6 Quality of Seafood

from Aquaculture
Bonnie Sun Pan

CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 72
6.2 Algae and Algal Products ............................................................................... 72
6.2.1 Macroalgae ......................................................................................... 73
6.2.2 Microalgae .......................................................................................... 74
6.3 Fish Products .................................................................................................. 75
6.3.1 Freshwater Fish Products .................................................................... 75
6.3.1.1 Tilapia Sashimi .................................................................... 75
6.3.1.2 Carps .................................................................................... 75
6.3.2 Diadromous Fish Products.................................................................. 79
6.3.2.1 Frozen Roasted Eels ............................................................. 79
6.3.2.2 Smoked Salmon ...................................................................80
6.3.3 Marine Fish Products..........................................................................80
6.3.3.1 Cobia ....................................................................................80
6.3.3.2 Groupers and Live Fish Trade ............................................. 81
6.3.3.3 Mullet Roe ........................................................................... 82
6.3.3.4 Milkfish ................................................................................ 83
6.3.3.5 Tuna...................................................................................... 83
6.4 Crustaceans .....................................................................................................84
6.4.1 Freshwater Shrimp ..............................................................................84
6.4.2 Marine Shrimp.................................................................................... 85
6.5 Mollusks.......................................................................................................... 85
6.5.1 Freshwater Clam ................................................................................. 85
6.5.2 Hard Clam .......................................................................................... 87
6.5.3 Oyster .................................................................................................. 87
6.6 Public Health Concerns .................................................................................. 88
6.6.1 Antibiotic Residues ............................................................................. 88
6.6.2 Pesticide Residues ...............................................................................90
6.7 Perspective ......................................................................................................90
References ................................................................................................................ 91

71
72 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture has had a long history. The first aquaculture text, Fish Culture
Classic, was authored by Fan Li in 460 BC. He described the farming ponds used,
the selection of fish, the breeding season of common carp, the sex ratio, and the
growth rate. The fish species chosen for cultivation in the old times were generally
inexpensive fishes, such as milkfish, tilapia, and a variety of carps in freshwater.
Wild milkfish, mullet, and tilapia are saltwater fishes, but have been widely cul-
tured in freshwater because they gain weight more readily than growing in salt
water. In recent decades, marine fishes such as groupers, cobia and prawns, which
are more expensive and difficult to raise, have been successfully cultured and mar-
keted. Production of marine fish has increased from less than 1 million tons per
year in the 1950s to 52 million tons with a value of US$78.8 billion in 2006. The
annual growth rate has averaged 7%, making aquaculture a major source of sea-
foods. World aquaculture production quantity and the value of major species is
listed in Table 6.1.

6.2 ALGAE AND ALGAL PRODUCTS

Marine algae are commonly called seaweeds, which are commercially harvested for
use as food, chemicals, and fertilizers. They are classified by color into blue-green,
green, brown, and red algae dependent on the sunlight penetration. Algae vary in
size from microscopic phytoplankton, microalgae, to “kelp forest” in which kelps
may grow up to 60 m. The macroalgae are hand-picked or mechanically harvested,
then dried and bundled in bales or further extracted as marine colloids, drugs, or
nutraceuticals. The major species of cultured macro- and microalgae are listed in
Table 6.2. More than 100 species of macroalgae have the potential to be cultivated
for food uses (Huang 2002).

TABLE 6.1
World Aquaculture Production, Quantity, and
Value of Major Species in 2006
Major Species Quantity (%) Value (%)
Freshwater fishes 54 37
Mollusks 27 15
Crustaceans 9 23
Diadromous fishes 6 15
Marine fishes 3 8
Aquatic animalsa 1 2

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization 2009.

The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Rome, 1–57.
a Not included in the above-mentioned categories.
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 73

TABLE 6.2
Cultured Algae for Food and Dietary Supplement
Uses
Scientific Name Common Name

Macroalage
Caulerpa spp. Marine grape
Chondrus crispus Irish moss
Eucheuma spp. Eucheuma
Gelidium spp. Gelidium
Gracilaria spp. Gracilaria

Gracilaria tenuistipitata
Grateloupia filicina Grateloupia

Grateloupia sparsa
Halymenia spp. Red algae
Laminaria sp. Kelp, Kombu
Monostroma spp. Green algae
Porphyra dentata Laver
Porphyra tenera Nori
Ulva spp. Sea lettuce
Undaria pinnatifida Wakame

Microalgae
Arthrospira platensis Spirulina
Chlorella pyrenoidosa Chlorella
Chlorella sorokiniana Chlorella

Source: Revised from Liao, I.C. 1993. Status and prospects of

aquaculture in Taiwan in the 1990s. Proceedings of the
Symposium on Aquaculture. Keelung, Taiwan, ROC:
Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute. 19–42; Stickney, R.R.
1995. The scope of aquaculture: current status and future
problems and oppor In: Nutrition and Utilization
Technology in Aquaculture, eds. C.E. Lim, and D.J. Sessa,
1–25. Champain, IL: AOCS Press.

6.2.1 MACROALGAE
Green algae, such as Ulva, have a semi-translucent, bright-green color and are simi-
lar in appearance to a lettuce leaf. They have a delicate texture and oyster-like aroma.
Green algae of the Ulvaceae are consumed as fresh vegetable. The oyster-like aroma
may be contributed by their strong lipoxygenase (LOX) activities. We have used
algal LOXs to modify fish oil and chicken oil flavor, and the ethanol-precipitated
mucilage of Monostroma nitidum hydrolyzed by cellulase can improve the emulsion
activity and emulsion stability of an oil-in-water system.
74 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

