IRRIGATION ENGINEERING (CE 415)

Lecture No: 08 (02 hrs)

CANAL IRRIGATIONSYSTEM

Shafi Muhammad Kori, PhD

Professor, CED, MUET, Jamshoro

email: shafi.kori@faculty.muet.edu.pk
Skype: Shafism62
1
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Basic definitions related to canal irrigation system
Infiltration
The process through which the falling water on a given formation
enters the surface strata of the soil, and moves downward to the
water table is known as infiltration.
Infiltration Capacity
The maximum rate at which a soil in a given condition is capable
of absorbing water is called its infiltration capacity.
Infiltration Rate
The actual existing rate at which the water will enter the given
soil at any given time is known as the infiltration rate.
Percolation
The infiltrated water in to the soil penetrates in saturated zone (
below watertable) is known as percolation or deep percolation.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Canal or Channel
⮚ A canal is an artificial structure,
constructed on the ground to carry water
to the agriculture fields either from the
river or from a reservoir.
⮚ Generally trapezoidal in cross-sectional.

Canal Classification
Canals can be classified w.r.to:
a. Nature of source of supply (Permanent/ Perinnial; and Inundation)
b. Financial output (Productive; and Protective)
c. Function (Irrigation; Feeder; Navigation; and Power generation)
d. Discharge (Main; Branch; Distributary; Minor; and Water coarse)
e. Soil (Alluvial; and Non-alluvial)
f. Alignment (Contour; Watershed; and Side slope)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Canal Irrigation System
⮚ A direct irrigation scheme (using a weir/barrage), as well
as a storage irrigation scheme (using a storage
dam/reservoir), necessitates the construction of a network
of canals, that is known as canal irrigation system.
⮚ The entire system canals, i.e. main canals, branch-canals,
distributaries and minors is to be designed properly for a
certain realistic value of peak discharge (design discharge),
so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the commanded
areas.
⮚ These canals have to be aligned and excavated either in
alluvial or non-alluvial soils; depending upon which they
are called alluvial canals or non-alluvial canals, as the
case may be.
 

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Distribution System for Canal Irrigation
Both, the direct irrigation scheme as well as the storage irrigation
scheme, require a network of irrigation channels.
The entire network of irrigation channels is called Canal System,
and consists of:
(i) Main canal;
(ii) Branch canals;
(iii) Distributaries;
(iv) Minors; and
(v) Watercourses.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(i) Alluvial Canal
❑ The soil which is formed due to continuous silt deposition by
the agency of water, over a course of time, is called alluvial
soil.
❑ Whenever, a canal is to be excavated through such a soil, is
known as alluvial canals. For such canals the special
precautions and design methods are to be adopted.
❑ Most canals in Pakistani are alluvial canals.
❑ The area of alluvial soil is even topograpgy and having a flat
surface slope.
❑ Alluvial soil is very fertile as it can absorb a fair percentage
of rainfall and retain it in the substratum, making it highly
productive.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(ii) Non-alluvial Canal
⮚ Mountainous regions may go on disintegrating over a
period of time, resulting in the formation of a rocky
plain area, called non-alluvial area.
⮚ It has an uneven topography, and hard foundations are
generally available.
⮚ Canals, passing through such areas are called Non-
alluvial Canals.
⮚ Storage irrigation is preferred to canal irrigation in this
type of soil.
⮚ Non-alluvial soils may be permeable or impermeable,
but generally, they are 1mpermeable.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Alignment of Canals
Irrigation canals can be aligned in any of the three
ways, i.e., as
1) watershed canal;
2) contour canal; and
3) side-slope canal.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(i) Watershed Canal.
⮚ The dividing line between the catchment area of two drains (streams)
is called the watershed as shown in figure.
⮚ Thus, between two major streams, there is the main watershed which
divides the drainage areas of the two canal.
⮚ Similarly, between any tributary and the main stream, there are
subsidiary watersheds, dividing the drainage b/w the two streams on
either side.
⮚ For canal system in plain areas, it is often necessary as well as
advantageous to align all channels on the watersheds of the
areas, they are designed to irrigate.
⮚ From such a canal irrigation, water is taken out by gravity on
either side of the canal, directly or through small irrigation
channels.
⮚ Moreover, cross-drainage works are avoided, as the natural
drainage will never cross a watershed, because all the drainage
flows away from the watershed.
(ii) Contour Canal
⮚ In the hills, the river flows in the valley, while the watershed or the ridge
line may be hundred of metres above it, hence un-economical to provide.
⮚ The channel, in such cases, is generally aligned parallel to the area, except

that the longitudinal slopes required to generate sufficient flow velocities,

are given to it.
⮚ The maximum designed slope that can be provided in the canal without

generating excessive velocities, is generally less than the available country

slope.

