Modulation

The aim of communication is to transmit the

information ( message signal) from source to
destination. Message signal is a low frequency signal
and a high frequency carrier signal is used to carry the
low frequency message signal.
When low frequency signal is carried by high frequency
signal the characteristics of the low frequency signals
are unaltered but the characteristics of the high
frequency carrier signal are changed according to the
intensity of modulating ( message ) signal and the
phenomenon is called Modulation.
In analog communication the modulating signal is
analog and in digital communication the modulating
signal is a digital signal, but the carrier signal is
sinusoidal in both the cases.
Linear modulation : We know that the carrier signal has
two characteristics i.e. amplitude and angle. If the
amplitude of carrier is changed according to
modulating signal it is called linear or amplitude
modulation.
Non-linear or Angle modulation : If the angle of carrier
is changed according to modulating signal, it is called
non-linear modulation or angle modulation(FM & PM).
Need of Modulation :
1. In order to have proper transmission and
reception the antenna height must be a multiple
of λ ( wave length).
𝑪
We have, λ= , where, c = Velocity of light
𝒇
= 3× 108 m/s
f = Frequency of operation

If the wave is not modulated , let f = 3 kHz

𝟑× 𝟏𝟎𝟖
Therefore, λ= = 105 = 100 km i.e. the
𝟑× 𝟏𝟎 𝟑
minimum height of the antenna comes out to be
100 km which is impracticable.

Therefore, to reduce the antenna height the

frequency of the signal has to be increased. When
the signal is modulated, let f = 300 MHz.
𝟑× 𝟏𝟎𝟖
Then, λ= =1m , i.e. the minimum height
𝟑× 𝟏𝟎 𝟖
of the antenna comes out to be 1m which is
practicable.

2. From the theory of electromagnetic waves, the

power radiated from the antenna is proportional
to the square of the frequency. If the power
 radiated is more, the signal can be transmitted
farther.
Thus by means of modulation power radiated and
hence distance coverage can be increased.

3. If modulation is carried out, the signals from

various stations are divided in frequency domain.
Hence multiplexing techniques may be used.

4. Noise effect is less at high frequency.

Amplitude modulation
Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where
the amplitude of the carrier wave varies in accordance
to the modulating or message signal.

Expression for Amplitude Modulated signal

We have carrier signal
C(t) = Ac cos ωct where
Ac = Amplitude of the carrier signal
ωc = 2π fc = Angular frequency of the carrier
fc = frequency in Hz of the carrier
ωct = Phase of the carrier
Let VAM(t)= Amplitude modulated signal
 = A(t) cos ωct where A(t) is the
amplitude of the modulated signal.
A(t) = Ac + ka m(t) where, ka is termed as
Amplitude sensitivity ( unitless)
If ka = 1 , then VAM(t)= [Ac + m(t) ] cos ωct

Single Tone AM signal in terms of modulation index

A message or modulating signal m(t) is said to be
single tone ( pure sinusoidal).
If m(t) = Am Cos ωmt
We already have,
VAM(t)= [Ac + m(t) ] cos ωct
= [Ac + Am Cos ωmt] cos ωct
𝑨𝒎
= Ac [1 + Cos ωmt] cos ωct
𝐀𝐜
= Ac [1 + m Cos ωmt] cos ωct
𝑨𝒎
Where, m= is called the Amplitude
𝐀𝐜
modulation index.
If m < 1 , modulation is called under modulation.
If m = 1 , modulation is called critical modulation.
If m > 1 , modulation is called over modulation.
If the message signal is sine wave Am Sin ωmt
Modulation Index in terms of maximum and minimum
voltages of modulated signal:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of the
amplitude of the modulating signal and the amplitude
of the carrier signal. It is denoted by ‘m’.

