5 - DISEASES

AND DISEASE

BIOMECHANICS PREVENTION

If you are interested in Sporting dogs or Working dogs, you are 293
interested in the way dogs move. The following information
on biomechanics will help readers better understand the forces
at work and therefore better prepare their dogs to avoid cer-
tain pathological affections.

Definitions
Biomechanics deals with the forces and accelera-
tions acting on living organisms in much the same A force acting on a
way as physical mechanics deals with the forces to point O of a body,
which inanimate bodies are subjected. The field of balanced by F’, of
the same intensity,
biomechanics is divided into:
but in the opposite
direction
– Biostatics, which deals with forces and their
equilibrium as they act on an animal at rest or mov-
ing in a uniform fashion, in a straight line.
– Biodynamics, which studies the changes in
movement that are caused by an unstable system of
forces and the forces that are necessary for all
changes in movement.
The study of biomechanics allows us to under-
stand the basis of numerous ailments of the motor
system as well as their treatments.

A force, defined by its intensity (expressed in

Newtons, “N”), its point of application, and its R is the result of F1
direction, refers to any cause that produces a change and F2
in the state of rest or in the uniform movement of a R = F1 + F2
body. It is represented by a vector.

A body is in equilibrium if the forces applied to it

are in equilibrium. For this to happen, each force
must have a corresponding force of the same intensi-
ty, but in the opposite direction. The term “reaction”
is often used to refer to this resistance, for example,
the reaction of the ground to the dog’s feet.
When several forces are applied to a single body,
it is possible to add them to find the resulting force The moment of
R. We often use the components F1 and F2 of a force F on the point
O is equal to F x d
force R, rather than the force itself. In this case, we
have chosen the two perpendicular forces. The same
principle may be applied to a system of n forces.
 The momentum of a force F is its tendency to cause the body to which
it is applied to turn around an axis. The momentum (express in kg) is the
product of the intensity of the force multiplied by the length of a perpen-
294 dicular line to the line of action of the force, extending to the axis of rota-
tion.
The direction of rotation is expressed as clockwise or counterclock-
wise. The resulting momentum is the sum of the momenta around the
body’s axis, which is in equilibrium if the resulting momentum is zero.

Notes: properties of the result R of two parallel forces

F1 and F2.
- R is equal to F1 + F2 if they have the same direction
and R is equal to F1 – F2 if they are in opposite directions.
- R is parallel to the two forces and acts closer to the
stronger force, between F1 and F2 if they are in the same
direction and outside of them if they are in opposite direc-
tions.
- The perpendicular distances from the resulting forces
given are inversely proportional to the intensity of these
R, resulting from forces: F1 = b
two parallel forces, F2 a
F1 and F2, is equal - The parallel forces in opposite directions cannot be replaced by a sin-
to F1 + F2 and F1 x gle result. This is a couple system.
a = F2 x b

Application to Muscles
These basic principles may be applied to the action of muscles in the
body. Let us first analyze the force exerted by a single muscle with paral-
lel fibers on a hinge-shaped joint. To obtain equilibrium, the result R of
the muscular force F and of the weight W passes through the joint’s cen-
ter of rotation.
The intensity of the muscular force F is a function of the area D of the
transverse section of the muscle at rest, perpendicularly to the fibers, and
of the contractility f. Therefore, F = f x d.
Muscles also develop pressure and tension forces on bones. If a muscle
develops, through a tendon, a force F on a bone with an angle _, we can
break down F into a normal force N, acting the length of the bone’s sur-
face, and a shearing force H, perpendicular to the bone shaft.
The bone is therefore submitted to the action of tension from the
A muscle exerts a forces and reacts with a force called pressure. The bone also supports a
force F on the shaft
tendency to rotation Mb, which results in the NN couple, at the N u
of a long bone,
momentum.
through the inter-
This situation is relatively common in the construction of the motor
mediary of a ten-
system since permanent tensions of various intensities exist. The con-
don.
struction of the motor system is such that the forces of tension are as close
to the central axes of the bones as possible and the tensions are spread out
over areas that are as large as possible.
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The action of the muscles on the reduction of loads PREVENTION
to which a joint is submitted can be shown through
mechanical calculations. Let us take the model of a
pelvic limb, constructed like a column without a joint 295
and supporting a given load. We can then calculate the
maximal pressure and momentum of rotation exerted
on the model.
We add hip and knee joints to the model, as well as
two muscles: a hip flexor (and knee extensor) and a
hip extensor. For the knee to be in equilibrium, the
sum of the momenta of force around its rotation cen-
ter must be zero. The calculation of the forces shows
that the muscles, besides controlling movements,
reduce the intensity of the pressures.
The momenta of rotation and pressure in the bone
are influenced by the number of muscles going through Balance of the joint H of the elbow. The force
a given joint. Let us examine a model of an elbow N is exerted by the muscle T1 and is balanced
joint, balanced by the action N of a single muscle, the by S (reaction of the elbow) and W(weight of
weight W of the forearm, and the reaction S to the the forearm).
elbow joint. The forearm is divided into 10 equal sec-
tions and we note a peak in the momenta of rotation
for section 3. When a second muscle acts on the fore-
arm, the momenta of rotation for the 10 above-men-
tioned segments are reduced and we note two peaks in
sections 3 and 6, less sharp, however, than in the pre-
vious case. The incidence of two muscles acting on a
single joint reduces the tendency toward rotation of
the bones to which they are attached.
The insertion of a fan-shaped muscle greatly tem-
pers these momenta of rotation. Moreover, biostatical
analysis of the skeleton reveals that most of the long Fan insertion of a muscle, exerting a
bones are only slightly submitted to rotation thanks to force F on a long bone, balanced by
their hollow structure, which allows the pressures to be F1 and F2
spread out more homogeneously.

