CHAPTER SIX

CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS

 Examples
1. Design a siphon aqueduct for the following data:
parameter canal stream
Discharge (m3/s) 30 500
Bed level (m AOD) 200.00 198.00
Canal FSL (m AOD) 202.00
Bed width (m) 25
Canal side slopes 1.5:1
Stream HFL (m AOD) 200.5
The general train level is 200.00 m AOD
Solution:
1. Drainage waterway: should be estimated properly to achieve the
maximum economy and safety of the structure.
Lacey’s equation: P= 4.75(Q)^0.5 = 106m
Let provide 1.25m thickness 7m width span, i.e 13 span, 12 piers
=12*1.25+13*7 = 106 m (OK)
• Assuming a maximum velocity of through the siphon barrels is 2m/s,
• Height of barrel= Q/w*v = 500/(13*7*2)=2.747, let 2.75m
2. Canal water way
• For economical design the canal can be flumed to reduce the length of the barrel
in a siphon aqueducts.
• Suitable canal transition is provided as contraction, throat and expansion.
• Assume 0.5 as maximum flume ratio=Wf/W
• Average side splay at contraction 1:2
• Average side splay at expansion 1:3 (From Hinds 1928, refer Arora)
• width of throat=0.5*25 =12.5m
• Length of contraction =2* (25-12.5)/2=12.5m
• Length of expansion =3*((25-12.5)/2)=18.75m
• The total length of throat (trough) from abutment to abutment =106m
3. Design of flumed section with transition
• Referring to the fig. below, the following results given taking depth of flow 2.0m
 Losses:
contraction losses =0.2 (v22-v12)/2g
expansion losses =0.3 (v32-v42)/2g
friction losses = vf2n2/Rf4/3

Section
4-4 3-3 2-2 1-1
Width (m) 25.00 12.5 12.5 25.00
Area of flow (m2) (B+my)y=56 BY =25 BY=25 (b+my)y=56
Velocity (m/s) 30/56=0.536 30/25 =1.2 30/25=1.2 0.536
Head losses (m) 0.017 0.017 (friction) 0.012
(expansion) (contraction)
Velocity head (m) 0.015 0.073 0.073 0.015
TEL (m AOD) FSL+ ha TEL (4-4)+he TEL(3-3)+hf TEL(2-2)+hc
=202.015 = 202.032 =202.049 = 202.061
Water surface TEL-ha= 202.00 TEL-ha =201.959 TEL-ha=201.976 TEL-ha
level (m AOD) =202.0406
Bed level (m AOD) 202-2 =200 201.959-2 201.976-2 202.046-2
=199.959 =199.976 =200.046
4) Design of transition
• For a constant depth of flow the transition may be designed such that the rate of change of velocity per meter length of
transition is constant.
• Bx = B0 Bf L/ [LB0-(B0-Bf)x] (Chaturved’s method, Refer Arora)
• UPIRI, 1940, x= LBo3/2 [1-Bf/Bx)3/2]/(Bo3/2 –Bf3/2), L= length of the transition.

