LABORATORY SOIL TESTING

AND
INTERPRETATION OF TEST
RESULTS
‰ Laboratory
L b t tests
t t are useful
f l in
i providing
idi g reliable
li bl data
d t for
f
calculating ultimate bearing capacity of soils, stability
and settlement behavior of foundation,
foundation and for
determining physical characteristics of soils.
™ The common laboratory tests that concern the
foundation engineers are
™ Natural moisture content
™ Specific gravity
™ Grain size analysis
™ Atterberg limits

™ Unit weight
™ Consolidation test

™ Direct shear test

™ Unconfined compression test

™ Triaxial
T i i l compression
i test
™ Compaction test
™ Swell and swelling potential pressure tests
1. Natural Moisture Content,
ω= Ww/Ws x100
The sample should be undisturbed/disturbed
™ Steps to determine moisture content
™ first weighing a representative sample of soil in its
natural or wet state
™ d i the
drying h sample l to constant weight
i h iin an oven at a
temperature of 1050C;
™ and then weighing the dried sample
Equipments required to
determine water content
™ Let
™ Weight of the container, empty = Wc
™ Weight of the container + sample, W1 = Wc + (Ws + Ww)
™ Weight of the container + dried sample,
sample W2 = Wc + Ws
™ Weight of water, Ww = W1-W2 = Wc + (Ws+Ww) – (Wc +Ws)
™ Weight of dried sample, Ws = W2 – Wc = Wc + Ws – Wc

Then
™ M i t
Moisture content,ω
t t = Ww/Ws
W /W x100
100

™ Results of this test used

™ It gives an indication the amount of water exists in a given soil mass

™ For cohesive soils, it is used to determine its state of consistency

™ To calculate other soil parameters

2. Specific Gravity , It is a measure of and a means of expressing the
heaviness of material
material. γs Ws
Gs = =
γ ω
V sγ ω

Sample – disturbed but representative

´ The specific gravity determination of a sample of soil is made by
displacement in water using pycnometer (volumetric bottle).

´ In this test a known weight of oven dried soil sample is carefully

put in a pycnometer, which is, then half filled with distilled water.

´ The air entrapped in the soil sample is removed by heating or by

means of vacuum pumps.
p p

´ The bottle is then topped up with distilled water up to a calibration

mark and brought up to a constant temperature.
temperature
´ After carefully wiped and dried, it is weighed.
 γ Ws
Gs = s
=
γ ω
V sγ ω

Wt. of pycnometer + water = W2; Wt.of pycnometer + water + solids = W1

Let:
™ Weight of pycnometer bottle + water = W2
™ Weight of pycnometer bottle + water + soil = W1
™ Weight of dry soil =Ws

™ Let the weight of displaced water =X

Then
™ W2 + Ws = W1 + X
™ X = Ws + W2 – W1
™ Volume of displaced water = (Ws + W2 – W1) / γωT

™ GT = γω / γωT

™ γωT = GT γω
Where
™ GT = S ifi gravity
Specific i off water at temperature T
™ γωT = Unit weight of water at temperature T

™ Volume of displaced water = (Ws + W2 – W1) / GT γω

™ This is equal to the volume of solids

™ Therefore Volume of solids (Vs) = (Ws + W2 – W1) / GT γω

™

™ Gs= WsGT/ (Ws + W2 – W1)

™ R
Results
lt used d
™ to determine the density of soil grain
™ to calculate other soil parameters
™ TTypical
i l test results
l

™ Site Addis Ababa

™ Soil type , Red clay soils,
™ Range
a ge of
o Gs, 2.65-2.77
65
™ Soil type , Black clay soil
Range of Gs, 2.70- 2.82
™ Site Nejo-Mendi, Welega
™ Soil type , Lateritic soil
Range of Gs, 2.78- 3.02 (due to high amount
of iron oxide)
 3
3. G i size
Grain i analysis.
l i
™ In this system soils are split into coarse-grained non-cohesive
and fine-grained cohesive soils.
soils

™ Most systems
y of soil classification depend
p to some extent
upon the distribution of various sized particles in the soil.

™ For coarse-grained material this distribution may be determined

by sieving, and for finer particles a method of measuring the
rate of settlement in water is used

™ Sample – Disturbed but representative

™ Grain size analysis of a soil is carried out in two stages:
™ Sieveanalysis for coarse grained particles
™ Hydrometer analysis for fine grained particles

™ Sieve Analysis.
™ It is carried out by sieving a known dry weight of sample through
th sett off sieves
the i placed
l d one below
b l the
th other,
th so that
th t the
th openings
i
decrease in size from the top sieve down, with a pan at the bottom
of the stock.

™ The whole set of sieves is given a horizontal shaking for about ten
minutes until the weight of soil remaining on each sieve reaches a
constant value.
value

™ By determining the weight of soil sample left on each sieve, the

f ll i calculations
following l l ti can bbe made.
d
 Percentage retained on any sieve = Wt. of soil retained
´ Χ 100
Total soil weight
´ Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve = Sum of
percentage retained on all any coarser sieves

´ Percentage finer than any sieve size = 100 percent minus

cumulative percentage retained
´ Hydrometer Analysis

´ Soil particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm

(p
(passingg 200 mesh sieve)) are determined byy the
so-called hydrometer method

´ It is based on the process of sedimentation of soil

particles in water by gravity.