⮚ The difference is accommodated by providing

canal falls at suitable places.
⮚ A contour channel irrigates only on one side,

because the areas on the other side are higher.

⮚ As the drainage flow is always at right angles to

the ground contours, such a channel would

definitely have to cross drainage lines. Suitable
cross drainage works are then provided.
(iii) Side Slope Canal
⮚ A side slope channel is aligned at right angles to
the contours, i.e. along the slope, as shown in
figure.
⮚ Such a channel is parallel to the natural drainage
flow and hence, does not intercept cross drainage,
and hence no cross drainage works are required.
Curves in Canals
❖ Attempts are made to align the channels straight as far as possible, but
some times, the curves become unavoidable.
❖ Whenever, a curve is proposed, it should be as gentle as possible
because it causes disturbance of flow and results in silting on the inside
(i.e. convex side) and scouring on the outside (i.e. concave side).
❖ Pitching is, therefore, sometimes proposed on the concave side, so as to
avoid scouring.
❖ If the discharge is more, the curve should be more gentle and should,
therefore, have more radius.

Discharging Capacity of Canals Minimum recommended curve Radius

(cumecs) (meters)
Over 100 1500
30 - 100 900
15 - 30 600
03 - 15 300
0.5 - 03 150

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING (CE 415)

Lecture No: 09 (01 hr)

CHANNEL LOSSES
Shafi Muhammad Kori, PhD
Professor, CED, MUET, Jamshoro

email: shafi.kori@faculty.muet.edu.pk
Skype: Shafism62
1
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Channel Losses
Channel Losses
❑ During the passage of water from the main canal to the outlet (at the head
of the watercourse), water may be lost by evaporation from the water
surface and seepage through the peripheries of the channels.
❑ These losses are sometimes very high, to the order of 25 to 50% of the
water diverted.
❑ In determining the designed channel capacity, a provision for these water
losses must be made.

(1) Water losses due to Evaporation

⮚ Evaporation losses: generally are very small as compared to seepage losses
i.e. 2-3% of the total losses
⮚ In summer season: more losses but < 7%
⮚ These losses are depend upon those factors, on which the evaporation
depends (temperature, wind velocity, humidity, etc.)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(2) Water losses due to Seepage
There may be of two conditions of seepage:
(i) Percolation; and (ii) Absorption.
(i) Percolation
In percolation, there exists a zone of continuous saturation from
the canal to the water-table and a direct flow is established. Almost
all the water lost from the canal, joins the ground water reservoir.
(ii) Absorption
▪ In absorption, a small saturated soil zone exists round the canal section, and
is surrounded by zone of decreasing saturation.
▪ A certain zone just above the water-table is saturated by capillarity.
▪ Thus, there exists an unsaturated soil zone between the two saturated zones,
as shown in figure.
Rate of loss = f (h + hc)
where, hc = capillary head

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Factors Affecting Seepage Losses
1) Type of seepage, i.e. whether 'percolation' or 'absorption‘
2) Soil permeability
3) Canal status: the seepage through a silted canal is less than that
from a new canal
4) Sediment load: the more the silt, lesser are the losses
5) Flow velocity: the more the velocity the lesser will be the losses
6) Flow area and wetted perimeter: more the wetted area more the
seepage
For designs, a combined figure for seepage losses as well as for
evaporation losses, expressed as cumecs per million sq. m of wetted
perimeter may be taken, as tabulated below:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Channel losses
Total losses
(cumecs/million sq. m of wetted area)
Type of soil through channel is
excavated

0.9
Rocks

1.6
Black cotton soil

2.5
Alluvial red soil

3.0
Decayed rock, gravel, etc

5.5
Loose sandy soil

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Empirical formulas for channel losses
The channel losses can be determined by using certain empirical
formulas such as;
(a)

where
∆Q = Channel losses in cumecs per km length of channel
B = Bed width of the channel in meters
D = Depth of water in the channel in meters

(b)
where
∆Q = Losses in cumecs per million sq. m. of wetted perimeter
Q = Discharge in cumecs

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
(CE 415)
Pres. No: 10 (02 hrs)