Porphyra tenera called “nori” and P. dentata called “laver” are the most impor-
tant red algae in the Japanese diet. They are harvested, sun-dried, toasted, and
sold in paper-thin, dark purple or green sheets as snacks or for making sushi rolls.
Fresh Gracilaria has been used as fresh feed for cultured abalone. Cultured red
algae, including Gelidium spp. and Gracilaria spp., are extracted with hot water
to make agar. The major components are agarose and agaropectin with various
sulfate content. Agar is used as a gelling agent in pudding-like desserts. Purified
agar is used for bacterial culture media. Carrageenans are also produced from
red cultured macroalgae including Chondrus crispus (Irish moss) and Eucheuma.
Carrageenan is utilized as a thickening agent and a stabilizer in emulsions and
dispersions.
The most well-known brown algae is kelp, Laminaria spp., also known as kombu,
is harvested, dried, and sold for use as food ingredients in soup stock. The dried kelp
is generally rehydrated and desalted prior to cooking.
Alginates occur in all brown algae. The major source of industrial production is
giant kelp, including Laminaria. Alginate is used in food processing as a thickening,
stabilizing, or gel-forming agent. A brown macroalga, Endarachne binghamiae J.
Agardh, has been used as food, and as raw material to extract alginate and fucoidan.
Fucoidan has been shown to have anticoagulant, antitumor, anti-thrombosis, anti-
inflammatory (Cumashi et al. 2007), and antivirus properties (Hidari et al. 2008).
Other brown algae are also good sources of fucoidan. Species such as Cladosiphon
okamuranus and Undaria pinnatifida have been used for the commercial manufac-
ture of fucoidan.
Sulfated polysaccharides are the key compounds with bioactivities. Alginate
and fucoidan fed to fish enhanced immunostimulatory activity and survival rate.
Therefore, the content of bioactive compounds, their bioactivities and functional
properties are the quality indices of the macroalgae.

6.2.2 MICROALGAE
Microalgae such as the green algae Chlorella sorokiniana, Ch. pyrenoidosa, and the
blue-green alga Spirulina platensis have been commercially cultured and processed
as health food products or dietary supplements. Intake of green algae prevents dys-
lipidemia, lower lipid peroxidation in the liver (Amin 2008), and blood lipids, the
ratio of total-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol through up-regulating cholesterol hydrox-
ylase, and improving glycogenesis (Cherng and Shih 2006, Shibata et al. 2007). Ch.
pyrenoidosa also induces fecal excretion of xenobiotic, i.e., dioxin accumulated in
the liver (Takekoshi et al. 2005).
Sulfated polysaccharides of both the green and blue-green microalgae are antivi-
ral and antitumor, and trigger apoptosis in hepatocarcinogenesis-induced rats (Sheng
et al. 2007, Shi et al. 2007).
Therefore, the quality and health benefit of both the micro- and macroalgae are
attached to their nutraceutical efficacy shown in rodents and their immunostimula-
tory effects on cultured fish. More scientific evidences are being accumulated indi-
cating the importance of algae culture for human consumption.
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 75

6.3 FISH PRODUCTS

Ancient fish farming was mainly trapping and holding of fish fry for growing out.
Half a century ago, the technology of artificial propagation was developed for black
tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) by Liao et al. (1964) and mass production of grey
mullet (Mugil cephalus) by Liao et al. (1972) and Kuo et al. (1973).
Hybridization of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus (male) × O. mossambicus
(female)) was first successfully cultured in Taiwan by Kuo Ho in 1969. Since 1975,
monosex hybrid tilapia (O. aureus × O. niloticus) has become a commercialized spe-
cies. The all-male hybrid, O. niloticus, has become the so-called “Taiwan Tilapia” at
an annual production of 81,021 tons (Taiwan Fisheries Agency 2008). Production of
the all-male tilapia results in reduced energy consumption required for ovary devel-
opment and reduced size of abdominal cavity, enabling the tilapia to produce larger
and thicker fillets for sashimi use. All-female grey mullet were developed for the
production of mullet roe by Pan et al. 1992 and Chang et al. 1995.
Aside from pond-culture fish, cage-net culture has been successfully commercial-
ized for salmon and cobia. Currently, there are more than 100 fish species cultured
globally (Table 6.3). Taiwan alone has 70 food fish species commercially cultured by
artificial propagation (Liao 2000).

6.3.1 FRESHWATER FISH PRODUCTS

6.3.1.1 Tilapia Sashimi
Tilapia are generally cultured in freshwater and consumed as low-price fresh fish.
The biology, culture, nutrition, and postharvest handling and processing of tilapia
have been compiled by Lim and Webster (2006). The innovation technology devel-
oped in Taiwan on tilapia is summarized including monosex culture of all male
hybrid tilapia, adjustment of water salinity before weeks of harvest to eliminate pos-
sible parasites and to increase free amino acids content of tilapia muscle adapted
to the increased osmotic pressure, thereby improving the texture and taste of the
fillet, then deep-freezed. The tilapia become sashimi-grade, high-value fish product.
The color fixation of the tilapia fillets is achieved by flushing the fillets with carbon
monoxide (CO) to convert the hemoglobin (Hb) and myoglobin (Mb) to HbCO and
MbCO, the color of which appears delightful bright red. However, Japan where the
major market is, has issued inspections of CO in fish and forbidden the residue in
fillets (Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan 1994, Pan and Chow 2004). New
technology is needed to preserve the fresh color of frozen vacuum-packed tilapia for
the Japanese sashimi market.

6.3.1.2 Carps
Common carp have been farmed in China since the fifth century BC. After the
seventh century, there was a transition from farming common carp to grass carp,
black carp, silver carp, and bighead carp. From the tenth to the twelfth century,
there was great progress in freshwater-pond fish culture from the monoculture of
common carp to the polyculture of the four cyprinids. In the 1950s, artificial breed-
76 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

TABLE 6.3
Aquacultured Fishes for Food Uses
Scientific Name Common Name
Acanthogobius australis Black progy
Acanthogobius flavimanus Genuine goby
Acanthopagrus berda Picnic sea bream
Acanthopagrus latus Yellowfin sea bream
Acanthopagrus schlegeli Black sea bream
Anguilla Anguilla European eel
Anguilla japonica Eel
Anguilla rostrata American eel
Anthias disper Red fish
Argyrosomus japonica Silver croaker
Aristichthys nobilis Bighead carp, Black silver carp
Bidyanus bidyanus Silver perch
Boleophthalmus pectinirostris Pond skipper
Caranx ignobilis Goyan fish
Caranx spp. Pompanos
Carassius auratus Crucian Carp, Goldfish
Channa maculate Snake head
Chanos chanos Milkfish
Choerodon schoenieinii Green wrasse
Cichlasoma manguense Freshwater grouper
Cirrhina molitorella Mud carp
Clarias fuscus Walking catfish
Colossoma maoropomum Pacu
Cromileptes altivelis Barramundi cod
Ctenopharyngodon idellus Grass carp
Culler erythropterus White fish
Culter erythropterus White fish
Cyprinus carpio Common carp
Dicentrarchus labrax Sea bass
Eleutheronema tetradactylum Four finger threadfin
Epinephelus akaara Red grouper
Epinephelus awoara Banded grouper
Epinephelus coicoides Orange-spotted grouper
Epinephelus fario Black-saddled grouper
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus Tiger grouper
King grouper
Epinephelus lanceolatus Giant grouper
Epinephelus malabaricus Malabar grouper
Epinephelus quoyanus Long-finned grouper
Epinephelus suillus Red-spotted grouper
Epinephelus tauvina Estuary grouper
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 77