´ Sedimentation by gravity is the separation of

particles of various sizes by their velocity.

´ Coarse soil suspension settles out more rapidly

than the finer ones of the same specific gravity.
 The hydrometer method of analysis is based on Stoke’s
-The Stoke s law of
settlement i.e. small spheres in a liquid settle at different rate
according to the size of the sphere. The terminal velocity of a
spherical soil particle settling in water is expressed by Stoke’s
law as

γ s − γω 2
V= D
18μ

where γ
γs = Unit weight
g of spherical
p g
grains
γω = Unit weight of water
μ = Viscosity of water
D = Diameter of the spherical particles
´ Laboratory Procedure for Hydrometer Analysis

´ 50 gm of soil passing sieve No. 200 are agitated with water and
dispersing agent(Sodium hexametaphosphate ) in 1000 cc jar.jar

´ The density of the suspension is then measured with streamlined

hydrometer at given intervals of time.

´ The hydrometer reading

reading, Zr, is observed at the surface of the fluid
on a scale of the stem and this indicates the density of the
suspension.
´ Readings are usually taken at intervals of ¼, ½, 1 and 2
minutes
i t with ith the
th hhydrometer
d t remaining
i i iin the
th suspension
i
all the time.

´ For later intervals, that is 5, 10, 20 etc. minutes the

hydrometer is put in the suspension just before reading
and
d removed d after
f each h reading.
di
VH (b)
Z’r
Aj
Z’r
Zr
VH
2A j Center of volume
ol me of
hydrometer
 Zr =H+1/2h

H
Z’r Zr
VH/2Aj
h

Z’r = Zr - VH/2Aj =H+1/2(h - VH/Aj)

´ If a soil particle of size “D” falls through a distance Zr in time t, its
velocity will be given as
Z
V = r
t
´ Using Stoke’s law
γ s − γω 2
V= D
18μ
´ For early readings
V18μ 18μ Zr
D = = Χ
γs −γω γs −γω t

After a time t, all particles of diameter equal to and larger than D

have settled through a depth Zr. All the remaining particles finer
th D are still
than till iin suspension
i and d th
their
i concentration
t ti need d tto b
be
determined.
The above equation applies to early readings taken between ¼
and 2 minutes intervals.
´ For later readings
´ For the readings taken at intervals of 5,5 10,
10 20 etc. etc minutes,
minutes
emersion correction is applied to the above equation
´ When the hydrometer is placed in the jar, it displaces its own
volume as shown in the previous Fig. As a result, the surface of the
suspension rises.
´ If the hydrometer has a volume = VH and the jar has a cross- cross
sectional area = Aj, then the surface of the suspension as indicated
on the previous figure will rise by (VH / Aj),.
´ Since the displacement below the center of the bulb is due to half of
its volume, the suspension now at the center must previously be
lower by ½(VH / Aj)
VH
´ Therefore, actual distance of settlement Z 'r = Z r −
j 2A
z r − VH / 2 A j
18 μ
D =
γ s −γω t
• Zr can be obtained from the calibration curve
curve, which is a plot of Zr
against hydrometer reading.
Zr =H+1/2h
. Where H is hydrometer reading

• The percentage finer, N, can be obtained from

Gs ⎛ V ⎞
N= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (γ ω (r − rω )) Χ 100
Gs − 1 ⎝ WS ⎠
Zr

VH/2Aj

Hydrometer reading
•For combined analysis (i.e. sieve analysis + hydrometer
analysis) the percentage finer, N, can be calculated from the
following equation.

N Χ W1
N'=
W
where
W1 = Weight of soil finer than No. 200 sieve
W = Total soil weight
g used in combined analysisy
N’ = Percentage finer based on entire soil sample, W
™ The results of grain size analysis presented in the form curves,
percent finer versus particle diameter.

™ The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested. On
the basis of the shapes one can classify soils as
™ Uniformly graded or poorly graded,

™ Well graded,

™ Gap graded
™ Uniformly graded soils are represented by nearly vertical
lines as shown by curve ΙΙ. This represents type of soil in
which most of the soil grains are of the same size
™ Such
S h soilsil will
ill easily
il bbe di
displaced
l d under
d load
l d and d
have less supporting power.
™ A well-graded soil, represented by curve Ι, possesses a wide
range of particles sizes ranging from gravel to clay size
particles.
™ Such soil is relatively stable, resistant to erosion, can
readily be compacted to a very dense condition, and
will develop high shearing resistance and bearing
capacity.
™ A gap-graded soil, as shown by curve ΙΙΙ has some of the
sizes of particles missing. On this curve the soil particles
f lli the
falling i i .
th range XY are missing
 4. Atterberg Limits
4
¾ The Swedish Scientist, Atterberg (1911), developed a
method of describingg q
quantitativelyy the effect of varying
y g
water content on the consistency of fine-grained soils.