ALUVIAL CANNAL DESIGN

THEORIES
Shafi Muhammad Kori, PhD
Professor, CED, MUET, Jamshoro

email: shafi.kori@faculty.muet.edu.pk
Skype: Shafism62

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

Kennedy’s Theory (R. G. Kennedy – 1895)
Kennedy used data collected from Non-silting non-scouring
reaches for 30 years in Upper Bari Doab Canal (UBDC)
system.
Critical velocity
He derived a formula which keeps the channel free from
silting and scouring.
Vo = 0.55 D0.64 ……. (1)
or Vo = C Dn …….. (a)
where, Vo = critical velocity, D = depth of water
C = constant and
n = index number of flow depth (D)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 2
Later on He modified the equation, depends on the different material size.
Critical velocity ratio = m =Vk/Vo
where, Vo = Non-scouring non-silting velocity for UBDC system
Vk = Non-scouring non-silting velocity for any another canal
Therefore, Vk = m Vo or Vk = 0.55 m D0.64 ….. (2)
m = 1.1 – 1.2 coarser sand
m = 0.7 – 0.9 finer sand
m = 0.85 Sindh canals

Rugosity coefficient
Kennedy used Kutter’s equation for determining the mean velocity
of flow in the channel

Where N (called Kutter’s N) depends on the boundary material

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 3
Values of C and m for various grades of silt
Type of silt grade C m
Coarser silt 0.7 1.3
Sandy loam silt 0.65 1.2
Coarse light sandy silt 0.59 1.1
Light sandy silt 0.53 1.0

Channel condition N
Very good 0.0225
Good 0.025
Indifferent 0.0275
Poor 0.03

Discharge (cumecs) N (in ordinary soil)

14 – 140 0.025
140 – 280 0.0225
> 280 0.02
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 4
Design Procedure
Case I : Given Q, N, m and S (from L-section)
1. Assume D
2. Calculate velocity from Kennedy’s equation, VK = 0.55 m D0.64
3. Calculate area, A = Q / VK
4. Calculate B from A = B D + z D2 ; assume side slope 1(V) : ½(H), if not
given.
5. Calculate wetted perimeter and hydraulic mean depth from;

6. Determine mean velocity from Chezy’s equation, Vc =C √(RS) ….(eq. 3)

if Vc = Vk then O.K.

otherwise, assume another value of D and

repeat the above procedure till get Vc = Vk.

Note: Increase D if Vk < Vc

DEPARTMENT
decrease D if Vk > Vc OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 5
Case II : Given Q, N, m and B/D
1. Determine A in terms of D

let B/D = y

therefore, B = y D

2. Substitute A from eq. (i) and V from Kennedy’s equation into continuity equation and
solve for D, i.e.
Q=AV

3. Knowing D, calculate B and R

B=yD

4. Determine V from Kennedy’s equation

V = 0.55 m D0.64
5. Determine slope from Kutter’s equation by trial and error
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 6
Problem 01:
Design an irrigation channel for the following data using Kennedy’s
theory:
Full Supply Discharge (F.S.D)= Q = 14.16 cumec
Slope, S = 1/5000
Kutter’s rugosity coefficient, N = 0.0225
Critical velocity ratio, m =1
Side slope, z = ½
Solution:
1. Assume D = 1.72 m
2. Vk = 0.55 m D0.64 =0.55(1)(1.72)0.64 = 0.778 m
3. A = Q/Vk = 14.16/0.778 = 18.2 m2
4. A = B D + 0.5 D2 for z =1/2 or 0.5
18.2 = 1.72 B + 0.5(1.72)2 or B = 9.72 m

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 7

5.
R = A / P = 18.2 / 13.566 = 1.342 m

6.

Vc = 0.771 m ≈ 0.778 m

Result:
B = 9.72 m
D = 1.72 m
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 8
Problem 02:
Using Kennedy’s theory design an irrigation channel to
carry a discharge of 56.63 cumec. Assume N = 0.0225,
m = 1.03 and B/D = 11.3.
Solution:
1. B/D = 11.3, therefore B = 11.3 D

A = B D + 0.5 D2 =11.3 D2 + 0.5 D2 or A = 11.8 D2

2. V = 0.55 m D0.64 = 0.55 (1.03) D0.64 or V = 0.5665 D0.64
3. Q = A V

56.63 = (11.8 D2 ) (0.5665 D0.64 )

D = 2.25 m
4. B = 11.3 (2.25) or B = 25.43 m
5. R = A / P
A = B D + 0.5 D2 = (25.43)(2.25) + 0.5 (2.25)2 = 59.75 m2
P = B + √5 D = 25.43 + √5 (2.25) = 30.46 m
R = 59.75 / 30.46 or R = 1.96 m
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 9
6. V = 0.55 m D0.64 = 0.55 (1.03) (2.25)0.64 = 0.95 m/sec

7.

