data presupposes the existence or otherwise of
the person named.
Meanwhile, the less frequent presupposition that appears in Aláròyé newspaper headlines is
non-factive presupposition. It happens because the number of this presupposition is less than
other presupposition because non-factive presupposition delivers falsity of a case while
Aláròyé newspaper headlines mostly contain about facts which makes non-factive
presupposition inappropriate to use.
Each presupposition has specific function to play in Aláròyé newspaper headlines. The first is
existential presupposition, this type of presupposition shows to the readers that something
exists or otherwise. The writers mostly use this type of presupposition to deliver their
intentions, and thereby convincing the readers of the existence of an entity named or
otherwise.
77
The second is counterfactual presupposition the use of this presupposition to show the truth
implicitly by uttering the contrary condition. Based on Yule (1996) theory, counterfactual
presupposition is triggered by the use of IF-clauses. Counterfactual presupposition appears in
data 14 “Bí aríran kan bá sọ pé ìbò máa wáyé ní 2023...”is contrary to the fact that an
election will hold in 2023.
The third is factive presupposition which aims to declaring the fact. In this speech, the
newspaper headline writers mostly use this type of presupposition to tell the readers about
facts or reality. This can be seen in data 12 where the use of the phrase “Ojúṣe ìjọba àpapọ̀
ni...”indicates or refers to the reality or the fact that it is really the duty of the government to
cater to every tribe/ethnic groups.
The fourth is non-factive presupposition which is used to show the falsity of something.
Based on the data analysis, this type of presupposition is applied by the writer to say
something that they are not sure of; for instance a rumour or a report that they heard from an
unverified source. In the data analysis in data 16,the use of “wọ́n ní”which could mean “they
said” or “apparently” shows that the proposition is not true because it is probably from an
unverified source.
The fifth is active presupposition; in active presupposition, the use of one form with its stated
meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted)
meaning is expressed. In data 17, the asserted meaning is that Bàbá Ìjè ṣà
police custody which could conventionally be interpreted that Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à was in police
custody. So, the use of that particular expression is taken to presuppose another concept
which is purposefully used by the writer to inform or remind the reader of previous news or
event.
78
The sixth is structural presupposition; structural presupposition is the assumption from a
certain sentence structure where the information presented in the sentence is already
considered as the truth (Yule, 1996). The part of the sentence structure contains words and
phrases; the speaker can use such structures to treat information as presupposed and accepted
it to be true by the listener. In data 15, the proposition “àwọn agbébọn ti jí ọmọléèwé kó té le
̣ ̀ ”̣
is part of the assumed background of àwọn agbébọn tún jí ọmọléèwé mé ẹ ̀ ẹ ́ dógún
̣ kó ní
Zamfara. The writer of this headline assumes that the readers already know that school
children have been kidnapped before and school children have been kidnapped again, hence
the reason for the structure of the headline.
In conclusion, there are six types of presuppositions used in Aláròyé newspaper headlines
which are existential presupposition, factive presupposition, counter-factual presupposition,
non-factive presupposition, active presupposition and structural presuppositions.
5.1.2 Entailments in Aláròyé newspaper headlines
Our data analysis shows that the sources of entailments could either be lexical or syntactic.
The lexical sources show a relationship of entailment between the entailing sentence and the
entailed sentence. The lexical source can also be called hyponymy as it shows a relation
between lexical items that can be a regular source for entailment between sentences from the
lexical relationship. The other source for entailment is syntactic, in which the sentences can
be in active or passive versions of the same sentence but syntactic source of entailment
cannot be found in Yorùbá because Yorùbá language does not attest passivisation or passive
constructions. Therefore, study only focused on lexical source of entailment otherwise called
hyponymy. Data 5-11 reveals that when an entailing sentence is negated, it cannot entail the
subsequent statement or sentence therefore rendering the entailment invalid.
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5.2 Conclusion
This research was able to reveal what the semantic relations in Yorùbá newspaper headlines
are. Under this concept, we pointed out and discussed in detail semantic relations like
entailments and presuppositions as used in Aláròyé newspaper headlines. In conclusion, this
study has been able to examine and analyse the semantic relations that characterise the
meaning interpretations in Aláròyé newspaper headlines and that associations exist between
the meanings of words (semantic relationships at word level), between the meanings of
phrases, and between the meanings of sentences (semantic relationships at phrase or sentence
level).
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84
APPENDIX
HEADLINES OF ALÁRÒYÉ NEWS PUBLISHED BETWEEN APRIL 6 TO AUGUST
24, 2021
A. Ìdì Kejìdínló ̣gó ta

̣ (Vol. 58), Ẹyọ Ìkọkàndínlógún (No. 19) April 06, 2021
1. Ṣúkúrá ń rìn ní bèbè ikú, láti Igbó-Ọrà ló ti wáá ju ọmọ bíbí inú è ̣ tó pa sódò Ògùn
l`Ábé ọ̀ kúta
Ṣúkúrá is walking at death side, from Igbó-Ọrà she come throw her child birth
stomach that she killed to river Ògùn at Ábé ọ̀ kúta Ṣúkúrá is knocking at death’s door;
she came from Igbó-Ọrà to throw her own child that she killed into river Ògùn at
Ábé ọ̀ kúta
̣ ́ ̣ ṣe tẹ àwọn òṣìṣé ̣ tó jí óúnjẹ tíjọba fé ẹ ́ ̣ pín fáráàlú lỌ̀́yò ọ ́ ̣

2. Èyí ni bó wo
This is how hand do press workers that steal food that government want to distribute
for citizens at Ọ̀yó ̣
This is how government workers who stole palliatives meant to be distributed for the
citizens were arrested in Ọ̀yó ̣
3. Ìjọba fé ẹ ́ ̣ fi ọgbó ṇ mú Sunday Ìgbòho
Àti àwọn àgbààgbà tí wó ṇ jọ ń jókòó
Government want to use wisdom catch Sunday Ìgbòho
And the elders that they together is sitting
Government wants to craftily arrest Sunday Ìgbòho
And the elders that sit together with him
4. Bíjọba bá lè fáwọn Haúsá Ṣàṣá lé ḅ ùn ‘gbà má bínú’, ó yẹ kí wó ṇ fáwa Yorùbá tí wó ṇ
fi màálúù jẹ oko wa náà – Ọlájùmò ḳ é Awóṣìkà

̣
If government can give Hausa Ṣàṣá in gift ‘collect don’t born stomach’, it is right that
they give us Yorùbá that they use cow eat our farm too - Ọlájùmò ḳ é Awóṣìkà
̣
85
If the federal government can give Hausa Ṣàṣá a compensation, they should also give
we Yorùbás that they spoil our farmlands with their cattles to - Ọlájùmò ḳ é Awóṣìkà
̣
5. Ojúṣe ìjọba àpapò ̣ ni láti tó jú