¾ He established the four states of soil consistency, which

are called the liquid, the plastic, the semi-solid, and the
solid states.

¾ He also proposed a series of tests for determining the

boundaries known as Atterberg limits between the physical
states of soil.

¾ Each boundary or limit is defined by the water content that

produces
p oduces a specified
spec ed consistency.
co s ste cy
volume

Plastic State Liquid State

Solid Semi- solid

State State

ωs ωp ωl Water content
¾ Liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil suspension
passes from no strength to a very small strength.

¾ Plastic limit is the moisture content at which the sample, when it

is rolled into a thread, starts to crumble rather than distort
plastically.

¾ Shrinkage limit is the moisture content of a soil at which further

reduction of the moisture does not bring any change in the
volume.
ƒDetermination of Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit (ωℓ)
• The limits are determined on that portion of soil finer than a
No. 40 sieve (ASTM).

• About 100 gm of soil is mixed thoroughly with distilled water

into a uniform paste.

•A portion of the paste is placed in the cup and leveled.

•A groove is cut at the center of the soil pat, using the standard
grooving tool .

•The handle is next turned at a rate of about two revolutions

per second and the number of blows necessary to close the
ggroove alongg the bottom for a distance of 12 mm is counted.
9The water content of the soil taken near the closed groove is
fo nd o
found t
out.

9The water content of the soil in the cup is altered and the tests
repeated.

9At least four tests should be carried out byy adjusting

j g the water
contents in such a way that the number of blows required to close
the groove may fall within the range of 10 to 40 blows.

9A plot of water content against the log of blows is made as shown

in the figure.

9 The curve so obtained is known as a “flow curve”.

9The water
ater content corresponding to 25 blows
blo s is termed as liquid
liq id
limit.
 ω7

ω6
nt
e conten

ω5
ω4
ωℓ
Moisture

ω 3

ω2

ω1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Number of blows
¾ Plastic Limit (ωp)
¾ About 15 gm of soil passing through sieve No. 40 (ASTM), mixed
thoroughly
th hl with
ith water.
t

¾ The soil is rolled on a glass plate with the hand

hand, until it is about 3
mm in diameter.

¾ This procedure of mixing and rolling is repeated till the soil shows
signs of crumbling when the diameter is 3 mm.

¾ The water content of the crumbled portion of the thread is

determined. This is called as p
plastic limit.
¾ Shrinkageg Limit (ωs)
( )
¾ For determination of shrinkage limit, a container of known volume
V1 is filled with plastic soil in the saturated state.

¾ The weight of the saturated soil is determined.

¾ The specimen is dried gradually first in air and then in an oven at

a constant temperature
p of 1050c.

¾ After oven drying the specimen weighed.

¾ Following the weighing, its volume is determined by displacement

in mercury.
mercury
Fig. a represents saturated soil in a container of volume V1
Fig b represents the saturated soil at shrinkage limit
Fig.
Fig. c represents the dry soil after oven drying.

V1 – V2

Ww
W1 V1
V2
Ws Ws

(a) (b) (c)

W w W 1 − W s − γ ω (V1 − V 2 )
Shrinkage limit ω = = Χ 100
Ws Ws
™ Plasticity Index, PI =ωl - ωp
™ This indicates
™ The range of water content over which the soil exhibits plasticity.

™ The presence of clay in a given soil

™ In general, a high numerical value of plasticity index means a

high percentage of clay fraction

Plasticity Index plasticity

0 Non-plastic
p
<7 Low plastic
7-17 Medium
>17 High plastic
™ Liquidity Index (LΙ): - The Atterberg limits are found for
remoulded soil samples. These limits as such do not indicate the
consistency of undisturbed soils. The index that is used to
indicate the consistency of undisturbed soils is called as the
liquidity index or water plasticity ratio. The liquidity index is
p
expressed as
ω −ωp
LI =
PΙ
™The value of LΙ varies according to the consistency of soils as follows

Consistency Liquidity index

Semi solid or solid state Negative
Very stiff state (ω=ωp) 0
Very soft state (ω=ωℓ) 1
Liquid state (when disturbed) >1
™ Typical Atterberg limit test results
™ Site Addis Ababa
Red clay soil Black clay soil

Clay,% ωl,% ωp,% PI,% Clay,% ωl,% ωp,% PI,%

70 72 31 41 80 136 34 102

64 66 28 38 79 128 33 95

58 61 27 34 77 120 29 91

53 57 24 33 73 112 32 80
CLASSIFICATIONS AND
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
OF SOILS
I. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOILS

™ A soil classification system is the arrangement of different soils

having similar properties into groups and sub-groups based on
their application.

™ It provides a common language to express briefly the general

characteristics of soils.

™ There are severall methods

Th th d off classifying
l if i g soils.
il
™ The most widely used classification systems by engineers are
described here.
Grain Size Classification
™ It iis based
b d on grain
g i size
i off th il and
the soils d iis essentially
ti ll useful
f l ffor
classifying soils in which single grain properties are of
importance.
™ Three of the grain size classifications that are in common use
are the following.