We have, VAM(t)= Ac [1 + m Cos ωmt] cos ωct

Maximum voltage of VAM(t)= VAM max = Ac [1 + m]
Minimum voltage of VAM(t)= VAM min = Ac [1 - m]
So, VAM max - VAM min = 2 Acm
VAM max + VAM min = 2 Ac

𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐢𝐧

‫=𝒎؞‬
𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐢𝐧

𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐢𝐧

Or 𝒎=
𝟐𝐀 𝐜

𝟐𝐦𝐀 𝐜
Or 𝒎=
𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐢𝐧

𝟐𝐀 𝐦 𝑨𝒎
Or 𝒎= since m=
𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐕𝐀𝐌 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐀𝐜
Spectrum of a single tone AM signal:
We have VAM(t) = Ac [1 + m Cos ωmt] cos ωct
= Ac cos ωct + m Ac Cos ωmt cos ωct
𝐦 𝐀𝐜 𝐦 𝐀𝐜
= Ac cos ωct + Cos ( ωc+ωm)t + Cos ( ωc - ωm)t
𝟐 𝟐

Frequency components of Amplitude Modulated Wave

There are three frequencies in amplitude modulated
wave. The frequencies are:
ωc → it is corresponding fc
ωc + ωm → it is corresponding fc + fm
ωc – ωm → it is corresponding fc – fm
where fc → carrier wave frequency
fc + fm → upper side band frequency
fc – fm → lower side band frequency
fm → modulating signal frequency
in general fc > > fm
Band width: (W)
W = upper side band frequency – lower side band
frequency (fc – fm)
w = fc + f m – f c + f m = 2 f m
w = 2fm = twice the frequency of modulating signal.

Normalized average power of AM signal

i. Normalized average power ( when resistance
R= 1Ω ) of carrier signal,
𝐀𝐜 𝟐 𝐀𝐜 𝟐
PC = ( =)
√𝟐 𝟐
ii. Normalized average power ( when resistance
𝐦𝐀𝐜 𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐀𝐜 𝟐 .𝐦𝟐
R= 1Ω ) of USB = ( = )
= 𝐏𝐜
𝟖𝟐√𝟐 𝟒
iii. Normalized average power ( when resistance
𝐦𝐀𝐜 𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐀𝐜 𝟐 .𝐦𝟐
R= 1Ω ) of LSB = ( ) = = 𝐏𝐜
𝟐√𝟐 𝟖 𝟒
 Total normalized average power of modulated
signal will be PT = PC + P USB + P LSB
𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟐
Therefore, PT = PC + 𝐏𝐜 + 𝐏𝐜 = PC ( 1+ )
𝟒 𝟒 𝟐

If m =1 , then total normalized average power of

modulated signal = 1.5 PC
Solved Problems
Ex 1
Carrier wave of frequency f = 1mHz with peak voltage
of 20V used to amplitude modulate a signal of
frequency 1kHz with peak voltage of 10v. Find out the
following
(i) m ?
(ii) Frequencies of modulated wave?
(iii) Bandwidth
Solution:
𝑨𝒎 𝟏𝟎
(i) m = = = 0.5
𝐀𝐜 𝟐𝟎
(ii) frequencies of modulated wave
f → fc, fc + fm and fc – fm
fc = 1mHz, fm = 1kHz
fc + fm = 1×106 + 1×103 = 1001 ×103 = 1001 kHz
fc – fm = 1×106 – 1×103 = 999 × 103 = 999 kHz
(iii) Band width: (W)
(W) = upper side band frequency – lower side band
frequency
= fc + fm – (fc – fm)
= 2fm = 1001 kHz – 999 kHz = 2 kHz

Types of AM signal
The above discussion shows that AM signal contains
(a) A carrier and (b) Two side bands.
If all the bands ( carrier, USB, LSB) are transmitted the
resulted signal is called Full AM or Double Side Band
Full Carrier signal ( DSB - FC).
i.e.
VFull AM(t)= [Ac + m(t) ] cos ωct
= Ac cos ωct + m(t)cos ωct
But it can be observed that the first term is the carrier
which conveys no information. Hence, the carrier can
be suppressed.
If , the carrier is suppressed then the modulation
system is called Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSB – SC) modulation system.
i.e. VDSB-SC= m(t) cos ωct
If m(t) = Am Cos ωmt
VDSB-SC= Am Cos ωmt cos ωct
 𝐦 𝐀𝐜 𝐦 𝐀𝐜
VDSB-SC = Cos ( ωc+ωm)t + Cos ( ωc - ωm)t
𝟐 𝟐