̣ gbogbo è ỵ à, bí wó ṇ ṣẹ ń ṣègbè lé ỵ ìn àwọn kan kò dára
tó – Ẹlé ṛ ìnmọ
Duty government federal is to take care every tribe, how they do side at the back
people one is not good enough – Ẹlé ṛ ìnmọ
It is the duty of the federal government to cater to every tribe and ethnic groups, it is
not good enough how they are being bias towards one group – Ẹlé rìnmọ
̣
6. Ìkúnlè ̣ abiyamọ o, ọkò ̣ aké ṛ ù sá féwúré ,̣ ló bá tẹ ọmọléèwé mé ṛ in àti ọló kadà
̣ kan pa
n`Íbàdàn
Kneeling of the mother o, vehicle load carrier run from goat, and it press school
children four and bike man one die at Ìbàdàn
Oh my God, truck kills four school children in order to avoid goats at Ìbàdàn
7. Adigunjalè làwọn eléyìí, wó ṇ tún ń ṣẹgbé ̣ òkùnkùn n`Íkòròdú
Armed robbers is this ones, they also is doing society dark at Ìkoròdú
These ones are armed robbers, they also belong to a secret cult at Ìkoròdú
8. Blessing pa ìyá rè ̣ sínú oko n`Ílè -̣ Olúji, ó ní ò ro

̣ àwọn lòun tè ḷ é
Blessing kill his mother inside farm at Ilè -̣ Olúji, he say word his pastor church he
follow
Blessing kills his mother inside farm at Ilè -̣ Olúji, he said that he followed his church
pastor’s instruction
9. Tóbiló ba
̣ àti Ṣeun yóò fè w
̣ ò ṇ ọdún mé ṭ a jura, gbájú-è ̣ ni wó ṇ ṣe
Tóbiló ba
̣ and Ṣeun will use prison three years throw body, slap-him is they do
Tóbiló ba
̣ and Ṣeun will spend three years in prison, they are scammers
86
10. Nítorí ò ro
̣ ̀ ̣ tó kọ sórí Fesibúùkù, Oyètó lá
̣ ní kí alákóóso Àmò te
̣ ́ ḳ ùn fara hàn níwájú
ìgbìmò ̣ olùwádìí lỌ̀́ṣun
Because word that he write on top Facebook, Oyètó lá

̣ say that person-in-charge
̣ ́ ḳ ùn use body show in front of committee investigation in Ọ̀ṣun

Àmò te
Because of what he wrote on Facebook, Oyètó lá

̣ asked the person in charge of
̣ ́ ḳ ùn to appear before the investigating panel in Ọ̀ṣun

Àmò te
11. Kọmíṣó nà
̣ ọló pàá
̣ bá mò le
̣ ́ ḅ í Jè ḷ ílí t`ágbófinró kan yìnbọn pa ké ḍ ùn
Commissioner of police help family Jè ḷ ílí that judiciary one shoot gun kill sympathise
Commissioner of police sympathises with the family of Jè ḷ ílí whom one police officer
shot dead
12. Ó mà ṣe o! Tírélà tẹ ọmọ pa lỌ̀́báǹtokò, ó kán ìyá lé ṣ è ̣ pátápátá
It is do o! Trailer press child die at Ọbáǹtokò, it break mother at leg completely
What a pity! Trailer ran over a child at Ọbáǹtokò, it severed the mother’s leg
completely
13. Adájó ̣ ju Samuel sé w

̣ ò ṇ ọdún kan, fóònù àtowó ló jí lásìkò ìṣó -òru
̣ ní ṣó ọ ̀ sì
̣
Judge throw Samuel to prison one year, phone and money he steal in time of vigil in
church
Judge sentences Samuel to one year imprisonment for stealing phone and money
during a church vigil
14. Wó ṇ ní Lékan yìnbọn mó ọ ̀ yàn

̣ lórí l`Ábé ọ̀ kúta, wó ṇ ti jù ú sé w
̣ ò ṇ
They said Lékan shoot gun with person head at Abé ọ̀ kúta, they have thrown him to
prison
Apparently, Lékan shot someone in the head at Abé ọ̀ kúta, he has been thrown to
prison
87
15. Dàpò ̣ Abíó dún
̣ fé ẹ ́ ̣ bè ṛ è ̣ àwọn ò ṇ à tí Amósùn pati, ó ní oṣù kẹfà nìṣòro omi yóò dópin
l`Ábé ọ̀ kúta
Dàpò ̣ Abíó dún

̣ want to start the roads that Amósùn leave behind, he say six month is
the problem water will end in Abé ọ̀ kúta
Dàpò ̣ Abíó dún

̣ want to start the uncompleted road projects that Amósùn left behind,
he said that water scarcity problem in Abé ọ̀ kúta will end in six months
16. Àwọn agbébọn jí èèyàn mé ṭ a gbé nílùú Òṣú, ni wó ṇ bá ń bèèrè mílíò nù
̣ ló ṇ à àádó ta
̣
náírà
Gunmen steal people carry in Òṣú, and they are asking million in places fifty naira
Gunmen kidnap three people in Òṣú, they are demanding ransom of fifty million naira
17. Ọjà bíi mílíò nù

̣ ló nà
̣ ọgó rùn-ún
̣ náírà jóná nílùú Òṣogbo
Market like million in places of one hundred naira burn in Òṣogbo town
Goods worth one hundred million naira got burnt in Òṣogbo town
18. Àwọn ọmọ ẹgbé ̣ òkùnkùn pa èèyàn mé ṭ a l`Óṣogbo
Children group darkness kill people three in Òṣogbo
Secret cults kill three people in Òṣogbo
19. Nítorí è ṣ ùn ṣíṣe ẹgbé ̣ òkùnkùn, ilé-ẹjó ̣ ní káwó ṇ òbí wáá ṣonídúró ọmọ wọn
Because accusation doing group darkness,court say that parent come do guarantor
their children
Court asks parents to come and guarantee their children based on charges of
belonging to a secret cult
B. Ìdì Kejìdínló ̣gó ta

̣ (Vol. 58), Ẹyọ Ogún (No. 20) April 13, 2021
20. Akpan níyàwó òun kò ‘fáìn’ mó ,̣ ló bá ń bá ọmọ bíbí inú è ̣ lò pò ̣ n’Ítèlè-Ọ̀tà
88
Akpan say wife his not ‘fine’ again, he is now help child born stomach his live
together in Ìtèlè-Ọ̀tà
Akpan says his wife is no longer beautiful, so he started having sex with his own
child in Ìtèlè-Ọ̀tà
21. Túndé Bákàrè ṣàgbéyè w