(a) U.S. Bureau of Public Roads Classification

Sand Silt Clay
Gravel Coarse Fine

2 0 25
0.25 0 05
0.05 0.005
0 005
Grain size in mm
 (b) M.I.T Classification
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine

2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002

Grain size in mm

(c) Textural Classification

™ - This classification is based on a triangular chart shown below
below.
A soil with known percentage of sand, silt and clay sizes is
represented by a given point on a triangular chart of this type.
™ Example

™ 35% sand -, 25% silt-, and 40% clay-size particles,

™ This soil falls into the zone of Sandy clay.

clay
 0 100

10 90

CL
ND

AY
20 80

SA
70

d
30

an
SILT

%
fs
40 CLAY 60

by
to
igh

we
50 50
we

igh
SANDY
60 SILTY 40

to
by

CLAY
CLAY

fc
%

70 30

lay
CLAYEY SAND CLAYEY SILT
80 20

90 SANDY SILT 10
SILTY SAND
SAND SILT
100 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% by weight of silt
Soil Classification Based on both Grain-size and Atterberg
limits
™ The physical properties of fine-grained soils are dictated to a
great extent by the amounts and types of clay minerals present in
them. Hence, for proper interpretation of soil characteristics, the
plasticity that is the result of the presence of clay minerals needs
to be considered.
considered

™ Presently, two more elaborate classification systems that take

into consideration both particle-size distribution and Atterberg
limits are commonly used. They are
™ The AASHTO (A
Th (American
i Association
A i ti off St
State
t Hi
Highway
h and
d
Transport Official) classification system and
™ The unified soil classification system
AASHTO Classification System
™ The AASHTO classification system
system, also called Public Roads
Administration (PRA) classification, is based on the following
three soil properties:
™ Grain-size distribution

™ Liquid limit

™ Plasticity
Pl ti it iindex
d
™ This system is generally used by highway engineers, for
classification of sub-grade
g soils for the highway
g yppavements.

™ According to this system, soil is classified into seven major

groups, A-1 through A-7.
™ Soils classified under groups A-1
A-1, A-2
A-2, and A-3 are granular
materials with 35% or less passing through a No. 200 sieve.

™ Soils with more than 35% passing a No. 200 sieve are classified
under groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7. These soils are mostly silt
and clay-type
clay type materials.
materials

™ To classifyy a soil usingg AASHTO soil classification Table,, one must

proceed from left to right with required test data available. By the
process of elimination, the first group from the left into which the
test data will fit gives the correct classification.
classification
™ Under this classification system
system, a characteristic called group
index (G.I) is used to describe the performance of a soil when
used as a highway subgrade material.

™ Group index is not used to place the soil in a particular group, but
is act
actually
all a means of rating the value
al e of a soil as a subgrade
s bgrade
material, within its own group.

GI = 0.2a+ 0.005ac + 0.01bd

´ where
¹ a = that portion of percentage of particles passing
No.200 sieve greater than 35% and not exceeding 75%,
expressed d as positive
iti whole
h l number b (0 tot 40).
40)
¹ b = that portion of percentage of particles passing No.200
sieve ggreater than 15% and not exceedingg 55 %,, expressed
p
as positive whole number (0 to 40).
¹ c = that portion of the liquid limit greater than 40 and not
exceeding
di 60 , expressed d as positive
iti whole
h l numberb
(0 to 20).
¹d = that portion of the plasticity index greater than 10 and
not exceeding 30, expressed as positive whole number
(0 to 20).
General Classification Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials
(35 per cent or less passing No. 200) (More than 35 percent passing No. 200)

A 1
A-1 A 2
A-2 A 7
A-7
Group Classification A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7 A-7-6
Sieve analysis per cent
passing
No. 10 50 max
No. 40 30 max 50 max 51 min
No. 200 15 max 10 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min

Characteristics of
fraction passing
No. 40 sieve
Liquid limit 40max 41 min 40max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
Plasticity Index 6 (max) N.P 10max 10max 11 min 11min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min
Group index 0 0 0 4 max 8 max 12 max 16max 20 max

Usual types of Stone fragments Fine Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soils Clayey soils
significant constituent gravel and sand sand
materials
General rating as sub- Excellent to good Fair to poor
grade
The A-7 group is subdivided into A-7-5 or A-7-6 depending on the plastic limit. For P.L.<30, the classification is A-7-6; for
P.L ≥30, it is A-7-5.
Unified Soil Classification System

™ The system is most popular for use in all types of engineering

problems involving soils.

™ It is based on recognition of the type and predominance of the

constituents considering grain size, gradation and plasticity.

™ It divides
di id soilil into
i t th
three major
j di
divisions;
i i namely:
l
™ Coarse-grained soils,

™ Fine-grained soils
soils, and
™ Highly organic (peat) soils.
™ The name and symbols used to distinguish between the typical and
boundary soil groups are given below.