Bx 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25  

X(m) 0 4.626721 7.663401 9.78221 11.3295 12.5 contraction

X(m) 0 6.921574 11.4951 14.67331 16.99425 18.75 expansion

Lc 12.5            
Le 18.7            
Drop structure (falls)
Bridges
• Introduction
• Bridges are important structures to pass obstacles, such as rivers, gorges, roads
and railways. They are not seen or understand in the same way by everyone. For
instance: A simple bridge over a small river will be viewed differently by different
people because the eyes each one sees it with are unique to that individual.
• Some one travelling over the bridge everyday while going to work may only realize
a bridge is there because the road way has posts and railing on either side.
• Others may remember a time before the bridge was built how far they had to
travel to visit friends and to get the children to school.
• Civic leaders see the bridge as a link between neighborhoods and a way to provide
fire and police protection and access to hospital.
• In business community, the bridge is seen as opening up new markets and
expanding commerce.
• An artist will consider the bridge and its setting as a possible subject for a future
painting.
• A theologian may see the bridge as symbolic of making a connection between God
and human beings.
• While a boater on the river, looking up when passing underneath the bridge, will
have a completely different perspective.
• Bridges affect people. People use them and engineers design them
and later build and maintain them. Bridges must be planned and
engineered before they can be constructed. Bridge engineering is
one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in
many areas: structural analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic
projection, surveying, runoff calculation and methods of
construction.
• Mankind takes lessons from nature to construct bridges
• Tree fallen accidentally across a stream was the earliest example of a
beam type bridge.
• Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil
below was the earliest forebear of arch bridges.
• Creeper hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to cross from
one bank to the other was the forerunners of suspension bridges.
• Transportation System and Bridges
• Transportation system which is implemented on land needs bridges.
Basically in Road Transportation System Bridge is mandatory for two
reasons.
• To pass obstacles
• To facilitate the transportation system. This is to say in larges cities
there is traffic jam when two or more roads meet at a point. For such
cases bridges, called interchanges are provided. E.g. Gotera
interchange, Addis Ababa
• A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation system. For
instance: If the strength of the bridge is unable to carry heavy trucks,
loads limits will be posted and heavy trucks will be rerouted.
• Bridges are expensive structures. The cost per meter of a bridge is
high in comparison to the road.
• If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not be in a position
to give function.
• Therefore, bridge designer has control over the capacity, cost and Safety.
• Investigation for Bridges
• Bridge Site Selection
• In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to picture.
• The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream
side of the crossing. This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular and
the obstructions caused by piers, etc have minimum disturbance effect on the flow.
• The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents.
• If this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will
result in excessive scour which endanger the foundation.
• The channel in the reach should be well defined.
• The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
• The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly erodable. In this case
the river flow will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity will not cause
erosion.
• The site on a meandering river should be a nodal point. A nodal point is defined as
the location where the river regime does not normally shift and the location serves
as a fulcrum about which river channel swing laterally ( both upstream and down
stream)
• The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for founding
piers and abutments.
• Economical Span
• Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic requirement.
However, there are conditions where lengthen spans are chosen for
the sake of road alignment.
• For a given span the most economical span is the length at which
superstructure cost equals to substructure cost.
• Hydraulic Requirements
• Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design
flood. When a river has a wide flood plain, the economical solution
may be using short span bridge with proper scour and erosion
protection for the embankment, abutments and piers.
• Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the
required lineal waterway and navigational clearance.
• The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set
parallel to the direction of flow during maximum flood.
 – Types of Bridges
• Bridges can be classified in different ways
a. Traffic type/functionality
• Road bridge
• Railway bridge
• Pedestrian bridge
• Aqueduct
• Viaduct
• Equipment bridge
b. Life Span
– Temporary bridges
– Permanent bridges
– Semi-permanent bridges
• (c) Horizontal Arrangement
– Straight/Normal bridge
– Skewed bridge
– Curved bridge
• (d) Vertical Arrangement
– Horizontal/ Flat/ Normal
– Inclined
e. Span
– L ≤ 6m (Culvert)
– 7m < L ≤ 15m (Small span bridges)
– 16 ≤ L ≤ 50m (Medium span Bridges)
– 50 ≤ L≤ 150m (Large Span Bridges)
– L≥150m (Extra Large Span Bridges)
• Bridge Loadings
– Types of loads
• The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be
considered for design of bridges where applicable. The load
provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing
bridges.
• Permanent Loads
• DC = dead load of structural components and
nonstructural attachments
• DD = down drag
• DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
• EH = horizontal earth pressure load
• EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from
the construction process
• ES = earth surcharge load
• EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
• Transient Loads
• BR = vehicular braking force
• CE = vehicular centrifugal force
• CR = creep
• CT = vehicular collision force
• EQ = earthquake
• FR = friction
• IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
• LL = vehicular live load
• LS = live load surcharge
• PL = pedestrian live load
• SE = settlement
• SH = shrinkage
• TG = temperature gradient
• TU = uniform temperature
• WA = water load and stream pressure
• WL = wind on live load
• WS = wind load on structure
 – Dead Loads
• Dead load shall include the weight of all
components of the structure, appurtenances and
utilities attached thereto, earth cover, wearing
surface, future overlays, and planned widening.
• In the absence of more precise information, the
densities, specified in table below, shall be used for
dead loads.
 – Live Loads
• Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes
should be determined by taking the integer part of the ratio w/3600,
where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or
barriers.
• Multiple Presence of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter
shall not be applied to the fatigue limit state for which one design
truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes.
• Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple
design lanes but this is unlikely that all adjacent lanes will be loaded
simultaneously. This will be considered by the multiple presence
factors.
 • Vehicular Live Loads
• Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges structures,
designated HL-93, and shall consist of a combination of the:
• Design truck or design tandem, and
• Design lane load
• Design truck: The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the
design truck shall be as specified in Figure below.