̣ ò ìjọba Bùhárí, ó ní kò tè w
̣ ò ṇ rárá
Túndé Bákàrè examine government Bùhárí, he say not good at all
Túndé Bákàrè examines Buhari’s government, he says that it’s nothing to write
home about at all
22. Èyí ni bí Yínka Òdúmákin ṣe kú gan-an
 Gbogbo ọmọ Nàìjíríà ṣèdárò rè ̣
 Àwọn òbí rè ̣ barajé ̣ gidigidi
 Iná wa kú lójijì, igi ńlá ló wó nílùú Morò – Olúmorò
This is how Yínka Òdúmákin do die exactly
 Every child Nigeria do mourn him
 Parent his spoil body very well
 Fire us die suddenly, tree big is fall in land Morò – Olúmorò
How Yínka Òdúmákin die exactly
 All Nigerians mourn him
 His parent wept uncontrollably
 Our light has died suddenly, a great tree has fallen in Morò town –
Olúmorò
23. Gàní Adams ní kí wó ṇ gbé kọmíṣánnà ọló pàá

̣ kúrò nípínlè ̣ Ọ̀yó ,̣ ó lóbìnrin náà kò já
fáfá tó
Gàní Adams say that they carry commissioner police away in state Ọ̀yó ,̣ he say
woman the not good enough
89
Gàní Adams says the commissioner of police in Ọ̀yó ̣ should be taken away, he says
that the woman is not intelligent enough
24. Ọwó ̣ tẹ Sọdiq àtàwọn ẹgbé ̣ rè ̣ tó pa Aishat sínú oko nílùú Èsíé ̣
Hand catch Sọdiq and group his that kill Aishat inside farm in land Èsíé ̣
Sodiq and his gang who killed Aishat inside a farm in Èsíé ̣ has been apprehended
25. Mákindé ṣèlérí ìrànwó ̣ fáwọn oníṣòwò tí iná ba dúkìá wọn jé ̣ n’ísò ̣ páàtì n`Íbàdàn
Mákindé promise help for traders that fire spoil property them in store páàtì in Ìbàdàn
Mákindé promises help for traders whom fire gulfed their properties at páàtì store in
Ìbàdàn
26. Ó mà ṣe o! Adébímpé, ìyàwó olórí àwọn aṣòfin Ọ̀ṣun té ḷ è ,̣ kú lójijì
It is do o! Adébímpé, wife head law makers Ọ̀ṣun before, die suddenly
What a pity, Adébímpé, wife of the former head of law makers in Ọ̀ṣun dies suddenly
27. Ọ̀gá iléèwé táwọn Fúlàní gé ló w

̣ ó ̣ n`Ígangan: Iléeṣé ọló pàá
̣ láwọn ò do
̣ ́ ̣ Yorùbá ló kó ko
̣ ̣́
lò ọ ́ ̣ tó ̣ wọn
Boss school that Fulani people cut in hand in Ìgangan: station police say the youths
Yorùbá is first go touch them
The school headmaster that Fulani people cut his hand in Ìgangan: Police says that it
was Yorùbá youths who went to look for their trouble
28. È ẹ ̀ m
̣ é ṛ in ni mo lọ sí Mé ḳ à, ṣùgbó ṇ wó ṇ ní Yemọja lò nà
̣ mi, òun ni mo ń bọ báyìí –
Ẹgbé ke
̣ ́m
̣ i Omító lá
̣
Four times is I go to Mecca, but they say Yemọja is way my, she is I is worshipping
now – Ẹgbé ke
̣ ́ mi
̣ Omító lá
̣
I have gone to Mecca four times but they said Yemọja religion is my way, she is the
one I am worshipping now – Ẹgbé ke

̣ ́ mi
̣ Omító lá
̣
29. Ẹgbé ̣Afé ṇ ifé ṛ e ṣàbè w

̣ ò sílé àwọn Òdúmákin nílùú Morò
90
Group Afé ṇ ifé ṛ e do visit to house of Òdúmákin in land Morò
Afé ṇ ifé ṛ e group pays a visit to Òdúmákin’s house in Morò
30. Òṣìṣé ̣ báǹkì kówó àwọn oníbàárà jẹ l`Ábé ọ̀ kúta, nilé-ẹjó ̣ bá sọ ọ sé w
̣ ò ṇ ọdún kan ààbò ̣
Worker bank carry money customers eat in Abé ọ̀ kúta, and court now throw him to
prison year one half
Bank worker embezzles customer’s money in Abé ọ̀ kúta, court sentences him to one
year and six months imprisonment
31. Òkèlè ńlá tó nira láti gbé mì ni ikú Yínká Òdúmákin – Ọò ṇ i
Morsel big that hard to carry swallow is death Yínká Òdúmákin – Ọò ṇ i
Yínká Òdúmákin’s death is a bitter pill to swallow – Ọò ṇ i
32. Nítorí ò ro ̣ ò sỌ̀́básanjó ̣ l`Ábé ọ̀ kúta

̣ ̀ ̣ ààbò, Sheikh Gumi ṣàbè w
Because word security, Sheikh Gumi do visit to Ọbásanjó ̣ in Abé ọ̀ kúta
Because of security matter, Sheikh Gumi pays Ọbásanjó ̣ a visit in Abé ọ̀ kúta
C. Ìdì Ìkokàndínló go
̣ ́ ta
̣ (Vol. 59), Ẹyọ kan (No. 1) April 20, 2021
33. Nítorí jẹnẹrétò ̣ tó jí, wó ṇ fé ẹ ́ ̣ dáná sun Àjàó l`Ákúré ̣
Because generator that he steal, they want to start fire burn Àjàó in Àkúré ̣
They want to set fire on Ajao in because of the generator he stole
34. Òkóró ti wọ gàù, níbi tó ti ń ṣé ỵ ún fún ò re

̣ ́ ḅ ìnrin è ̣ nìyẹn kú sí n`Íkòròdú
Òkóró has enter trouble, where he is breaking pregnancy for girlfriend his is that one
die there in Ìkòròdú
Òkóró is in trouble, where he was trying to abort his girlfriend’s pregnancy
35. A ò ní gbà: Àwọn Haúsá tún ní àwọn làwọn máa ṣèjọba lé ỵ ìn Bùhárí
We not will take: people Hausa again say that them is they will do government after
buhari
91
We will not accept: Hausa people say that they will remain in government after
Buhari
36. Mo fọwó ̣ sí i káwọn ẹlé ṣ ìn àbáláyé máa múra lọ síléèwé níbàámu pè ḷ ú è ṣ ìn wọn –
Ẹlé buìbọn
̣
I put hand to it that people religion traditional to dress go to school according with
religion them – Ẹlé buìbọn