Simplifying, we get;
67.44 S3/2 – 0.93 S + 1.55x10-3 S1/2 = 1.68x105
Solving by trial and error, we get
Results: B = 25.43 m
S = 1 in 5720 D = 2.25 m
S = 1 / 5720
P-13

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 10

Problem 03:
Design a section by Kennedy’s theory, given B/D = 5.7, S = 1/5000 and N =
0.0225. Also determine the discharge carried by the channel.
Solution:
B/D = 5.7, B = 5.7 D
Assuming z = ½

Since V = 0.55 m D0.64

Assuming m =1

V = 0.55 D0.64 ---------- (1)

Also

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 11

Equating equation (1) and (2)

0.55 D1.14 – 0.939 D + 0.43 D0.64 = 0

By trial and error
D = 2.1 m
B = 5.7 x 2.1 = 11.97 m
A = B D + z D2 = (11.97 x 2.1) + 0.5 (2.1)2 = 14.175
m2
V = 0.55 (2.1)0.64 = 0.884 m/sec
Q = A V = 14.175 x 0.884 = 12.53 m3/sec.
Results:
B = 11.97 m
D = 2.1 m
Q = 12.53 cumec

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 12

Shortcomings of Kennedy’s theory
1. The method involves trial and error.
2. Shape of section i.e. B/D is not known in advance.
3. Kutter’s equation is used instead of Manning’s equation.
Therefore limitations of Kutter’s formula are also
incorporated in Kennedy’s theory. Moreover it involves
more computations.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 13

 ALLUVIAL SOILS
⮚ These soils are formed by the continuous deposition of
silts transported by rivers during floods.
⮚ This is most important soil group of Indo-Pak ,
contributing the greatest share to its agricultural wealth.
⮚ The main features of the soil are derived from the
deposition laid by the numerous tributaries of the Indus,
the Ganges and the Brahmaputra river system .
⮚ Alluvial soils textures vary from clayey loam to sandy
loam. The water holding capacity of the soil is fairly good
and is good for irrigation.

Back
 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
(CE 415)
Pres. No: 11 (02 hrs)

Shafi Muhammad Kori, PhD

Professor, CED, MUET, Jamshoro

email: shafi.kori@faculty.muet.edu.pk
Skype: Shafism62

02/15/20 1
 Lacey’s Regime Theory (Gerald Lacey – 1930
)

According to Lacey:
⮚ “Silt is kept in suspension by the vertical component
of eddies generated at all points of forces normal to
the wetted perimeter”.
⮚ According to Lacey there may be three regime
conditions:

True regime; Initial regime; and Final regime.

02/15/20 2
 Lacey’s Equations (MKS System)
Fundamental Equations:

Derived Equations:

02/15/20 3
02/15/20 4
Lacey’s Channel Design Procedure

02/15/20 5
Problem:

Design an irrigation channel in alluvial soil from following data using Lacey’s theory:

Discharge, Q = 15 cumec; Lacey’s silt factor, f = 1.0; Side slope = ½ : 1

Solution:

02/15/20 6
Problem
The slope of an irrigation channel is 0.2 per thousand. Lacey’s silt factor = 1.0,
channel side slope = ½ : 1. Find the full supply discharge and dimensions of the
channel.
Data: S = 0.2/1000 = (0.2 x 5) / (1000 x 5) = 1/5000

Solution

02/15/20 7
Problem:
Design an earthen channel of 10 cumec capacity. The value of Lacey’s silt factor in
the neighboring canal system is 0.9. general grade of the country is 1 in 8000.
Data:
Q = 10 cumec; f = 0.9; Sn=1/8000; B = ?; D = ?; Sreq= ?.
Solution:

02/15/20 8
Which is steeper than the natural grade of the country (i.e. 1 in 8000), therefore
Now putting S = 1/8000 in the relationship

Hence silt factor will be reduced to 0.7454 by not

allowing coarser silt to enter the canal system by
providing silt ejectors and silt excluders.

i.e. silt having mean diameter > 0.179 mm will not be

allowed to enter the canal system.

02/15/20 9
02/15/20 10