™ a) Coarse-grained soils
G = Gravel , S = Sand

™ The gravel and sand are further divided into subgroups as;
W = Well graded P = Poorly graded

™ b) Fine-grained soils
9 M = Inorganic silt
9 C = Inorganic clay
9 O = Organic silts and clays
9 Pt = Peat
™ The above groups of fine-grained soils (excluding peat) are
further subdivided according to their liquid limits into

™ L = Low plasticity (ωℓ < 50%)

™ H = High plasticity
l ti it (ωℓ
( ℓ > 50%)

™ Plasticity Chart: - The plasticity chart is a plot of plasticity index

versus liquid
li id limit.
li i Fi Fine-grained
i d soils
il are subdivided
bdi id d iinto soils
il off
low, medium and high plasticity following the criteria cut-lined
below
™ Low
L plasticity
l ti it (ωℓ
( ℓ < 30%)
™ Medium plasticity (ωℓ between 30% and 50%)
™ High plasticity (ωℓ> 50%)

™ The diagonal line drawn in the plasticity chart is called the “A”
line and is ggiven byy the equation
q PΙ = 0.73 ((ωℓ - 20).
) Clays
y fall
above the A-line and silts below it.
‰ Information about the type of clay in a given soil can be
obtained from

1. Plasticity chart :-This chart gives information about

-degree of plasticity
-organic content
2
2. Activity Chart : - Used to estimate the swelling potential
of a given clay
 Plasticity chart

70
inorganic
ndex

60 inorganic inorganicclays of
clays of
clays of high plasticity
Plasticity In

50 medium
low
40 plasticity plasticity
inorganic silts of
30
high
20inorganic silts of inorganic silts of compressibility
low compressibility and organic
10 medium
compressibility cla s
clays
0
and organic silts
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
 Activity chart, A= Ip/clay fraction

90
80
plasticitty index

70 ACTIVE
NORMAL
60
50
40
INACTIVE
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Clay fraction
´ Example 1
´ A sample of inorganic soil has the following grain size
characteristics:

Sieve No Percent passing

10 100
40 80
200 40
´ The liquid limit is 65 percent and the plasticity index 22 percent;
classify the soil by AASHTO system.
´
´ Solution

´ Using AASHTO classification table (since 40% of the soil is passing

through No. 200 sieve), it falls under the silt – clay type of
material, i.e., A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7. Proceeding from left to right, it
falls under group A-7. It may be A-7-5 or A-7-6 which is decided as
below:
´ The plastic limit (ωp) of this soil can also be worked out as
ωp = ωℓ - PΙ or ωp = 65 - 22
or ωp = 43 which is greater than 30
´ Hence, the classification, as per note given at the bottom of
AASHTO classification
l ifi ti is
i A 7 5 as ωp > 30.
A-7-5, 30
´
´ GI = 0.2a+ 0.005ac + 0.01bd
a = ((40-35)=5,
) , b= ((40-15)=25
)
c = (65-40)=25 , d = (22-10)=12
´ GI = 0.2(5)+ 0.005(5)(25) + 0.01(25)(12) =4.6; say 5

´ Therefore, the soil will be classified as A-7-5 (5)

´ Example 2
´ The results of the grain size analysis of a soil are as follows:
´ Percent passing №. 10 sieve = 100
´ Percent p
passingg №. 40 sieve = 80
´ Percent passing №.200 sieve = 58
´ The liquid limit and plastic index of minus № - 40 fraction of the
soil are 30% and 10%, respectively. Classify the soil by the
unified classification system.

´ Solution
´ Since 58% of the soil is p
passingg through
g №. 200 sieve,, it is a
fine-grained soil. Referring to the plasticity chart for ωℓ = 30%
and PΙ = 10%, it can be classified as CL.
ΙΙ
ΙΙ. FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOILS
¾Soilscan be identified in the field by conducting the following
simple tests.

¾ The techniques
q used for identification of soils in the field can
conveniently be discussed under the headings of coarse-grained
and fine-grained soils.

¾ The sample is first spread on a flat surface. If more than 50%

of the p
particles are visible to the naked eye,
y , the soil is coarse-
grained; otherwise, it is fine-grained.
1. Coarse-grained Soil

¾ -Coarse-grained soils are mineral fragments that may be identified

primarily on the basis of grain size. The different constituents of
coarse-grained soils are sand and gravel.

¾ The size of sand varies from 0.075 mm to 2 mm

¾ and that of gravel from 2 mm to 60mm.

60mm

¾ Sand can further be classified as coarse, medium and fine.

¾ The description of sand and gravel should include an estimate of the

quantity of material in the different size ranges as well as a statement
of the shape and mineralogical composition of the grains.
grains

¾ The mineral grains can be rounded, sub-rounded, sub-angular, or

angular
2. Fine Grained Soils
A. Inorganic Soils: - The constituent parts of fine-grained materials
are silt and clay fractions.
¾ The classification tests used in the field for preliminary identification
are;

9 Dry strength test

9 Shaking test (dilatancy test)

9 Plasticity test

¾ B. Organic Soils :-
¾ The presence of an appreciable quantity of organic material can
usually be recognized by the dark-grey to black colour and odor of
decaying vegetation,
vegetation which it lends to the soil.
soil
5. Free swell Test
¾Thistest tries to give a fair approximation of the degree of
expansiveness of a given soil sample.