̣
I am in support of the idea that people who practice traditional religion should dress to
school in accordance with their religious practices
37. Iṣé ̣ Olúwà ni ipò ọba, ẹni tó bá bá ẹkún dé ààfin, ó gbọdò ̣ ré ṛ ìn-ín jáde – Ọ̀ràngún
Òkè-Ìlá
Work God is position king, person that help come cry to palace, he must laugh go out
The position of a king is God’s work, whoever comes to the palace with tears must
always go out with laughter
38. Níbi tí Hammed tó kó ṣe

̣ ́ ̣ sóóbàtà ti ń so iná mó rá
̣ wọn ló ti kú l`Ágbàdo
Where that Hammed that learn work shoemaker is joining fire together them is die in
Àgbàdo
Hammed who learned shoemaking died where he was reconnecting electricity in
Àgbàdo
39. Àwọn Fúlàní ní kíjọba mú Sunday Ìgbòho, kí wó ṇ sì dá Séríkí padà s`Ígangan
People Fulani say that government catch Sunday Igboho, that they again return Seriki
back to Igangan
Fulani people say that government should arrest Sunday Igboho, that they should also
bring Seriki back to Igangan
40. Géètì ilé ni Gbó láhàn

̣ fé ẹ ́ ̣ ṣí fún ìyá rè ̣ táwọn ajínigbé fi gbé e lọ lỌ̀̀bádá-Òkó
92
Gate house is Gbolahan want to open for mother his that the kidnappers use carry him
go in Ọbádá-Òkó
Gbolahan wanted to open a gate for his mother when he got kidnapped by kidnappers
41. Wó ṇ bá àgékù ara ìyá Gàníyá Elékuru nínú ilé babaláwo n`Íléefè ̣
They meet half body mother Ganiya Elekuru inside house babalawo in Iléefè ̣
They found the half body of Ìyá Gàníyá Elékuru inside a babalawo’s house in Iléefè ̣
42. Ọba Ewu-Èkìtì táwọn agbébọn kọ lù ti ń gbádùn, ọta ìbọn méjì ni wó ṇ yọ lára rè ̣
King Ewu-Èkìtì that gun carriers run into is getting well, bullet gun two is they
remove from body his
King of Ewu-Èkìtì that gunmen clashed with is getting better, two bullets were
removed from his body
43. Ajínigbé mé ̣ta kó só wo

̣ ́ ̣ ọló p̣ àá ní márosè ̣ Èkó s`Íbàdàn
Kidnappers three enter in hand police is expressway Lagos to Ìbàdàn
Three kidnappers got apprehende at Lagos-Ibadan expressway
44. Àwọn agbébọn yìnbọn lu méjì nínú àwọn ọló dẹ

̣ tó ń wá dókítà àti nó ọ ̀ ṣ ì tí wó ṇ jí gbé
n`Ímè ḳ ọ
 Wó ṇ dáná sun mó tò

̣ méjì àti ò ḳ adà mé ṣ àn-án
The gun carriers shoot gun beat two among vigilante that is looking for doctor and
nurse that they steal carry in Ìmè ḳ ọ
 They set fire burn vehicle two and motorcycle nine
Gunmen shot two out the vigilantes that were looking for the doctor and nurse that
was kidnapped in Ìmè ̣kọ
45. Èèyan mé ṭ a kú sínú ọkò ̣ l`Óǹdó
People three die inside car in Ondo
Three people die a car in Ondo
93
D. Ìdì Ìkokàndínló go
̣ ́ ta
̣ (Vol. 59), Ẹyọ kẹta (No. 3) May 04, 2021
46. Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à kọ óúnjẹ sílè ̣ láhàámó ̣ ọlọpàá
Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à refuse food to ground in cage police
Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à refuses to eat in police cell
47. Àwọn krìsté ṇ ì tó jé ̣ olóri nínú Afé ṇ ifé ṛ e ló wà nídìí káwọn ọmọ wa ma lo Hìjáàbù –
Akinọlá
The Christians that is head inside Afé ṇ ifé ṛ e is at the bottom that our children should
use hijab – Akíntó lá

̣
The Christian leaders in Afé ṇ ifé ṛ e are behind the idea that our children should be
using hijab – Akíntó lá

̣
48. Nítorí ìpakúpa tí wó ṇ ń pààyàn ní Nàìjíríà: Àwọn òyìnbó bínú pátápátá sí Bùhárí
Because merciless killing that they are killing people in Nigeria, people white angry
with Buhari
Because of the merciless killings going on in Nigeria, white people are angry at
Buhari
49. Ṣóyínká sò kò

̣ ò ro
̣ ̀ ̣ sí Bùhárí: Ẹ yéé fè m
̣ í ò do
̣ ́ ̣ wa ṣètùtù sójúbọ orílèèdè tó ti fé ẹ ́ ̣ wó tán
yìí
Ṣóyínká throw stone word to Bùhárí: you stop use life our youths do ritual to shrine
country that has want to fall completely
Ṣóyínká sends heavy words to Bùhárí: stop spilling the blood of our youths as
sacrifice to the shrine of a country that is about to collapse completely
50. Àwọn àgbààgbà Yorùbá péjú síbi ìsìnkú Yínka Òdúmákin
The elders Yorùbá present to place burial Yínká Òdúmákin
Yorùbá elders were present at Yínká Òdúmákin’s burial
51. Lé ỵ ìn oṣù mé ṭ a tí wó ṇ dáná sunlé è ,̣ àwọn agbanipa tún ká Sunday Ìgbòho mó lé
̣ lóru
94
52. Ìyà ń jẹ wá púpò ̣ lórílèèdè yìí, ẹ jé ̣ ká gbógun ti ìwà ìjẹgàba àwọn Fúlàní – Ayò ̣
Adébánjọ
53. Wó ̀ ṇ ṣì ń wá mò ḷ é ḅ í mé f̣ à tí àwọn ajínigbé gbé sá lọ nílùú Ajaawa
54. Ní Markudi, wó ṇ tún jí àwọn ọmọ yunifásitì rẹpẹtẹ gbé
55. Ọló pàá

̣ mé ṭ a dèrò àhámó ̣ l`Ówódé-È gbá,
̣ owó tí wó ṇ fipá gbà ló wo
̣ ́ ̣ ọmọ LASU ló kó
bá wó ṇ
56. Ọ̀kadà làwọn eléyìí lò ọ ́ ̣ jí gbé tó wo

̣ ́ ̣ fi tè ̣ wó ṇ ní Kwara
57. PDP Èkìtì pariwo: Fáyẹmí fé ẹ ́ ̣ fọgbó ṇ tai lè ̣ wa fáwọn Fúlàní o
58. Àwọn obìnrin Nàìjíríà nífè ẹ ́ ̣ sí ipò ààrẹ, ṣùgbó ṇ àwọn alágbára ni kò gbà – Bísí
Fáyẹmí
59. Èèyàn mó kànlá