TABLE 6.3 (Continued)

Aquacultured Fishes for Food Uses
Scientific Name Common Name
Evynnis cardinalis Golden-skinned pargo
Girella melanichthys Smallscale blackfish
Glossogobius giuris Bar-eye goby
Hapalogenys nltens Balck grunt
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Silver carp
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis Bighead carp
Ictalurus punctatus Channel catfish
Kyphosus lembus Flat-head goby, Lembus rudderfish
Larimicthys crocea Large yellow croaker
Lates calcarifer Giant perch
Lateolabrax japonicus Japanese sea bass
Leiogmathus equulus Common slipmouth
Leptobarbus hoevenil Red-finned cigar shark
Suitan fish
Lethrinus haematopterus Common lenjan
Lethrinus haematopterus Common lenjan
Lethrinus nebulosus Blue emperor
Liza macrolepis Largescale liza
Big scale liza
Liza subviridis Red eye liza
Lutjanus argentimaculatus Grey snapper, Creek red bream
Lutjanus erythropterus Pink snapper
Lutjanus malabaricus Firespot snapper
Lutjanus monostigma One spot snapper
Lutjanus rivulatus Yellowfin snapper
Lutjanus russelli Russell’s snapper, Fingermark bream
Lutjanus sebae Seba’s snapper
Lutjanus stellatus Spotted snapper
Megalobrama amblycephala Wu-chang fish
Micropterus salmoides Largemouth bass
Miichthys miiuy Brown croaker
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus Pond loach
Monopterus albus Rice-field eel
Monopterus salmoides Rice eel
Morone saxatilis Striped bass
Mugil cephalus Grey mullet
Mylopharyngodon piceus Black carp
Nibea diacanthus Speckled drum
Croaker
Oncorhynchus kisutch Coho salmon
Oncorhynchus mykiss Rainbow trout

(continued)
78 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

TABLE 6.3 (Continued)

Aquacultured Fishes for Food Uses
Scientific Name Common Name
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Chinook salmon
Oreochromis aureus Blue tilapia
Oreochromis mossambica Mozambique tilapia
Oreochromis niloticus Nile tilapia
O. mossambica × O. niloticus Hybrid filapia
O. niloticus × O. aureus Hybrid filapia
Pagrus major Red sea bream
Pangasius sutchi Thailand Catfish
Parasilurus asotus Chinese catfish/Mudfish
Platax orbicularis Narrow-banded batfish
Round batfish
Plecoglossus altivelis Sweet fish, Ayu
Plectorhynchus cinctus Yellow spotted grunt
Plectropomus leopardus Blue spotted grouper
Plectropomus leopardus Leopard coral grouper
Plectorhinchus diagrammus Stripe grunt
Plectorhynchus pictus Thick-lipped grunt
Plectropomus plebejus Leopard coral grouper
Polynemus plebeius Striped threadfin
Five thread fin
Pomadasys hasta Banded grunter
Silver grunt
Psettodes erumei Big-mouthed flounder
Rachycentron canadum Cobia
Salmo gairdneri Rainbow trout
Salmo salar Atlantic salmon
Scatophagus argus Spotted butter fish
Sciaenops ocellatus Red drum
Seriola dumerili Greater yellowtail
Seriola quinqueradiata Yellowtail
Siganus fuscescens Dusky spinefoot
Siganus guttatus Golden spinefoot
Siganus oramin Net-pattern rabbitfish
Siganus vermiculatus Reticulated rabbitfish
Sillago sihama Sand borer
Siniperca chuatsi Freshwater grouper
Sparus aurata Gilthead sea bream
Sparus sarba Goldlined seabream
Takifugu rubripes Tiger puffer
Terapon jarbua Three-striped tigerfish
Tilapia sp. Tilapia
Tilapia zillii Redbelly tilapia, Red tilapia
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 79

TABLE 6.3 (Continued)

Aquacultured Fishes for Food Uses
Scientific Name Common Name
Trachinotus blochii Snobnose pompano, Yellow-wax
Pomfrat
Trachinotus falcatus Permit fish
Trachinotus ovatus Short dorsal fin pompano
Varicorhinus barbatulus Kooye

Source: Revised from Liao, I.C. 1993. Status and prospects of aquaculture in Taiwan in
the 1990s. Proceedings of the Symposium on Aquaculture. Keelung, Taiwan,
ROC: Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute. 19–42; Stickney, R.R. 1995. The
scope of aquaculture: current status and future problems and oppor In: Nutrition
and Utilization Technology in Aquaculture, eds. C.E. Lim, and D.J. Sessa, 1–25.
Champain, IL: AOCS Press.

ing had spread into most areas of China (http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/

Hypophthalmichthys_molitrix/en).
Common carp was a luxury food in the middle and late Roman period. The fish
were kept in ponds for monoculture. Pond breeding and fry rearing started in Europe
during the nineteenth century. About 30–35 strains of domesticated common carps are
reared in Europe (http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Cyprinus_carpio/en).
Silver carp has been an importanti cultured species in China. They are normally trans-
ported and marketed as live fish according to the traditional Chinese consumption pattern.
Common carps are also transported and sold live or freshly-dressed or filleted in France.
Diseases and control measures are basically on bacteria, virus, protozoan, myxo-
zoa, monogenean, and endoparasites for common carps and silver carp.