¾TestProcedure
¾Pouring very slowly 10cc of dry soil passing No. 40 sieve into
100cc water
¾Letting the content stand for about 24 hrs until all the sample
completely settles on the bottom of the cylinder.
¾Record the final volume of the sample

Fi l Volume
Final V l − Initial
I iti l Volume
V l
Free Swell = x100
Initial Volume
¾ Free swell< 50% ,Not Expansive
¾ Free swell between 50-100%, Marginal
¾ Free
F swellll > 100,Expansive
100 E i

Example
Site Addis Ababa

Area Rufael Bole

Free Swell 30-40% 130-150%
 ¾ Water flow through soil

¾ The flow of water in soil is caused by the action of gravity, which

tends to pull the water down ward to a lower elevation.

¾ In the study of gravitational flow in soils we are primarily

interested in the laminar type of flow.
flow

¾ Laminar flow is said to exist when all particles of water move in

parallel paths and lines of flows are not inter-twined as the water
moves forward.

¾ The quantity of water flowing past a fixed point in a given time is

equal to the cross-sectional area of the water multiplied by the
average velocity of flow.
flow
¾ Q = AV
™ According to hydraulics principle for steady state laminar flow
condition the velocity is proportional to the hydraulic
condition,
gradient,
Vα i⇒ V=ki
™ Hydraulic Gradient, The driving force which causes water to
flow may be represented by a quantity known as hydraulic
gradient i.i
gradient,

™ This is defined as the drop in head divided by the distance in

which the drop occurs. It may be expressed by the relation:

h1 − h2 Δh
i= =
L L
 Δh

Soil Sample

ΔL

Darcy found that the flow (volume per unit time) was
9 proportional to the head difference Δh
9 proportional to the cross-sectional area A
9 inversely proportional to the length of sample ΔL
 Thus Δhh
Q = kA
ΔLL
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.

Th above
The b equation
ti may be
b written
itt as

Or Q= kAi

v=ki

where i = Δh/ΔL the hydraulic gradient

v = Q/A th Darcy
the D or superficial
fi i l velocity
l it
‰ PERMEABILITY

™ It is a soil property, which indicates the ease which water will flow
through the soil. It denotes the capacity of soil to conduct or
discharge water under a given hydraulic gradient.

™ Th permeability
The bilit off soilil varies
i greatly.
g tl

¾ Coarse sand and ggravel are highly

g yp pervious and have
correspondingly high permeability coefficients.

¾ Clayson the other hand are relatively impervious and

hence have low permeability coefficients.
‰ 6
6. Laboratory Measurement of Permeability

™ The various types of apparatus, which are used in soil

laboratories for determining coefficients of permeability of soils,
are called Permeameters.

™ Two types of apparatus

™ Constant head Permeameter

™ Falling (variable) head Permeameter.

i)) Constant
Co sta t Head
ead Permeameter
e ea ete

™ This test is more suited for coarse grained soils such as gravely
coarse-grained
sand and coarse and medium sand.

™ In this test, the sample of length L and cross- sectional area A is

subjected to a head h, which is constant during the progress of a
test.
test

™ Before the commencement of the test the soil should be saturated

by allowing water to flow continuously through the sample
™ A test is performed by allowing water to flow through the sample
and measuring the quantity of discharge Q in time t.

™ The
Th coefficient
ffi i t off permeability
bilit k can be
b computed
t d directly
di tl from
f
Darcy’s law expressed as follows

h
Q = kiAt = k At
L
Q
QL
k =
hAt
Water
supply

Screen
h Graduated
jar
L Soil sample
Area, A

Screen
Valve
ii) Falling (variable) head Permeameter.

™ This test is more suited for fine sands, silts and clays, where
the time required for permeability is relatively long

™ Inthis test
test, a transparent standpipe of cross
cross-sectional
sectional area,
area
a, is attached to the test cylinder which contains the soil
sample.

™ Beforethe commencement of the test the soil should be

saturated by allowing water to flow continuously through the
sample from the standpipe.
™ After the saturation is complete,
complete the standpipe is filled with
water up to a height of ho and a stopwatch is started.

™ Let the initial time be to and the final time t1 when the water
level drops from ho to h1.

™ The coefficient of permeability k can be determined on the

basis of the drop
p in head ((ho-h1) and the elapsed
p time ((t1-to)).

2.3 a L ho
k= logg10
A[t1 − to ] h1
 dh

ho
h
Stand pipe area, a
h1
Screen
Soil sample
L
area, A
Screen
Valve
™ The coefficient of permeability, k, is conventionally reported at a
standard temperature of +200c.

™ Tests carried out at different temperatures should be corrected as

follow.

μT
K 200C = KT
μ 20 0C
™ EFFECTIVE AND NEUTRAL STRESSES IN SOILS

™ The total stress on a horizontal plane through a submerged

soil mass is equal to the sum of two components known as
effective stress and neutral stress.

™ Effective Stress The stress transmitted through grain to

grain at the contact points through a soil mass is termed as
effective or intergranular stress.