̣ pàdánù è m
̣ í wọn nínú ìjàm̀bá ọkò ̣ ní Kwara
60. Núrá àtàwọn yòókù è ̣ jalè lỌ̀́ṣun, Mòwé lọwó ̣ ọló pàá
̣ tit è ̣ wó ṇ
61. Iró ̣ làwọn ọló pàá

̣ ń pa, lóòótó ̣ ni wó ṇ jí àwọn arìnrìnàjò gbé ló nà
̣ Èrúwà
62. Látàrí è ṣ ùn ìfipábánilòpò ,̣ Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à pàdánù iṣé ̣ olówó ńlá
63. Àwọn ọló pàá

̣ ṣì ń wá Roselyn àti àlejò è ̣ táwọn kan jí gbé l`Ọfada
64. Orílẹ-èdè Oòduà: Kò sé ṇ i tó lè dá Yorùbá dúró mó ̣ o – Bánjí Akíntóyè
65. Àwọn aṣó bodè

̣ àti ìjọba ń fi àyè w
̣ ò Kòrónà lu aráàlú ní jìbìtì ni o – Kúnlé Afọláyan
66. Ẹgbè ṛ ún márùndínló go

̣ ́ ṭ a náírà la máa san fún òṣìṣé ̣ tó kéré jù lọ l`Ékòó – Sanwó-Olú
67. Ọwó ̣ tẹ adigunjalè mé w

̣ àá àti Idris tó ń ṣe bàbá-ìsàlè ̣ wọn n`Íkẹjà
68. Ṣégun ra ò kadà

̣ ló wo
̣ ́ ̣ ẹni tó pàdé lé w
̣ ò ṇ , ló bá lóun kò mò ̣ pe ẹrù olè ni
69. Èyí ni àwọn Fúlàní tí ikò ̣ Àmò te

̣ ́ ḳ ùn dá padà sílùú wọn láti ìpínlè ̣ Oǹdó
̣ lỌ̀́tà
70. Wó ṇ yìnbọn pa tọkọ-tìyàwó mó lé
71. Ọ̀kadà méjì forí sọ tírélà l`Ábé ọ̀ kúta, ló bá tè ̣ wó ṇ pa
72. Tírélà pa àwọn obìnrin oníṣòwò mé w

̣ àá nínú ọjà
73. Àárò ̣ kùtù ni Ògúnnáìkè lò ọ ́ ̣ digunjalè lọló pàá

̣ bá mú un lÀbé ọ̀ kúta
95
74. Kè ḳ é ̣ Márúwá forí sọ tírélà ní Ṣàgámù, lèèyàn márùn-ún bá dágbere fáyé
75. A ṣì ń ṣàkójọpò ̣ ìwà ìtàpa-sófin táwọn tó ń bèèrè Orílè -̣ èdè Yorùbá hù l`Ábé ọ̀ kúta –
Oyèyẹmí
76. Muhammed, ọmọ Fúlàní tó ń dá àwọn èèyàn ló nà

̣ lábúlé Agbagi ti bó ̣ só w
̣ ó ̣ ọló p̣ àá
77. Wó ṇ ti ju wòlíì tó wó ṇ ló fíńdà

̣ sára Káyò dé
̣ tíná fi jó o pa ní ṣó ọ ̀ ̣ṣì Sè ḷ é ̣ sátìmó lé
̣
78. Fúlàní darandaran kọ lu àgbè ̣ méjì nínú oko LÈ́ rìnlé

̣
79. Ọ̀ró ̣ yìí kò wò ̣ mó :̣ Bùhárí máa lọ!
80. Bí aríran kan bá sọ pé ìbò máa wáyé ní 2023, Yorùbá sì máa wà níbè ,̣ iró ̣ ńlá ni –
Sunday Ìgbòho
81. Ojúṣe wa ni láti dọdẹ àwọn ò ḍ aràn, àwọn ajínigbé àtàwọn adàlúrú – Ọ̀gá Àmò ṭ é kùn
̣
Ọ̀ṣun
82. “Tíjọba ò bá ṣètò ààbò tó dára, àwọn ọmọ mi kò ní í padà síléèwé yìí mó ”̣
83. Àwọn Fúlàní yìí fipá bá àwọn obìnrin tí wó ṇ jí gbé lò pò ̣ l`Ákúré ̣
84. Wó ṇ ti sìnkú Pásítò ̣ Dáre, ọmọ Bàbá Adébóyè
85. Wó ṇ yìnbọn pa ọló pàá

̣ lásìkò ìjà ilè ̣ láàrín ìlú Ìwó àti Ilé-Ogbo
86. Olè méjì kú sójú ìjà ní Ṣàgámù, àwọn ọló pàá

̣ ló yìnbọn fún wọn
87. Ìjàm̀bá ojú pópó pààyàn mó kànlélo

̣ ́ go
̣ ́ ̣ta láàrín oṣù mé ṭ a nípínlè ̣ Ògùn
88. Mílíò nù
̣ kan ààbò ̣ ‘ìrẹsì Tinúbú’ ni wó ṇ ń há nílè ̣ Haúsá báyìí
89. Ọ̀fé ̣ ni fó ọ ̀ mù

̣ ìdìbò fáwọn obìnrin tó bá fé ẹ ́ ̣ díje dupò alága ìbílè ̣ àti káńsílò ̣ nípínlè ̣
Ògùn – OGSIEC
90. Èèyàn kan kú, ò po

̣ ̀ ̣ tún fara gbọta nítorí ò ro
̣ ̀ ̣ oyè n`Íkàré ̣ Àkókó
91. Àmò te
̣ ́ ḳ ùn ìpínlè ̣ Oǹdó tún dá àwọn Fúlàní mì-ín padà síbi tí wó ṇ ti wá
92. Àṣegbé ò sí fé ṇ iké ṇ i tó bá pa Fúlàní, tò hún

̣ yóò san gbèsè ẹ dandan ni
93. Àsírí bàbá tó ń bá ìyàwó ọmọ ẹ láṣepò ̣ tú ni Ṣakí
96
94. Afé ṇ ifé ṛ e kìlò ̣ fún Bùhárí: Ṣe àtúntò Nàìjíríà ké ̣ ẹ tóó máa sò ro
̣ ̀ ̣ ìbò 2023
95. Olúwòó fé ẹ ́ ̣ ṣèpàdé àperò láàrín Fúlàní darandaran àtàwọn àgbè ̣
96. Àwọn ọmọ Bùhárí ni: A kò ní í jé ̣ kí Yorùbá kúrò lára Nàìjíríà. Sunday Ìgbòho àtàwọn
àgbààgbà ní bàbá-ńlá iró ̣ ni
97. Orílèèdè Odùduwà: Tinúbú, Gbàjàbíàmilà àtàwọn gómina ilè ̣Yorùbá fé ẹ ́ ̣ ṣèpàdé ńlá
98. Èyí làdéhùn tó wà láàrín èmi àti Mákindé nípa ètò ìdìbò ìjọba ìbílè ̣ tó ń bò ̣ – Ọlágúnjú
99. Àwọn ọló pàá