6.3.2 DIADROMOUS FISH PRODUCTS

6.3.2.1 Frozen Roasted Eels
Among the aquacultured fishes shown in Table 6.3, eels are extensively cultured in
Europe, i.e., Italy, northern Ireland, Hungary, and intensively cultured in France and
Germany. In addition, Japan, Taiwan, China, South Korea, Malaysia, and to a lesser
extent Australasia have developed an eel farming industry, rapidly responding to the
demand from Japan for live elvers and frozen roasted elvers of Anguilla japonica.
Cultured live eels are shipped to a factory site and held in a holding tank for depura-
tion. The eels are guided by conveyor belt for sizing and inspection of diseases, then
dropped into tanks of refrigerated water or an ice-water mix to put eels to dormancy.
The dormant eels are killed, bled, filleted, and washed. There are mainly two types of
roasted eel products: sirayaki, roasted without seasoning, and kabayaki, roasted with
seasoning. The eel fillets are roasted on a conveyor belt made of steel mesh with a
gas flame underneath. Eel fillets are conveyed through three tunnels. The first tun-
nel enables the fillet center temperature to reach 60°C–65°C, and the second tunnel
enables the fillet center temperature to reach 82°C–86°C. Between the two tunnels,
80 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

the fillets are marinated in soysauce-based seasoning at 80°C, after going through the
second tunnel, the fillets are marinated again with soysauce-based seasoning at 70°C,
then the fillets are moved through the third tunnel. The finished products are chilled to
below 10°C, then frozen (Pan and Chow 2004). This is a typical eel processing model
in Taiwan. Since the process is not sufficient to sterilize the eel fillets, caution with eel
handling and measures to prevent microbial contamination are critical.
The major concerns on the quality of frozen roasted eels are muddy odor, in addi-
tion to food safety issues that are the same as those for other cultured freshwater
fishes, including chemical and drug residues. Drugs used for eel diseases are chlor-
tetracycline, neomycin, chloramphenicol, oxytetracycline, sulfamonomethoxine,
sulfadimethoxine, nifurpirinol, trichlorophone, and oxolinic acid.

6.3.2.2 Smoked Salmon

Salmon have been extensively cultured in Norway, Scotland, Ireland, Canada, the
United States, Faroe Island, Chile, and Tasmania. The major production areas lie
within a latitude of 40°–70° in the northern hemisphere and 40°–50° in the south-
ern hemisphere. The fastest growing supplier of cultured salmon is Chile, while
Norway has been the largest supplier (FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture Salmo salar,
2006, http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Salmo_salar/en). These two coun-
tries contributed 87% of the world salmon production. The major products are fresh
(whole, steaked, filleted), frozen, and smoked. Smoked salmon have gained global
popularity. There are basically two categories of smoked seafoods, cold smoked and
hot smoked. Cold smoking requires heavier brine and longer smoking time at lower
temperature, generally below 85°C or 30°C for 6 h to 21 days. The fish protein is not
denatured. Hot smoking requires lighter brine and a higher smoking temperature of
150°C–200°C or 65°C–93°C for a few hours.
Regardless of the global success of salmon culture, wild salmon are still priced
higher than cultured salmon.

6.3.3 MARINE FISH PRODUCTS

6.3.3.1 Cobia
Cobia is also called ling, lemonfish, sergeantfish, and crabeater in the United States.
It is an oceanadromous fish that lives in brackish and marine waters. Research on
the culture of cobia was initiated in 1975 with the collection of wild-caught cobia
eggs off the coast of North Carolina (http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/
Rachycentron_canadum/en). The first cobia spawning in captivity was reported in
Taiwan during the early 1990s. The technology to raise large numbers of cobia fry
and to produce juvenile cobia for grow-out in off-shore cage culture started in Taiwan
in 1997, becoming the leading producer of cobia in the world.
The wide interest in growing cobia in recent years is due to its positive attributes,
including rapid growth, large size, good meat quality, and excellent consumer appeal, it
is suitable to consume raw or cooked. Moreover, cobia is well domesticated and adapted
to submerged cages (Liao et al. 2007). The success of the cobia culture in Taiwan served
as a catalyst to farm it in other areas of the world, e.g., Texas (Holt et al. 2007).
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 81

Cultured cobia differs in the biochemical and quality attributes of wild cobia
(Shiau 2007). Fat content and total free amino acids are higher in cultured cobia,
while moisture content and taurine are higher in wild cobia. Protein contents are
similar in both cobia. Carnosine is only detected in wild cobia, which serves as a
biochemical indicator differentiating cultured from wild cobia.
In comparison with other cultured fishes, cobia have a fat content of more than 5%
and contain more EPA and DHA than most cultured fishes. Seasonal effects cause
the fat content to be higher in October and lower in May, total free amino acids are
higher in February and lower in May. The major free amino acids in cobia meat are
glycine, alanine, and glutamic acid, which contribute to the palatability of cobia.
The seasonal changes in free amino acid content may affect the taste of the cobia
harvested in different seasons (Shiau 2007).
Several diseases infected by bacteria, virus, and parasites affect cage-cultured
cobia. The major diseases are fish lice, causing Neobenedeniasis and sea lice
infestation, and pasteurellosis caused by photobacterium leading to high mor-
tality. Significant diseases and treatments are summarized by Liao et al. (2007).
Nevertheless, preventive measures to monitor cobia health and growth are needed
for further development.

6.3.3.2 Groupers and Live Fish Trade

Hong Kong is the major grouper market in the world. Wild groupers have been very
expensive and have generated large financial benefits to fishermen at the expense of
regional population crashes of grouper species. Moreover, grouper aggregate in large
numbers. During the spawning season, which is consistent in a short time and space,
the grouper aggregate becomes highly vulnerable to fisheries.
Capture-based aquaculture of groupers started in Hong Kong. About three decades
ago, Taiwan began to farm groupers from wild-caught fry. In the early 1990s, mass
production of fry was successful and accelerated the industry not only in Taiwan but
also in other parts of Southeast Asia and China, but not in the western hemisphere.
Taiwan is the largest grouper supplier, followed by Indonesia and Thailand. Together
they contribute 99% of world grouper supply. The species most abundantly cultured
is Epinephelus malabaricus, followed by five other species E. fario, E. coicoides,
Cromilepts altivelis, E. tauvina, and E. lanceolatus.
Pathogens in cultured groupers are mainly Vibrio spp. and Streptococcus spp.,
iridovirus, infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus, and viral nervous necrosis
virus (Chou et al. 1998). Parasites include Crytocaryon irritans, Trichodina sp., and
protozoa.
As groupers are a highly valued species, there is a high market demand for live
fish either to export to China and Hong Kong, or to local restaurants. The live fish
trade has expanded rapidly. Factors including minimizing stress and metabolism
rate, maintaining water quality and oxygen level, and optimizing loading density
affect the survival and quality of live fish during transport. The supply chain of the
live fish trade is different from that of the non-live groupers. The non-live groupers
are sold fresh or chilled or frozen, in whole or fillet forms. Fresh fillet has a K value (a
freshness index) of 9%. After frozen storage at −20°C for 90 days, the K value is not
82 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

significantly (P > 0.05) different. Volatile basic nitrogen (VBN) value is maintained
at 13.30 mg/100 g to 14.67 mg/100 g (Chow 2007). The bony part can be frozen
ground to make soup base and was patented in Japan.