™ N t l Stress
Neutral St is a unit stress carried by the water in the
soil pores.
 H1

hw
z Soil
a b sample

The lower p
part of the container shown in Fig.
g above is filled with saturated soil having
ga
unit weight γsat. Water stands to a height H1 above the surface of the soil. After
equilibrium is established, the piezometric head hw at depth z is H1 +z, the neutral stress
is u = ( H + z )γ
w 1 ω
and the total normal stress is σ = H 1 γ ω + z γ sat

Hence the effective stress at depth z is

σ - uω = H1 γω+ z γsat – (H1+z) γω

= H1 γω - H1 γω+z (γsat - γω)
=zγb
™ CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND QUICK
SAND CONDITION

™ When water flows through a soil mass, the viscous resistance

within the pore channels results in seepage forces being
transmitted by the water to the soil particles.
particles

™ In areas where the flow occurs predominantly in an upward

direction, these seepage forces tend to reduce the effective
stress between the soil particles and hence tend to reduce the
shear
h strength
t gth off the
th soilil mass
 Water supply

Sand sample

At the bottom plane of the sand the total downward force is equal to the
saturated weight of sand
⎛ Gs + e ⎞
γsat L A = ⎜
⎝ 1 + e ⎠
⎟ γ ω LA

The upward force at the same plane, is the pressure of water under a
head of (h+L) on an area A and this is equal to
γ ω (h + L ) A
™If these two forces happen to be equal, the net downward force on the
bottom plane will be nil,
nil and neglecting friction from the sides of the container
container,
there will be no force preventing the outflow of the sand from the container.
For this condition to occur
 h Gs −1 γb
= ic = =
L 1+ e γω

™Where ic is the critical hydraulic gradient. It is a gradient through the soil at

which the effective stresses on a horizontal plane in the soil are reduced to
zero.

™When the hydraulic gradient is ic, the effective normal stress on any plane will
be zero, gravitational forces having been canceled out by upward seepage
forces. In the case of sands the contact forces between particles will be zero
and the soil will have no strength.

™The soil is then said to be in a quick condition and if the critical gradient is
exceeded the surface will appear to be ‘boiling’
boiling as the particles are moved
around in the upward flow of water

p arrangement
™For the simple g shown in the previous
p slide a quick
q sand
condition could equally well be produced by maintaining the reservoir level
constant and decreasing the thickness of the sand
Piping or Boil near toe of embankment
 •COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS
™ Any structure built on the ground causes increase of pressures
on the underlying soil layers.
layers The soil layers are unable to
spread laterally as they are confined by surrounding soil
strata. Hence they must adjust to the new pressures by
vertical deformation only.

™ The compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in the

volume of the mass, which results in the settlement of the
structure, built on the mass.

™ Settlement is, therefore, the sinking of a structure due to a

compressive
r i deformation
d f r ti off the th underlying
d rl i g soilil mass
™ The vertical compression of a soil mass under increased
pressures is thus made up
p p of the following
g components.
p
¾Deformation of the soil grains

¾Compression of water and air within the voids

¾An
A escape off water
t and d air
i from
f the
th voids
id

™ It is quite reasonable and rational to assume that the solid

matter and the pore water relatively are incompressible
under the loads usually encountered in soil masses.
™ The change in volume of a mass under imposed stresses
must be only due to the escape of water if the soil is
saturated.

™ But if the
B h soilil iis partially
i ll saturated,
d the
h change
h in
i volume
l off
the mass is partially due to the compression and escape of
air from the voids and partially due to the dissolution of air in
the pore water.

™ A study of compressibility of soils is necessary to be able to

forecast the probable settlement of structures on different
types of soils.
 COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOILS

APPLICATION OF STRESSES TO
ANY MATERIAL

CAUSES
STRAINS

In some material In other materials strains are

a certain amount of time developed
required instantaneously

Stress and strains are

Stress- strain- time
proportional and
relationships
Independent of time

Non elastic materials Theory of elasticity

One-dimensional comp. Compression of granular

of clay soils
 . Consolidation
™ Consolidation is a gradual decrease of the volume a soil at
constant load.

™ The rate at which the water can escape depends upon the
permeability of the soil. In a free drained cohesionless soil,
such as medium and coarse sand or gravel, the change in
volume is generally slight and almost instantaneous so that
very soon after its application the load is carried by the soil
skeleton.

™ With clay soils,

soils however,
however the permeability is low and there is
a time lag between the application of load and the change in
volume. During this period, the soil remains fully saturated
and the change in volume corresponds to a change in the
amount of pores (the void-ratio) in the soil.
 Principle of Consolidation
™ The principle of consolidation of clay soil-water system
may be explained with the help of a mechanical model as
described by Terzaghi and Froehlich. The model consists of
a cylinder with a frictionless piston as shown in figure
below.

Holes P
p

Piston

Spring

Pore
water
t
7. Consolidation Test
™ The consolidation test measures the rate and amount of volume
change with the application of load on a laboratory specimen and
the results thus obtained are used to calculate the settlement of
a foundation.

™ The test is performed in a consolidometer (sometimes referred to

as an oedometer).