̣ ti fi Bàbá Ìjè ṣ̣ à sílè ̣
100. Òṣìṣé ̣ Gómìnà Fáyẹmí ṣubú lulè ̣ lọfíìsì, ló bá kú pátápátá
101. Ẹ wo Hassan Ọmó goríọlá,

̣ òṣèré tíátà tó padà wáá di ọba aládé n`Íjè ḅ ú
102. Èyí làwọn ohun tó ṣẹlè ̣ níbi ìwó de

̣ Orílèèdè Odùduwà tí Sunday Ìgbòho ti
kópa l`Óṣogbo
103. Àwọn adigunjalè pa ọló dẹ

̣ ni Sángo, wó ṇ tún gba mó tò
̣ méjì
104. Àwọn gómìnà PDP ṣèpàdé n`Íbàdàn lórí ètò ààbò tó mé ḥ ẹ
105. Níbi tí Abdullahi ti ń kámó ̣ ọmọ ọdún mó ḳ ànlá lọwó ̣ ti bà á n`Ílọrin
E. Ìdì Ìkankàndínló ̣gó ta

̣ (Vol. 59), Ẹyọ Ìkejìdínlógún (No. 18) August 17, 2021
106. Ilé-ẹjó ̣ sọ Chidinma tó pa ò gá

̣ iléeṣé ̣ tẹlifíṣàn l`Ékòó sé w
̣ ò ṇ
Court throws Chidinma that killed boss station television in Lagos to prison
Court throws Chidinma to prison
107. Àwọn adigunjalè ni Kó ḷ ápò ̣ ń f’ò ḳ adà è ̣ gbé n`Íkirè tó wo
̣ ́ ̣ fi tè ̣ é ̣
Armed robbers FOC Kó lápo

̣ ̀ ̣ is use his motorcycle carry at Íkirè when hand catch him
Kó lápo
̣ ̀ ̣ was using his motorcycle to commute armed robbers when he got caught
108. Ọ̀rò ̣ Sunday Ìgbòho dá ìjà Nàìjíríà àti Bè ṇ nè ̣ sílè ̣ poo!
Word Sunday Ìgbòho cause fight Nigeria and Benin eventually!
97
Sunday Ìgbòho’s matter eventually causes a fight between Nigeria and Benin
Republic!
109. Wó ṇ ní nítorí Sunday Ìgbòho l`Ọbásanjó ̣ ṣe ṣàbè w

̣ ò sílè ̣ Bè ṇ nè ̣
They said because of Sunday Ìgbòho is why Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin
Apparently, Ọbásanjó ̣ paid a visit to Benin because of Sunday Ìgbòho
110. Oògùn awọro ni mo fi orí àti Moses tí a pa ṣe, ṣùgbó ṇ kò jé ̣ tó wo
̣ ́ ̣ fi tè ̣ mí –
Ifádáre
Charm crowd dragger is I use head and hand Moses that we kill do, but it did not
work when hand catch me– Ifádáre
I used the head and hand of Moses whom we killed for population increase charm but
it was not effective before I got caught – Ifádáre
111. Yálà Sunday Ìgbòho wà nílé, tàbí kò sí nílé, ìjàgbara ‘Oòduà Nation’ yóò má
atè ̣ síwájú – Adéṣọpé ̣
Whether Sunday Igboho is at home, or he is not at home, freedom fight for ‘Oòduà
Nation’ will be in progress – Adéṣọpé ̣
Whether Sunday Igboho is around or not, the agitation for ‘Oòduà Nation’ will
continue - Adéṣọpé ̣
112. Nàìjíríà ti wó, kò kàn tí ì ṣubú tán pátápátá ni – Sé ṇ étò ̣ Fé mi
̣ Òkúróunmú
113. Nigeria has break, it has not fall down completely – Sé ṇ étò ̣ Fé mi
̣
Òkúróunmú
114. Nigeria is broken, but it has not fall down completely – Sé ṇ étò ̣ Fé mi
̣
Òkúróunmú
115. Ó mà ṣe ò. David Ajíbóye, òṣìṣé Yínká Ayéfé ̣lé,̣ kú lójijì
It is do o David Ajiboye worker Yinka Ayefele, die suddenly
What a pity, Yinka Ayefele’s worker, David Ajiboye dies suddenly
98
116. Wàhálà ẹgbé ̣ PDP ń le sí i: Àwọn aṣòfin yarí l`Ábúja, wó ṇ nim dandan ni kí
alága àwọn lọ
Lọkùnrin náà bá lóun ò ní í tè ’̣ ta
Trouble party PDP is getting hard more: Law makers disagree at Abuja, they say it is
compulsory for their chairman to go
And the man say he will not step out
PDP party’s trouble is getting worse: Law makers disagree in Abuja, they insist that
their chairman must go
The said man insist that he will not step down
117. È wo
̣ ̀ ̣n ni Abídèmí Rùfáí, ọmọọṣé ̣ Dà p̣ ò ̣ Abíódún té ḷ è ̣ yóò wà di 2022
Prison is Abidemi Rufai, apprentice Dapo Abiodun before will be till 2022
Former Dapo Abiodun’s trainee, Abidemi Rufai will stay in prison till 2022
118. Kàyééfì! Ọmọ ọdún mé ṭ àlá pokùnso
Strange! Child year thirteen hang herself
Strange occurrence! A thirteen year old child hangs herself
119. Èmi ò sá lọ ò, mo wà nílè ̣ Benin láti ṣàtìlẹyìn fún Sunday Ìgbòho ni –
Ọ̀jò g̣ bó ṇ Akíntóyè
I do not run go o, I am at Benin land to support for Sunday Ìgbòho – Professor
Akíntóyè
I did not run away o, I was at Benin land to provide support for Sunday Ìgbòho –
Professor Akíntóyè
120. Àwọn agbébọn jí arìnrìn-àjò márùn-ún gbé lọ ní Kwara
People who carry steal travellers carry go in Kwara
Gunmen kidnap five travellers in Kwara
99
121. Lé ỵ ìn ọdún méje lákàtà Boko Haram, ọmọọléèwé Chibok kan padà dé pè ḷ ú
ọmọ méjì tó ti bí ló hùn-ún

̣
After years seven under Boko Haram, student chibok one come back with two
children that she born there
Seven years after being abducted by Boko Haram, one chibok student returns with
two children she had there
122. Àwọn ajínigbé ń bèère àádó ta