𝐀𝐦 𝐀𝐦
Or VDSB-SC = Cos ( ωc+ωm)t + Cos ( ωc - ωm)t
𝟐 𝟐

It is observed that both USB and LSB carry the same

information, so both need not be transmitted. So
either USB or LSB may be transmitted without loss of
information.
In this case the modulation system is called Single Side
Band Suppressed Carrier (SSB – SC) modulation
system.
If USB is transmitted,
𝐦 𝐀𝐜
VSSB-SC = Cos ( ωc+ωm)t
𝟐
𝐀𝐦
Or VSSB-SC = Cos ( ωc+ωm)t
𝟐
If LSB is transmitted,
𝐦 𝐀𝐜
VSSB-SC = Cos ( ωc-ωm)t
𝟐
𝐀𝐦
Or VSSB-SC = Cos ( ωc-ωm)t
𝟐
Table: power and band-width of different AM system
Type of Bands Power Maximum Band
system transmitted Power Width
Full AM Carrier, 𝐦𝟐 1.5 PC 2fm
PC+𝐏𝐜 +
or USB, LSB 𝟒
𝐦𝟐
DSBFC 𝐏𝐜
𝟒
DSBSC USB, LSB 𝐦𝟐 0.5 PC 2fm
𝐏𝐜 +
𝟒
𝐦𝟐
𝐏𝐜
𝟒
SSBSC USB or LSB 𝐏𝐜 𝐦𝟐 0.25 PC fm
𝟒

We see that SSB system has lesser power dissipation

and lesser bandwidth requirement, hence SSB
modulation is extensively used.

Modulation Efficiency (𝜼 )
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

(a) For DSBFC system :

𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟐
𝐏𝐜 + 𝐏𝐜
𝟒 𝟒
𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝐦 𝟐 𝐦𝟐
𝐏𝐂+ 𝐏𝐜 + 𝐏𝐜
𝟒 𝟒
 𝐦𝟐
𝟐 𝟏
= 𝐦𝟐
if m=1, 𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝟏+ 𝟑
𝟐
or 33.33%

(b) For DSBSC system :

𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟐
𝐏𝐜 + 𝐏𝐜
𝟒 𝟒
𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝐦 𝟐 𝐦𝟐
𝐏𝐜 + 𝐏𝐜
𝟒 𝟒

𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 1 or 100 %

(c) For SSBSC system :

𝐦𝟐
𝐏𝐜
𝟒
𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝐦𝟐
𝐏𝐜
𝟒

𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 1 or 100 %

Generation of AM Signal
The circuit that generates the AM waves is called as
amplitude modulator. Basically there are two such
modulator circuits namely :
1. Square Law Modulator
2. Switching Modulator
Both of these circuits use a non-linear elements such
as a diode for their implementation . Both these
modulators are low power modulator circuits .
Square Law Modulator
Generation of AM Waves using the square law
modulator could be understood in a better way by
observing the square law modulator circuit shown in
the following figure .

Nonlinear
m(t) device

Ac cos ωct
~ V0

It consists of the following :

1. A non-linear device
2. A bandpass filter
3. A carrier source and modulating signal

The modulating signal and carrier are connected in

series with each other and their sum V1(t) is applied at
the input of the non-linear device, such as diode,
transistor etc.
When a nonlinear element such as a diode is suitably
biased and operated in a restricted portion of its
characteristic curve i.e. signal applied to the diode is
relatively weak, we find that the transfer characteristic
of the diode load resistor combination can be
represented closely by a square law. Thus,

…………(1)
The input output relation for non-linear device is as
under :

……………….(2)
where a and b are constants.
Now, substituting the expression (1) in (2), we get

Or,

Or,
The five terms in the expression for V2(t) are as under :
Term 1: ax(t) : Modulating Signal
Term 2 : a Ec cos (2π fct ) : Carrier Signal
Term 3 : b x2 (t) : Squared modulating Signal
Term 4 : 2 b x(t) cos ( 2π fct ) : AM wave with only
sidebands
Term 5 : b Ec2 cos2 (2π fct ) : Squared Carrier
Out of these five terms, terms 2 and 4 are useful
whereas the remaining terms are not useful .
Let us club terms 2, 4 and 1, 3, 5 as follows to get ,

The LC tuned circuit acts as a bandpass filter . This

bandpass filter eliminates the unuseful terms from the
equation of v2(t) .

Hence the output voltage vo(t) contains only the useful

terms .
Or,

Therefore ,

……….(3)
Comparing this with the expression for standard AM
wave i.e.

,
We find that the expression for Vo(t) of equation (3)
represents an AM wave with m = (2b/a) .