Application to the Joints

The forces exerted by
the weight and force of a The body B exerts a
muscle are transmitted force F on the body C,
from one bone to another countered by the
through the intermediary force of friction S.
of contact surfaces in the N is the normal reac-
joints. These are covered tion of B on C.
in joint cartilage and are R is the result of S and
lubricated with synovial N.
fluid.
 When a force F is applied perpendicularly to a surface, only a vertical
reaction N is brought into play by the material. When this force is applied
Stabilization of the with an angle _, it translates into two components: a vertical component
joint between the and a horizontal component H, called the shearing component. The reac-
296 bone elements B tion of the material to H is the force S, a frictional force. The intensity of
and C:
S depends on the coefficient of friction F, which is very small in the joints.
The angle _ limit is 1 degree. If _ is greater, the sliding of the joint sur-
faces in relation to one another is such that certain surrounding tissues
may be broken. We therefore note the importance of peri-articular struc-
tures such as the joint capsule, collateral ligaments, or bony joint reliefs.
A knowledge of the distribution of pressure on joint structures helps in
understanding functional disorders of the joint cartilage.

Application to the Body and to the Limbs

By ligaments L: The body’s axis for vertebrates is made up of various kinds of tissue
(bone, cartilage, conjunctive tissue). It must not only support the weight
of the body, but also transmit the locomotive power of its hindlegs. This
axis can be represented by an arc and a string. The body’s axis is made up
of a series of rigid elements—the vertebrae—that are linked to the inter-
vertebral disks and form an arc that can be curved in various ways. This
curve may be momentarily stabilized by three muscular “strings” whose
tension can vary. We distinguish the “dorsal string,” which is made of
muscles covering the sides and back of the arc and which serve to
straighten it, from the “ventral string,” which is made up of two levels: the
interrupted string,” which joins the skull and the front side of the cervi-
By a central crest cal and thoracic vertebrae, as well as the lumbar vertebrae to the pelvis.
The “interrupted string” joins the thoracic skeleton to the pelvis. This
ventral string generally serves to bend the arc.
The action of these muscle groups is important during locomotion,
especially in running (alternately flexing and extending the back).

The body

The trunk is balanced on a static plane. When a quadruped is at rest,

its spinal column is maintained in an unstable equilibrium by the intrin-
sic elasticity of he intervertebral disks and ligaments. Only zero or very

Structure of the arc and cord:

The arc is formed by the spinal column, its liga-
ments and muscles (1).
The cord is made up of an interrupted level (2
and 3) and a non-interrupted level (4).
The forces of gravity (W, w) and propulsion (F)
are transmitted to the support points.
 5 - DISEASES
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slight muscular activity can maintain PREVENTION
this posture. A minimal muscular con-
traction can produce a force that
exceeds the elasticity and breaks the 297
equilibrium to produce a flexion or
extension of the arc. The muscular
forces can produce several types of dis-
tortion. Flexing or extending the
back, bending it to the left or to the
right, a torsion the length of the lon- Relationship between the
gitudinal horizontal axis, a vertical or friction S of the foot and
the balance of the inter-
horizontal shearing, a longitudinal vertebral joint L.
tension or compression. These forces W is the weight, R1, R2,
of distortion are countered by liga- and R3 are the results of
F1, F2, F3, and W.
ments and controlled by muscles. R1 tends to extend the spi-
nal column.
Legs act like slanted pillars. The R3 tends to flex the back.
tension of the abdominal muscles is R2 has no momentum and
does not act on the spinal
increased when the legs extend column.
toward the back of the body.
Moreover, there is a relationship
between the reaction R to the legs, made up of the normal reaction N and
the friction S, and the tension imposed upon the dorsal musculature.
We call F the result of R and weight W. Depending on the amplitude
of S, F may pass above, through, or under the spinal column. If there is a
lot of friction, F, will pass above the spinal column and tends to extend it.
If S is very high, F will pass under the spinal column and tend to flex the
back. If F passes through the spinal column, its momentum is zero and
there is no effect on the curve of the back.

The distribution of the load (the way the weight is spread out) on the
forelegs and hindlegs is relative to the location of the dog’s center of grav- Position of the center of
ity, which is easily determined. gravity W.
The animal is represented by a rectangle ABCD, the four angles of The dog can only lift C
which correspond to the points of contact between the limbs and the or D.
ground, and E is the point of intersection of the diagonals in the rectan- The dog can only life A
or B.
gle. If the center of gravity w is in the triangle ABE, the animal can only
lift a hindleg, since w will always be in the triangle ABC or ABD. If w is
located in the triangle CDE, the dog can only raise one of its two forelegs.
Two situations exist in regard to the static function of the limbs:
– The limbs act as vertical columns, such that the point of support of
the leg is vertical to the point of application of the weight on the shoul-
der or hip;
– The members act like slanted pillars, the two previous points cited
forming a straight line that leans in relation to the vertical line.
In both cases, the limb joints are a certain distance from the line of
action W, such that the weight has a momentum in relation to these
 joints, and the farther they are from the line of action of the
weight, the greater they will be. The stabilization of the joints
therefore implies the action of the limb’s muscles, which must
W W exert an equal but opposite momentum.

A A The shoulder

The shoulder is inserted into the chest with muscles, since

B the clavicle is absent or only rudimentary. This structure is only
B
capable of supporting the forces of tension exerted by the mus-
C cles between the thorax and the scapula and serves to counter
C the rotation of the scapula.
The reaction of the weight is produced by the serratus ante-
Fig. 1: the member acts rior muscle of the chest.
like a vertical pillar.
Fig. 2: the member acts
like a slanted pillar. The pelvis
The momenta W on the
joints of the member The connection between the pelvis and the axis of the body is estab-
depend on A, B, and C.
lished by the sacroiliac joint. Nonetheless, it is difficult to determine the
proportions of which the stability of the joint is affected by the action of
the surrounding ligaments and muscles. In quadruped mammals, the hip
joint is caudal-ventral to the sacroiliac joint. The reaction N to the hip
joint has a momentum in relation to the sacroiliac joint that serves to
turn it clockwise. This rotation can be prevented by contracting the
abdominal muscles. Another rotation can occur: The sacrum can turn
around the sacroiliac joint. This is prevented by the tension of the liga-
ments linking the sacrum to the caudal vertebrae and to the edge of the
ischium. The stabilizing effect of the muscles and ligaments surrounding
the sacroiliac joint decreases or even eliminates the joint’s force of tor-
sion.
The pelvis shows interesting static implications in the transversal
plane. The bones of the pelvis form two half that are more or less curved,
attached dorsally to the sacrum and ventrally joining on the pelvic sym-
physis. The positions of the sacroiliac and hip joints determine the direc-
tion and intensity of the pressure in the symphysis, all depending on the
width of the sacrum. If the distance between the hips is greater than that
between the sacroiliac joints, the symphysis is submitted to a force of ten-
Pressures exerted on sion. When these two joints are vertical in relation to one another, no
the pelvic symphysis, force is exerted on the symphysis.
cross cut. The most favorable position of the ilium in relation to the spinal col-
In this case, the dis- umn depends on the animal’s position. In an animal standing at rest, the
tance separating the
hips is greater than most favorable position is the one such that the sacroiliac angle equals
the distance bet- 90o. That way, the momentum of the force of the rotation of the femur in
ween the sacro-iliac relation to the sacroiliac joint is zero. When the dog is walking, the
joints. The symphysis
is therefore submit-
momentum of the force of propulsion in relation to the sacroiliac joint is
ted to a force of ten- zero when the spinal column and the ilium are aligned. The biostatic and
sion. biomechanical requirements are apparently opposite. Nonetheless, the
 5 - DISEASES
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obstetrical requirements must be taken into account: the sacroiliac angle PREVENTION
is a measure of the real diameter of the pelvis, through which the young
pass during birth. Therefore, in the dog, we find a sacroiliac angle that is
between 15o and 40o, constituting a compromise between these various 299
requirements.