̣ mílíò ṇ ù lórí mò le
̣ ́ ḅ í tí wó ṇ jí gbé l`Ékìtì
People stealers is asking 50 million over family that they steal carry in Èkìtì
Kidnappers are demanding 50 million as ransom for family they kidnapped in Èkìtì
123. Ilé-ẹjó ̣ ní kí wó ṇ lò ọ ́ ̣ fi Chidinma tó pa bàbá aláàánú è ̣ ló j̣ ó sí

̣ sé w
̣ ò ṇ fún ọgbò ṇ
ọjó ̣ l`Ékòó
124. Ó yẹ kí àyè w
̣ o ọpọlọ wà fún ẹniké ṇ i tó bá fé ẹ ́ ̣ darapò ̣ mó ̣ iṣé ̣ agbófinró lórílè -̣
èdè yìí – Ọládiméjì
Is right that check-up brain be for anybody that want join with work law enforcement
in country this – Ọládiméjì
There should be a psychological examination for anyone intending to join the law
enforcement in this country – Ọládiméjì
125. Ilé-ẹjó ̣ ní kí ọmọọṣé ̣ Dàpò ̣ Abíó dún

̣ tí wó ṇ mú fé ṣ ùn jìbìtì l`Ámé ṛ íkà ṣì wà
lé w
̣ ò ṇ di 2022
Court say that apprentice Dàpò ̣ Abíódún that they catch for accusation of fraud in
America still be in prison till 2022
The court rules that Dàpò ̣ Abíódún apprentice that was arrested and prosecuted for
fraud in America should remain in prison till 2022
126. Ìjàm̀bá ọkò ̣ pààyàn mé ṭ a ní márosè ̣ Oǹdó-Ọ̀rè ̣
Accident car kill person three in expressway Oǹdó-Ọ̀rè ̣
100
Car accident kills three people on Oǹdó-Ọ̀rè ̣ expressway
127. Ọsibítù aládàání tó bá tó j̣ ú alárùn Kòrónà l’Ọ́ṣun yóò wọ gàù – Ẹgbé mọdẹ
̣
Hospital private that trest patient Covid-19 in Ọ̀ṣun will enter trouble – Ẹgbé mọdẹ
̣
Private hospitals that treat Covid-19 patients in Ọ̀ṣun will be in trouble – Ẹgbé m
̣ ọdẹ
128. Àwọn ọmọ Òkè-Ògùn pariwo: Nǹkàn kan kò gbọdò ̣ ṣe Sunday Ìgbòho o!
Children Òkè-Ògùn shout: thing one not must do Sunday Ìgbòho o
Òkè-Ògùn people cry out: nothing must happen to Sunday Ìgbòho o
129. Èyí ni bílé-ẹjó ̣ ṣe tún fọgbó ṇ de àwọn ọmọ è ỵ ìn Sunday Ìgbòho mó le
̣ ̀ ̣ l’Ábúja
This is how court do again use wisdom tie children back Sunday Ìgbòho to the ground
in Àbúja
This how court craftily detains Sunday Ìgbòho followers in Àbúja again
130. Ìjìyà ńlá wà fé ṇ i tó bá gba ò daràn

̣ sí òté ẹ ̀ ḷ ì rè ̣ ní Kwara
Suffering big is available for anyone that collect criminals to hotel his in Kwara
There is a great punishment for anyone who admits criminals to their hotels in Kwara
131. Aṣírí ohun tí Ọbásanjó ̣ bá lọ sílè ̣ Olómìnira Bè ṇ nè ̣ rèé
Secret thing that Ọbásanjó ̣ follow go to land Independent Benin is this
This is the secret behind Ọbásanjó ’s

̣ visit ti Benin republic
F. Ìdì Ìkankàndínló ̣gó ta

̣ (Vol. 59), Ẹyọ Ìkọkàndínlógún (No. 19) August 24, 2021
132. Ajé ̣ nìyàwó mi, bó ṣe ń bá mi jà lójú oorun ló ń bá mi jà lójú ayé, mi ò ṣe mó ̣ –
Fé mi
̣
Witch is wife my, as do is help me fight in eyes sleep is is help me fight in eyes
world, I not do again – Fé m

̣ i
My wife is a witch, as she is fighting me in my sleep, she is also fighting with me in
real life, I am no longer interested
133. Ó mà ṣe ò! Aṣòfin ìpínlè ̣ Oǹdó kan kú lójijì
101
It is do o! Law maker state Ondo one die suddenly
What a pity! One Ondo state law maker dies suddenly
134. Àwọn ọmọ Bùhárí ń wá Bánjí Akíntóyè, olórí ẹgbé ̣ Yorùbá Nation
Ohun tí wó ṇ fé ẹ ́ ̣ fi ṣe kò yé ẹnì kan
Children Bùhárí is finding Bánjí Akíntóyè, leader group Yorùbá Nation
Thing that they want to use do not know person one
Buhari’s children are looking for Bánjí Akíntóyè, leader of Yorùbá Nation group
No one knows what they intend to do with him
135. Àwọn agbébọn tún jí ọmọléèwé mé ẹ ̀ ẹ ́ ḍ ógún kó ní Zamfara, wó ṇ yìnbọn pa
ọló pàá
̣ àti ọló de
̣ méjì tó ń ṣó ̣ wọn
136. Bí nǹkan ṣe ń lọ yìí, ọjó ̣ kan ni orílè -̣ èdè yìí máa dàwátì – Fé mi
̣ Fàní Káyò ḍ é
137. Wèrè èèyàn ni yóò sọ pé Yorùbá kò lè dá dúró
138. Mo gbà pé Yorùbá yóò wà lómìnira ló jo

̣ ́ ̣ kan – Akeugbagold
139. Èyí lohun táwọn aláṣẹ iléèwé TASUED sọ lórí aké ḳ ò ọ ́ ̣ tó bínú para è ̣
140. Orílè -̣ èdè Italy lobìnrin yìí dágbére, àṣé egbòogi olóró ló fé ẹ ́ ̣ gbé lọ só ḥ ùn-ún
141. Àwọn Íbò fé ẹ ́ ̣ darapò ̣ mó ̣ Yorùbá láti ṣèwó de

̣ ìjàǹgbara ní Washington
142. Kí wó ṇ lè fòpin sí ìwà ìbàjé ,̣ àjọ EFCC àti ọló pàá
̣ jé ẹ ̀ j̣ é ̣ ìfọwó ṣ owó po
̣ ̀ ̣ ní Kwara
143. Wòlíì Owólabí ríran sí Sàràkí, ó ní yóò di ààrẹ Nàìjíríà ló dún
̣ 2023
144. Àwọn ọlọpàá ti mú Gbénga, ò kan