6.3.3.3 Mullet Roe

Grey mullet (M. cephalus) are migratory fish that school from northeastern China
to the southwestern water of Taiwan. They follow the warm current of 20.5°C–23°C
for spawning during winter. Reports of catching wild mullet, salting grey mullet,
and mullet roe were found in southwestern part of Taiwan as early as 1643 AD. A
pair of mullet roe weighing 200 g from a mullet weighing 1.5 kg has a market value
more than twentyfold of its mother fish. The fishermen called the roe “mullet gold”
(“wu ging”) indicative of its high value and high demand, thereby causing the rapid
reduction of natural mullet stock.
Artificial propagation of grey mullet was first experimented by Liao et al. (1972)
in Taiwan, and Kuo et al. (1973) in Hawaii. Experimental culture of all-female grey
mullet was started by Pan et al. (1992) and Chang et al. (1995). Now all-female mul-
let culture has been commercialized. Feed formulation was developed to culture
grey mullet roe comparable to the size and taste of wild mullet roe to meet the mar-
ket demand. Currently, sorghum distillery residue has been shown to be a potential
feed ingredient, which contains 20% protein and an abundance of polyphenolic com-
pounds improves the plasma antioxidant capacity, cold adaptation, and reduces the
mortality of grey mullet cultured through winter (Lee et al. 2003, 2009).
The processing procedures of making mullet roe with product quality comparable
to that of wild mullet are as follows:
Raw material. Female mullet are hand-separated from male fish in the harvest.
Pairs of roe are washed with water or 3% brine. Blood vessels on the ovarian mem-
brane are removed manually to prevent heme-catalyzed darkening of the roe during
drying and storage.
Salting. Each pair of roe is tied with thread and salted evenly with crystalline salt
(10%–15% w/w) on the surface of roe membrane. The salted roes are piled up for
5–6 h at room temperature.
Desalting. The over-salted roes are wiped with cloth and desalted by soaking in
water for 5–6 h at room temperature.
Pressing and drying. Traditionally, salted roes are examined for intactness of
ovarian membrane and the complete removal of blood vessels. The traditional pro-
cess is to sun-dry the roes in daytime and to press the roe overnight between slabs
of woodboard with a heavy weight measuring about 50 kg/m2 to enhance moisture
diffusion from inside the roes. A mathematical model was determined for prediction
of the intermittent drying and pressing process (Fan et al. 2003), of which 5–6 days
are required in the traditional process to an end water activity of 0.78–0.91.
Packaging. The product is vacuum packed in transparent flexible packages and
stored at 5°C. The quality of the mullet roe correlates with the oxygen and moisture
transmission rates of the packing film.
Mullet roe from cultured fish are generally smaller than those from the wild
mullet. The age of cultured mullet capable of producing roe products is 2–3 years
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 83

depending on feed quality, while those from the wild catch are 3 years or above.
Dietary supplementation of vitamin E results in increased body mass, ovarian
weight, and α-tocopherol content. Since the roe contains 14.5% dienoic fatty acids
and 19.1% highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), the presence of vitamin E in the
roe protects the HUFA from oxidation (Pan and Lin 1999).
Cultured grey mullet are harvested at a time when the ovary develops to its
maximal size or reaches maximal gonadosomatic index (GSI = gonad weight/body
weight × 100%). After that point, the oocytes in the ovary turn to an atresitic stage.
Trypsin-like and chymotrypsin-like activities and free amino acids increase rapidly
in the roe at this stage. Inhibition of trypsin activity in mullet roe reduces the content
of free amino acids of high browning rate, such as lysine, histidine, glutamic acid,
proline, glycine, and taurine. Treatment of mullet roe with trypsin inhibitor greatly
inhibits browning during storage. The desirable color of the mullet roe is golden-
brown. When mullet roe is prepared from cultured mullet after the time of maximal
GSI or during atresia, the roe products become intensely brown to an extent unap-
pealing to the consumer, but still safe to consume.

6.3.3.4 Milkfish
The Phil1ippines and Indonesia are the two most important milkfish producers in
the world, followed by Taiwan. Milkfish culture in these three areas started 4–6
centuries ago and remained a traditional industry dependent on annual restock-
ing of fingerlings reared from wild-caught fry until the last decade, when mass
production of fry from hatcheries has taken place instead of solely depending on
wild-caught fry (http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Chanos_chanos/en).
Milkfish of 200–400 g are harvested and marketed as fresh, chilled, or frozen
fish in product forms of whole fish, dressed, smoked fillet, seasoned-roasted, or
canned. Milkfish are also made into surimi products, i.e., milkfish ball, which is
light brown in color, not as white as those made from white fishes owing to the
presence of Hb in the red muscle of milkfish. Not only the color, but the flavor
and oxidation stability of milkfish are different from the minced-fish products of
white fishes.
Major disease problems affecting culture milkfish are mainly parasitic infestations,
including nematode, anchor worm, Trichodinosis, Scolex, Cryptobia, and Caligus.

6.3.3.5 Tuna
Tunas have been of high commercial value. Four species of tuna, Thunnus thynnus,
Th. orientalis, Th. Maccoyii, and Th. albacore are focused on for the development of
capture-based aquaculture. Farming activity is based on the stocking of wild-caught
tuna. Driven by the Japanese market demand for tuna sashimi, research on the life
cycle of Pacific bluefin tuna (Th. orientalis), and the reproduction and rearing of
juveniles has been completed in Japan, but not fully commercialized. Tuna farming
has also started in the Mediterranean area and has expanded rapidly from Spain,
Croatia, Malta, and Italy to seven other countries (Ottolenghi 2008). Tuna farming is
being experimented with in Taiwan. It is very likely that tuna will be the next high-
value aquaculture species.
84 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

6.4 CRUSTACEANS
Shrimp culture has been practised in Asia for more than a century. The major cul-
tured areas include Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Traditionally, the shrimp was polycultured with milkfish (Chanos chano), mud crab
(Scylla serrata), hard clam (Meretrix lusoria), or red algae (Gracilaria). Since the
development of artificial propagation and monoculture techniques in tiger prawn
(also called grass prawn, P. monodon) by Liao et al. (1964) and the availability of
commercialized formulated feed, there has been a rapid growth in shrimp culture.
The major species cultured are listed in Table 6.4.