™ In this test a small representative sample of undisturbed soil is

carefully trimmed and fitted into a rigid metal ring.

™ The soil sample is mounted on a porous stone base, and a

similar stone is placed on top to permit water, which is squeezed
out of the sample to escape freely at the top and bottom
bottom.
™ Before conducting the test, the porous stones should be saturated
ith b
either by b ili iin di
boiling till d water
distilled t ffor about
b t 15 minutes
i t or kkeeping
i
them in submerged under water for 4-hours

™ Prior to loading, the height of the sample should be accurately

measured.

™ A micrometer dial should be mounted in such a manner that the

vertical strains in the sample can be measured as loads are
applied.
li d

™ Loads are applied in steps in such a way that the successive load
intensity, p, is twice the preceding one.

™ The load
Th l d intensities
i t iti commonly
l used
d being
b i g ¼,
¼ ½,
½ 1,2,4,8
1 2 4 8 and
d 16
kg/cm2.
™ E h lload
Each d should
h ld allow
ll to stand
d untilil compression
i h i ll
has practically
ceased.

™ The dial readings should be taken at elapsed time of 0, ¼, 1,

2¼, 4, 6¼, 9,12¼, 16, 20¼, 25 minutes …. 24 hours.

™ The following data should also be obtained

¾ Moisture
M i t content
t t and d weight
i ht off the
th soilil sample
l before
b f the
th
commencement of the test.
¾ Moisture content and weight of the sample after the
completion of the test.
¾ The specific gravity of the solids.
 Dial gauge for measuring
Loading P vertical deformations
Plate

Water
Porous
stone

Metal Soil Sample

Ring

Porous
stone

Consolidometer
™ Pressure Void Ratio Curves

™ The results of the consolidation test are presented graphically.

™ Two types of curves

¾ e-p curve:- Both e and P are plotted to a natural scales

¾ e-logp curve:- e is plotted to a natural scale and P is plotted

to a logarithmic scale
 Δh1
Vvo Δh2
Vv1
ho h1
h2
Vs Vs
eo=

eo e1 e2
a) Initial condition b) Compressed conditions

VoGsγ ω Δ h1
eo = −1 Δ e1 = (1 + eo )
Ws ho
 •The new void ratio e1 after consolidation by the pressure
increment P1:
e1= eo - Δe1

•For the next loading P2 (the cumulative load per unit area of
sample), causing additional deformation of Δh2, the void ratio e2
at the end of consolidation can be calculated as
…..

⎛ Δ h2 ⎞
⎜ (1+ e ) ⎟
e2=e1-Δe2=e1- ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 1h ⎠
™ Proceeding similarly, the void ratio at the end of the
consolidation
lid ti for
f each h load
l d increment
i t can be
b obtained.
bt i d

™ The total pressures p and the corresponding void ratios e at the

end of consolidation are plotted both on arithmetic scale and on
semi–log,
Void
ratio, e

Pressure p
Pressure,

Typical e-p curve

Void
ratio,
ti e

Pressure, p (log scale)

Typical e-logP curve

‰ e-logP plot used
1. To evaluate the pre-consolidation
p pressure
p

C D
β
Void β
ratio, e

pc
™ Based on the magnitude of the pre-consolidation pressure, one
can define the following two conditions of a clay layer
layer.

¾ If Pc < the existing overburden pressure, then the clay layer is

classified
l ifi d as Normally
N ll consolidated
lid d clay
l

¾ If Pc> the existing overburden pressure, then the clay layer is

classified as over consolidated clay

2. To compute compression index, Cc

¾ This is numerically equal to the slops of the straight portion of
the e-logp
e logp curve.
curve

¾ Cc is an important
p index used to calculate the ultimate
settlement of a foundation founded on a clay layer
 e1 − e 2
Cc =
log − log
P2 P1

Void ratio, e

e1
Cc po + Δp
Δe S= H log10
1+ e po
e2

Δp

p2
p1
Pressure, p (log scale)
™ Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv

™ For a given load increment, the coefficient of consolidation, Cv,

can be
b ddetermined
i d ffrom laboratory
l b observation
b i off time
i versus
dial reading.

™ There are two graphical procedures;

¾ the logarithm-of-time fitting method proposed by

Cassagrande and Fedum and

¾ the square-root-of- time fitting method proposed by Taylor.

 logarithm-of-time fitting method

d0 D E
x
B
C
x (0197)( H 2 dr )
d o + d100 Cv =
on dial

t 50
2
reading
ormatio

d50 F
Defo

d100
A

t1 t2 t50 t100 Time (log scale)

Square- root-of- time fitting method

d0 A

(0.848)( H 2 dr )
tion dial

Cv =
t 90
Deformat
rreading
D

d90

O B C
t90 Time
™ Coefficient of consolidation used to calculate the rate
of consolidation of a given clay layer
layer.

U T t St
U1 T1 t1 S1
U2 T2 t2 S2
U3 T3 ,
t3 S3
. . . .
. . . .

2
t= TH dr St = (S) (U)
Cv
 Time in years

S, Settlement
in cm
Ultimate settlement

Ti
Time settlement
ttl t curve