̣ nínú àwọn adigunjalè tó já ọkò ̣ bó ọ ̀ sì
̣ àwọn
ọmọ iléèwé gbà lỌ̀́bà-Ilé
145. Ìgbé ḳ è ḷ é àtàwọn ẹmè w

̣ á rè ̣ mé ṛ in fipá bá abirùn lò pò ̣ l`Ákotogbo
146. Òjó yìí yóò pé ̣ lé w

̣ ò ṇ o, ìyàwó oníyàwó ló fipá bá ló pò ̣ l`Ádó-Èkìtì
147. Èyí lohun táwọn aláṣẹ iléèwé TASUED sọ lórí aké ḳ ò ọ ́ ̣ wọn tó bínú para ẹ
148. ̣ ̀ ̣ fófin Kòrónà, èrò rẹpẹtẹ kópa nínú ọdún Ọ̀ṣun Òṣogbo
Láì bò wo
149. Ọjó ̣ mé ṭ a ni wọn yóò fi ṣayẹyẹ òkú Bàbá Gómìnà Dàpò ̣ Abíó dún
̣ lóṣù tó ń bò ̣
102
150. Aṣòfin Kwara fé ẹ ́ ̣ gba è ḅ ùn ìrónilágbára tó fún ọmọlé ỵ ìn è ,̣ ó ní kò ṣàtìlẹyìn
fóun mó ̣
151. Ọbásanjó ̣ di bàbá gómìnà, Dàpò ̣ Abíó dún

̣ lóun ni yóò máà ṣe bàbá òun lọ
152. Ó mà ṣe ò, Aṣòfin láti ìpínlè ̣ Oǹdó kú lójijì
153. Bí nǹkan ṣe ń lọ yìí, ọjó ̣ kan ni orílè -̣ èdè yìí máa dàwátì – Fé mi
̣ Fàní Káyò ḍ é
154. Ajé ̣ nìyàwó mi, bó ṣe ń bá mi jà lójú oorun ló ń bá mi jà lójú ayé, mi ò ṣe mó ̣ –
Fé mi
̣
155. Nítorí àì tè ḷ é òfin ilé kíkó ,̣ ìjọba ìpínlè ̣ Ògùn ti ilé mé ṛ ìndínló gbo
̣ ̀ ṇ pa ní Mòwé
156. Ó ti dòfin! Ọdún mé ṭ a ni darandaran tó bá fi mààlúù jé ḳ o lỌ̀́ṣun yóò lò lé w
̣ ò ṇ
157. Mi ò déédé sá kúrò nílé, wàhálà ìyàwó mi ló pò ̣ jù – Rasheed
158. Àlàbá yóò pé ̣ lé w

̣ ò ṇ o, ọkùnrin oníṣòwò kan ló lù ní jìbìtì l`Áfao-Èkìtì
159. Ayẹyẹ kan ni olùkó ̣ KWASU yìí ń lọọ darí láti Ìlọrin tó fi kú sínú ìjàm̀bá ọkò ̣
ló nà
̣ Èkó
160. Àwọn agbébọn tún jí ọmọléèwé mé ẹ ̀ ẹ ́ ḍ ógún kó ní Zamfara, wó ṇ yìnbọn pa
ọló pàá
̣ àti ọló de
̣ méjì tó ń ṣó ̣ wọn
161. Orílè -̣ èdè Italy lobìnrin yìí dágbére, àṣé egbòogi olóró ló fé ẹ ́ ̣ gbé lọ só ḥ ùn-ún
162. Nítorí ààbò tó mé ḥ ẹ, Dàpò ̣ Abíó dún,

̣ Gàní Adams, Aláké àtàwọn mì-ín fé ẹ ́ ̣
ṣèpàdé l`Ábé ọ̀ kútà
103

Analysis of Semantic Relations in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines

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Analysis of Semantic Relations in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines

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ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS IN ALÁRÒYÉ NEWSPAPER HEADLINES

ALÁDÉJÁNÀ ÀDÚRÀGBÈMI SAMUEL

MATRIC NO: 170107040

BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND

LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, ADÉKÚNLÉ AJÁṢIN UNIVERSITY,

ÀKÙNGBÁ-ÀKÓKÓ, ONDO STATE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS IN LINGUISTICS AND YORÙBÁ

Àkùngbá-Àkókó, Ondo State, Nigeria.

Dr. Simeon Ọláògún Date

Prof. O.T. Olúmúyìwá Date

education even when the going looked too difficult to endure.

research. I am eternally grateful.

Oyèbádé, Prof (Mrs) Adébò wálé,

I would be remiss in not mentioning my family, especially my parents, Chief Aládéjánà

Olóyèdé Òjó and Mrs. Ọló rundáre

See you at the top.

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 3

1.2 Purpose of the Study 5

1.3 Statement of the Problem 5

1.4 Research Questions 5

1.5 Significance of the Study 6

1.6 Contribution to Knowledge 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 8

2.1 Theories of Meaning 8

2.1.1 The Ideational Theory of meaning 9

2.1.3 Referential Theory of Meaning 11

2.1.4 Possible-world Theory of Meaning 13

2.1.5 Fregean Theory of Meaning 14

2.1.6 Verificationist Theory of Meaning 15

2.1.7 Truth-Conditional Theory of Meaning 16

2.1.8 Conceptual-role Theory of Meaning 18

2.1.9 Gricean Theory of Meaning 20

2.1.10 The Usage Theory of Meaning 21

2.2 Theoretical Framework 21

2.3.1 Sources of Entailment 23

2.3.1.1 Lexical Sources of Entailment 23

2.3.1.2 Syntactic Sources of Entailment 24

2.3.2 Types of Entailment 23

2.3.2.1 Background Entailment 24

2.3.2.2 Foreground Entailment 25

2.3.1 Types of Presupposition 29

2.4.1.2 Active Presupposition 30

2.4.1.3 Factive Presupposition 30

2.4.1.4 Non-factive Presupposition 31

2.4.1.5 Structural Presupposition 31

2.4.1.6 Counter Factual Presupposition 32

2.5 Empirical Review 32

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 36

3.1 Method of Data Collection 36

3.2 Method of Data Analysis 36

3.3 Validity of Instruments Used 37

3.4 Reliability of Instruments Used 37

3.5 Population and Sample 38

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 39

4.1 Entaiments in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 39

4.1.1.1 Background Entailment 39

4.1.1.2 Foreground Entailment 41

4.1.2 Sources of Entailment in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 42

4.1.2.1 Lexical Source of Entailment (Hyponymy) in Aláròyé newspaper headlines 43

4.2 Presupposition in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 56

4.2.1 Types of Presupposition in Aláròyé Newspaper Headlines 56