6.4.1 FRESHWATER SHRIMP

Commercial culture of white shrimp, P. vannamei, began in South and Central
America. The first spawning was achieved in Florida in 1973. Since then, the
intensive culture of this species has expanded to Hawaii and the U.S. mainland in
addition to South and Central America. The production of white shrimp has over-

TABLE 6.4
Aquacultured Crustaceans for Food Uses
Scientific Name Common Name
Eriocheir sinensis Chinese mitten crab
Macrobrachium rosenbergii Freshwater prawn (shrimp), Malaysian prawn
Metapenaeus ensis Sand prawn (shrimp)
Panulirus homarus Scalloped spiny lobster
Panulirus ornatus Ornate spiny lobster
Penaeus chinensis Fleshy prawn
Penaeus japonicas Kuruma prawn
Penaeus monodon Grass shrimp, Giant tiger prawn (shrimp), Black
tiger prawn (shrimp)
Penaeus penicillatus Redtail prawn
Penaeus semisulcatus Bear prawn
Penaeus sp. Shrimp (marine)
Penaeus stylirostris Blue shrimp
Penaeus vannamei Whiteleg shrimp
Procambarus acutus White river crawfish
Procambarus clarkii Red swamp crawfish
Scylla serrata Mud crab

Source: Revised from Liao, I.C. 1993. Status and prospects of aquaculture in Taiwan in
the 1990s. Proceedings of the Symposium on Aquaculture. Keelung, Taiwan,
ROC: Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute. 19–42; Stickney, R.R. 1995. The
scope of aquaculture: current status and future problems and oppor In: Nutrition
and Utilization Technology in Aquaculture, eds. C.E. Lim, and D.J. Sessa, 1–25.
Champain, IL: AOCS Press.
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 85

taken P. monodon (FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture http://www.fao.org/fishery/

culturedspecies/Lifopenaeus_vannmei/en).
Diseases of P. vannamei are caused by viral and vibrio infections. In addition,
P. indicus was also found with cotton shrimp disease infected by protozoans. Good
aquaculture practice (GAP) and health status of stocks can reduce the risk of viru-
lence of cultured shrimp.

6.4.2 MARINE SHRIMP

P. monodon was the major cultured shrimp species in 1980s. However, the outbreak
of mass mortality due to viral infections caused the collapse of the shrimp industry
in Taiwan, which played a leading role in this global industry. Now, Thailand has
replaced Taiwan to become the world’s largest producer and exporter of black tiger
prawn, which is the most valuable aquaculture commodity in Asia. It is sold live
from farm to the aquaria of restaurants. The quality and mortality of shrimp in
transportation are dependent on handling either in aerated water-filled plastic bags
at a density of 0.2–0.3 kg/L or in a damp system packed in layers of chilled sawdust
or polystyrofoam beads in insulated boxes for export by air. Most of the shrimp are
quick-frozen as raw or value-added products. The handling time, temperature, and
sanitation during processing and the chemical and antibiotic residues carried over
from the culturing farm are the basic factors influencing the quality of shrimp. Major
diseases found in black tiger prawn include white spot syndrome (WSD), baculoviral
midgut gland necrosis (BMN), and monodon baculovirus disease (MBV). Infection
by MBV and Vibrio spp. have been considered the main causative agents of the out-
break of mass mortality of cultured P. monodon in Taiwan. GAP and the selection of
healthy stock are the key to success in the culture of this species.

6.5 MOLLUSKS
The most popular mollusk is the bivalves, including clams, mussels, oysters, and
scallops. The major cultured species are shown in Table 6.5. The cultured bivalves
inhabit freshwater, baywater, estuaries, or coastal waters, and are available year
round. Since the bivalves are filter feeders, the seasonal changes greatly affect the
chemical composition and bioactivities (Chiou et al. 2007).

6.5.1 FRESHWATER CLAM

Freshwater clams (Corbicula fluminea) are widely-consumed shellfish. They are
marketed live for food uses. The aqueous extract of freshwater clam has been
commercialized and called freshwater clam essence (FCE), which has been used
as a folk remedy to protect against liver diseases. Recently, scientific evidence has
been provided based on using tilapia as an animal model to evaluate the in vitro
and in vivo effects of FCE. Total triacylglycerol, cholesterol, and LDL-cholesterol
in the plasma of the FCE-fed group were significantly lowered. Plasma total anti-
oxidant capacity of the FCE group was higher and the lag phase in Cu2+-induced
LDL oxidation was longer than those of the control group. FCE also inhibited
86 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

TABLE 6.5
Aquacultured Mollusks for Food Uses
Scientific Name Common Name
Ampullarius insularum Apple snail
Anadara granosa Blood clam
Argopecten irradians Bay scallop
Babylonia formosae Sea snail
Corbicula fluminea Freshwater clam
Crassostrea gigas Pacific (cupped) oyster, Japanese oyster
Crassostrea virginica American oyster
Haliotis diversicolor aquatilis Small abalone
Mercenaria mercenaria Northern quahog, Bay quahog, hard clam
Meretrix meretrix Hard clam
Mytilus edulis Blue mussel
Mytilus smaragdinus Green mussel
Ostrea edulis Edible oyster, flat oyster
Sinovacula constricta Constricted tagelus
Soletellina diphos Purple clam
Tapes japonica Short-necked clam

Source: Revised from Liao, I.C. 1993. Status and prospects of aquaculture in Taiwan in the
1990s. Proceedings of the Symposium on Aquaculture. Keelung, Taiwan, ROC: Taiwan
Fisheries Research Institute. 19–42; Stickney, R.R. 1995. The scope of aquaculture: cur-
rent status and future problems and oppor In: Nutrition and Utilization Technology in
Aquaculture, eds. C.E. Lim, and D.J. Sessa, 1–25. Champain, IL: AOCS Press.

