PULSE MODULATION

Sampling Theorem
A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples
and can be recovered back when sampling frequency fs is
greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency
component of message signal. i. e.
fs≥2fm
v(t)= 32sin500t+30cos8000t+4cos400t+7sin450t+34cos300t
max w=8000
fm=8000/2π

Nyquist Rate
It is the minimum sampling rate at which signal can be
converted into samples and can be recovered back without
distortion.
Nyquist rate fN = 2fm hz

Nyquist interval
Similarly, maximum sampling interval is called Nyquist
interval.
𝟏 𝟏
Nyquist interval = =
𝒇𝑵 𝟐𝐟𝐦
Pulse modulation
Analog pulse modulation techniques can be classified as
below.
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation ( PAM)
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
In Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) technique, the
amplitude of the pulse carrier varies in proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
In PAM, a signal sampled at Nyquist rate can be
reconstructed, by passing it through an efficient Low Pass
Filter (LPF) with exact cut-off frequency.
Pulse Width Modulation
In Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration
Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
technique, the width or the duration or the time of the pulse
carrier varies in proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
of the message signal.
Pulse Position Modulation
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an analog modulation
scheme in which, the amplitude and the width of the pulses
are kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with
reference to the position of a reference pulse varies according
to the instantaneous value of the message signal.
The following figures explain the three types of Pulse
Modulation.

Pulse position modulation can be obtained in accordance

with the pulse width modulated signal. Each trailing edge of
the pulse width modulated signal becomes the starting point
for pulses in PPM signal. Hence, the position of these pulses
is proportional to the width of the PWM pulses.
Sample and Hold ( S/H) circuit for generation of PAM

This circuit consists of two FET switches and a capacitor. The

sampling switch is closed for a short duration by applying a
short pulse applied to gate G1 of the transistor.
During this period capacitor ‘C’ is quickly charged upto a
voltage equal to the instantaneous sample value of the
incoming signal x(t).
Now the sampling switch(G1) is opened and the capacitor ‘C’
holds the charge.
Then the discharge switch is closed by applying a pulse to gate
G2 of the other transistor. So ‘C’ is discharged to zero volts.
The discharged switch is then opened and the capacitor has
no voltage. So the output of S/H circuit consists of a sequence
of samples of the incoming analog signal.
Demodulation of PAM

Block diagram of PAM demodulator

In this method, the received PAM signal is allowed to pass
through a Holding circuit and a low pass filter (LPF) as shown
the above figure.
Holding Circuit

Here the switch ‘S’ is closed after the arrival of the pulse and
it is opened at the end of the pulse. In this way, the capacitor
C is charged to the pulse amplitude value and it holds this
value during the interval between the two pulses.
The sampled values are held as shown in the following figure.
 Output of holding circuit
After this the holding circuit output is smoothened in Low Pass
filter.
It may be observed that some kind of distortion is introduced
due to the holding circuit. In fact the circuit is known as zero-
order Holding circuit. This zero-order Holding circuit considers
only the previous sample to decide the value between the two
pulses.

The output ( dotted line)of Low Pass filter (LPF)

A first order holding circuit considers two previous samples.
A second order holding circuit considers three previous
samples and so on.
However, with increasing order of holding circuits distortion
in the output decreases at the cost of circuit complexity.

Pulse Width Modulation( PWM)

In this type, the amplitude is maintained constant but the
width of each pulse is varied in accordance with
instantaneous value of the analog signal. That is why the
information is contained in width variation.
A simple method to generate the PWM
The message signal (here the sinewave) is compared with a
sawtooth waveform. When the later is less than the former,
the PWM signal is in high state (1). Otherwise it is in the low
state (0).
The following system can be used for generation of PWM as
well as PPM. In this case a sawtooth signal of frequency fs is
a sampling signal.
It is applied to inverting terminal of a comparator with
modulating signal at non inverting terminal.
O/P remains high as long as modulating signal is higher than
that of ramp signal.
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM )
In this type, the sampled waveform has fixed amplitude and
width whereas the position of each pulse is varied as per
instantaneous value of the analog message signal.
PPM signal is further modification of a PWM signal.

The vertical dotted lines shown in the diagram are treated

as reference lines.
The PPM pulses marked 1,2 and 3 go away from their
respective reference lines. This corresponds to increase in
modulating signal amplitude.
Then as modulating signal decreases the PPM pulses 4,5,6,7
come closer to their respective reference lines.
Therefore, the PPM signal can be generated from PWM
signal.
The PWM pulses obtained at the comparator output are
applied to a monostable multivibrator which is –ve edge
triggered.
Hence for each trailing edge of PWM signal, the monostable
output goes high. It remains high for a fixed time decided by
its own RC components.
[ N.B.A monostable multivibrator is a sequential logic electronic circuit that generates an
output pulse. When triggered, a pulse of pre-defined duration is produced. The circuit then returns
to its stable state and produces no more output until triggered again.]

Thus as the trailing edges of the PWM signal keeps shifting

in proportion with the modulating signal, the PPM pulses
also keep shifting.
Therefore all the PPM pulses have the same amplitude and
width. The information is conveyed via changing position of
pulses.

******************************