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The biomechanics of the carpals and tarsals are interesting in the adap-
tation of postures and specific progression. The respective positions of the
different bone parts in the hand and foot are maintained by a dorsal
extensor system and a plantar flexor, which is aided by a deep layer of
muscles and ligaments (plantar aponeurosis). The problem that arises is
that of balancing several joints consecutively, the interphalangian joints
and the metatarsal or metacarpal joints. In a static state, or while walk-
ing, the plantar side supports a greater load than the dorsal side. The pres-
ence of plantar calluses—pads—further establishes that this side is more
apt to support heavier weights than the dorsal side. The momenta of the
forces of flexion are therefore greater than those of extension and, as a
result, the group of flexors is better developed than the group of extensors.
Nevertheless, in a medio-lateral direction, the degree of curving is
very slight. This is why a slight deviation of the direction of the load,
translated by the appearance of a shearing force, will be countered by a
medial bony crest, or by strong peri-articular structures.

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In the standing dog, the horizontal motor force is zero. If a horizontal

force exists, for whatever reason, a resulting horizontal force toward the
head, the animal begins to move. The leg muscles contribute to the for-
ward propulsion. The retraction and protraction (backward and forward
movements) of the limbs are principally cause by muscles outside of the
limb, but also by the action of the limb’s intrinsic muscles, which by the
changes in angles in the different joints, contribute to the double capac-
ity of the limbs to act as support and lever.
An animal that is not moving cannot accelerate without disturbing the
equilibrium of the vertical forces. To start, part of the body weight is
transferred from the forelegs to the hindlegs, implying that the decrease
in weight supported by the thoracic members in turn decreases their
propulsive power. Therefore, a dog that is trying to rapidly accelerate
using its forelegs runs the risk of slipping on the ground.
The dynamic principles governing the propulsive forces exerted by the
limbs are primarily the same and static principles. One limb can act as a
pillar or a lever. If the axis of the limb is retracted (under the body), the
limb can act as a propulsive pillar. If the axis of the limb is stretched
toward the front, the limb then acts as a brake. During a cycle of motion,
the limb is alternatively protracted and retracted.
 For the dog to conserve energy while moving, the coordination of the
effort of these limbs must be such that the result of all of the propulsive
forces acts on the body’s center of gravity. That way, the momentum of
300 the propulsive forces in relation to the center of gravity is zero and the
body is not submitted to any tendency toward rotation.
The total propulsive power of a limb is the sum of its actions as pillar
and lever. It is made up of a vertical component, exerted by the limb onto
the body, and a horizontal component that exerts propulsive force. When
the limb acts as a propulsive lever, the push of the retractors serves to flex
the back, especially in the lumbar-sacral region. A similar flexion occurs
in the thoracic region, if the thoracic limbs act as brakes.
In a complete motion cycle, the thoracic limb acts as a brake, while the
pelvic limb pushes the body forward.
Despite the great diversity in the contour of movements, there are rel-
atively few basic principles. They are based on Newton’s three laws of
motion:
– The first law says that a body at rest or in uniform motion in a
straight line stays at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by forces (gravity, air resistance, etc.)
– The second law states that the change in momentum by
units of time is proportional to the force applied and takes place
in the direction of this force. When a dog exerts a propulsive
force F, its speed is proportional to the amplitude of the force and
to the time T during which it acts and inversely proportional to
the mass M of the body:

V=FxT
M
The acceleration (at each second) is F.
M

– The third law says that the forces always act in pairs and
that each pair is made up of two equal but opposite forces. For every
action there is a reaction. When a dog submits its body to a forward
propulsive force, the ground exerts an equal but opposite force, in the
opposite direction. In other words, the animal advances because the
ground resists the movement of the limbs in relation to the body.

The study of biomechanics, which can be done through cinemato-

graphic analysis of the movements of bone segments in relation to one
another, allows us to better understand the appearance of ailments in the
motor system and to better prevent them and treat them.