human LDL oxidation in vitro as well as inhibiting tilapia LDL both in vitro and
ex vivo (Chen et al. 2008). The hypocholesterolemic effect was also shown in
rats fed on a high-cholesterol diet. Such effects were achieved by increasing the
fecal excretion of bile acids, changes in hepatic gene expression for lipid metabo-
lism, and induction of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase gene expression. In addition,
FCE improves xenobiotics-induced hypercholesterolemia (Chijimatsu et al. 2008,
2009). The protective effect of FCE in acute liver injury induced by hemorrhage
in rats was a result of pre-treatment with FCE, which increased mean arterial
pressure and IL-10 levels and decreased AST, ALT, LDH, and TNF-α levels after
hemorrhage (Peng et al. 2008). The active components in freshwater clams cause
induction of apoptosis of human leukemia HL-60 cells through the production of
oxygen species, GSH depletion, mitochondrial dysfunction, and caspase activa-
tion (Huang et al. 2006). Freshwater clam extract is a potential nutraceutical to
reduce the risk factors of atherosclerosis and ameliorate acute liver injury in addi-
tion to cancer prevention.
The hydrolysate of the residual meat of clam essence first hydrolyzed by Protamex
(PX) as a primary hydrolysis followed by a secondary hydrolysis (Flavourzyme, F)
showed inhibitory effects against angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE). The active
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 87

compounds were tripeptides of Val-Lys-Pro and Val-Lys-Lys, which demonstrated

ACE inhibitory activity in vitro and antihypertensive activity in vivo. The inhibitions
are likely caused by binding of the tripeptides on both the active site and non-catalytic
site of the ACE (Tsai et al. 2006).

6.5.2 HARD CLAM

Hard clams, M. Lusoria, are widely cultured. It is a popular seafood and is tra-
ditionally used as a Chinese remedy for liver diseases and chronic hepatitis. The
extracts of hard clams exhibit antitumor activity and enhance IgM secretion (Kong
et al. 1997). The compounds identified from hard clam being responsible for induc-
ing apoptosis using bioassay-directed isolation are epidioxysterols (Pan et al. 2006).
The two sterioisomers of epidioxysterol present in hard clams can induce apoptosis
of human leukemia cells through production of reactive oxygen species, glutathione
depletion, and caspase activation. The induction of apoptosis by epidioxysterols may
provide a pivotal mechanism for its chemoprevention (Pan et al. 2007).
Residual clam meat after hot water extraction can be recovered as value-added
by-product. After the hydrolysis of the residual meat of hard clam by Protamex, the
hydrolysate shows inhibitory effects on ACE with an IC50 value of 0.036 mg/mL,
much smaller than that of the hot water extract (1.090 mg/mL). One peptide, Tyr-Asn,
isolated from the hard clam hydrolysate is responsible for the high ACE-inhibitory
activity (Tsai et al. 2008).

6.5.3 OYSTER
The color and flavor of oyster meat varies with algae that the oysters filter-feed on.
The typical color is cream, tan, or gray. Changes in diet or seasonal fauna can cause
the meat color to deviate to greenish, reddish, brownish, or even pinkish owing to
the eggs of pea crabs living in the gills of the oyster. Oysters cultured or harvested
from different areas usually have unique flavors because of the algal fauna and the
minerals absorbed in each area.
Americans consume more oysters than other parts of the world. Oyster bars often
display oysters in half shell with labels of their origins. Oysters are served on half
shell, as oysters Rockefeller, oyster stew, and stuffed oyster. In Asia, hot water extract
of oyster is commercialized as oyster essence. The hydrolysate of residual meat
shows improved inhibitory effects on linoleic acid peroxidation, free radical scav-
enging, and increased reducing power. The active components are peptides (Chiou
et al. 2007).
In Europe, the flat oyster (Ostrea edwlis) are commonly priced three to five times
higher than the Pacific cupped oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Two diseases, Marteilia
refringens and Bonamia ostrea, struck the flat oyster culture in the 1970s and 1980s,
drastically reducing its production, which has been replaced by the Pacific cupped
oyster. Preventive measures are therefore needed, including monitoring oyster popu-
lation for health, establishing zoning systems to limit the spread of parasites, and
using appropriate management practices when introducing exogenous species for
aquaculture (http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Ostrea_edulis/en).
88 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

6.6 PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERNS

As recognition of the importance of aquaculture as a major protein source for human
nutrition is growing, the issue of antibiotic residues in cultured fish and shrimp is
growing as well. Other major concerns include environmental chemical contami-
nants, food safety, and traceability.

6.6.1 ANTIBIOTIC RESIDUES

The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) has established a maximum residue
limit in fish muscle tissue as shown in Table 6.6.
Intensive culturing, whether it is chicken, swine, cattle, or salmon, requires
medication programs for preventive or disease treatment. The importance of such
programs is to ensure that the medication is being properly administered and
the withdrawal period is observed in order to comply with the maximum residue
limit (MRL) in the edible tissues. However, major seafood importers, i.e., Japan,
the EU, the United States, and Hong Kong have different regulations on MRL.
Discrepancy on drug usage and its MRL also lie between the exporting countries
and importing countries of the cultured fish and shrimp. For example, no drug
residues in cultured shrimp are acceptable to the importing countries, while oxo-
linic acid, an antibiotic, is used for preventive medication in farming shrimp and
salmon to prevent disease outbreak or even mass mortalily. The MRL of oxolinic
acid in cultured salmon is 0.01 mg/kg according to the U.S. FDA, but residue of
oxolinic acid in cultured shrimp is unacceptable. This seems to be a trade issue,
not a public health issue.
Nevertheless, the fish farming industry is forever facing a realistic threat of
economic loss due to drastic temperature drops or the outbreak of a pathogens
infection. In order to reduce the potential risks, oftentimes fish farmers use low
doses of antimicrobial agents for a long period of farming time. According to

TABLE 6.6
Maximum Residue Limit Allowed in Fish Muscle Tissue by CAC
Drug MRLa (𝛍g/kg)
Albendazole 100
Ceftiofur 1000
Closantel 1000
Flubendazole 200
Ivermectin 20
Benzylpenicillin/Procaine benzylpenicillin 50
Neomycin 500
Oxytetracycline 100
Sulfadimidine 100
Spiramycin 200

a MRL: maximum residue limit.

Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 89

TABLE 6.7
The Maximum Residue Limits of Antibiotics Allowed in Aquacultured
Fish by Taiwan
Druga Tissue Type of Fish MRL (ppm)
Amoxicillin Muscle Fish 0.05
Ampicillin Muscle Fish 0.05
Chlortetracycline Muscle Fishb 0.2
Oxytetracycline Prawnb
Tetracycline Shrimpb
Deltamethrin Muscle Salmon 0.03
Erythromycin Muscle Fish 0.2
Florfenicol Muscle and skin Fish 1
Flumequine Muscle and skin Trout, fish 0.5
Lincomycin Muscle Fish 0.1
Ormetoprim Muscle, liver, kidney, fat Catfish, salmon 0.1
Oxolinic acid Muscle and skin Fish 0.05
Muscle Shrimp
Spiramycin Muscle Fish, shrimp 0.2
Sulfadimethoxinec Muscle Fish, shrimp 0.1
Sulfamonomethoxinec Muscle Fish, shrimp 0.1
Thiamphenicol Muscle Fish 0.05

a Drugs not included in this table are not allowed to use.

b Only oxytetracycline residue is allowed, no chlortetracycline or tetracycline residue is allowed.
c The total of sulfadimethoxine and sulfamonomethoxine cannot exceed 0.1 ppm.

the Aquatic Animal Pharmaceuticals Administration Instructions (The Bureau of

Animal and Plant Health Inspection and Quarantine of Taiwan 2005), the adminis-
tration period for oxolinic acid should be no longer than 30 days, while the MRL
is 0.05 ppm (Table 6.7). Both time periods for application and the MRL should be
strictly observed. Overuses of antibiotics can cause severe environmental pollution.
Using oxolinic acid as an example, contamination was found at a Mediterranean
sparid fish farm (Rigos et al. 2004), and in some shrimp ponds of the mangrove
areas of Vietnam (Le and Munekage 2004). The overuse of antibiotics can also
lead to the development of drug-resistant microorganisms, including Vibrio spp.,
Pseudomonas sp., and Aromonas sp. being resistant to oxytetracycline and oxolinic
acid (Tendencia and Peña 2002). Moreover, the metabolites of the drug residue may
be more harmful than the drug. For example, the metabolites of chlortetracycline
are more hemolytic and hepatotoxic than the precursor. Therefore, efficient detec-
tion methods have been developed to monitor the antibiotic residues in fish tissues
(Ueno et al. 1999, Tu et al. 2006).
Chloramphenicol, nitrofurans and their metabolites, and malachite green have
been applied in aquaculture as antimicrobial and antiparasitic agents. These drugs
have been banned in most countries because of their toxicity in mammals. They have
to comply with the minimum required performance limits (MRPLs).
90 Environmental Effects on Seafood Availability, Safety, and Quality

Reduction of drug use and elimination of illegal drug use can be achieved when
pathogens can be reduced from the culture environment (WHO 1999, USDA 1955,
1996, Garrett et al. 2000). Application of the hazard analysis and critical control
point (HACCP)-based food safety system in aquaculture can reduce the safety risk
of cultured seafood.

6.6.2 PESTICIDE RESIDUES

Pesticide residues are still found in cultivated fish (Antunes and Gil 2004). The pesti-
cides may come from underground water used for fish ponds. Organochlorines were
banned, but they have long persistence in the environment. Organophosphate, car-
bamate, and synthetic pyrethroids pesticides have been observed in vitro as possible
endocrine disruptors (Grünfeld and Bonefeld-Jorgensen 2004). Development of auto-
mated and multi-residue determination methods will facilitate rapid identification
of pesticide residues in fishery products from cultivated sources (Hernandez et al.
1998, Sun et al. 2005, Chang et al. 2008), and effective monitoring of environmental
pollution to safeguard public health.

6.7 PERSPECTIVE
The key difference between fish foods from aquaculture sources and their natural
habitats lies in human intervention on the environment. Chemical residues that seri-
ously affect food safety have gained global consumer concern. Reduction of patho-
gens in the fish cultivating environment is the solution to reduce drug uses. Finding
alternatives such as using immunostimulants to substitute for antibiotics are immi-
nent. Biological substances, including bacterial- and algae-derived plant and herb
extracts, vitamin C and E, and cytokines have been tested.
Oral administration of β-glucan induced resistance of gilthead to pasteurellosis
(Couso et al. 2003) and immune response in sea bass (Bagni et al. 2005). Some
medicinal plants were found immunostimulant for fish (Dügenci et al. 2003, Jian and
Wu 2004, Yu et al. 2006), and anti-inflammatory to salmonid macrophage cell line
(Chuang et al. 2008). Plant extracts can offer unexpected anti-inflammatory efficacy
even comparable to drugs (Pan et al. 2005, Chen et al. 2005, Chaung et al. 2008).
Vaccination is another alternative for the reduction of pathogens and chemical resi-
dues. Currently, vaccines protective against fish diseases are limited.
Pesticide contamination from culture ponds, either contaminants in water or sedi-
ments, is another food safety issue in aquacultured fish products. Rapid simultaneous
determination of multi-residue pesticides is a growing demand to monitor aquacul-
tured product safety.
A preventive approach has been introduced into aquaculture in some parts of
the world. Certifications of GAP to compliment good manufacture practice (GMP),
HACCP, and traceability from farm to table focus on the control of the hazard at all
stages of food production instead of on end-products inspection (FAO 1994).
Eco-friendly aquaculture is increasingly required by importing countries.
Regarding shrimp farming, the issue of an eco-friendly hatchery is stressed on: no
antibiotics, no eye stalk ablation of the broodstock, and release back to nature after
Quality of Seafood from Aquaculture 91

spawning. This strategy will enhance healthy shrimp fry leading to healthy grow-
out. Other issues against expansion of shrimp farming using the protective man-
grove ecosystems for pond construction, coastal water pollution by pond effluent,
salinization of groundwater and agricultural land, etc. Proper management of waste
and water supply and replenishment of the mangrove will not only enhance environ-
mental sustainability, but will also improve biosecurity and the reduction of chemi-
cal residues in farmed fish products. Eco-labelling has found its value and a niche
seafood market in Japan and in global markets.

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