4.

Other Proof Methods and Strategies

In this lesson we shall look into some proof methods and strategies that are commonly used to
established the truth of mathematical statements. Although there are still other proof methods, we will only
limit our discussion to proof of equivalence, proof by cases, and exhaustive proof.

A. Proof of Equivalence

To prove a biconditional theorem, that is, theorem of the form p ↔q , we need to show that the
conditionals p ↔q and q ↔ p are both true.

Prove the following statement.

Given that n is a positive integer, n is even if and only if 7 n+ 4 is even.

Proof
Since the given statement is a biconditional of the form p ↔q , we have to established the truth of
both p ↔q and q ↔ p. The proof shall then have two parts.

First Part: If n is even then 7n + 4 is even.

This part can be proved directly
Assume that n is even.
Then n=2 k for some integer k .
Now, 7 n+ 4=7 ( 2 k ) +4.

Second Part: If 7 n+ 4 is even then n is even.

This part can be proved by contraposition.
Assume that n is not even.
So, n is odd
Then n=2 k +1 for some integer k
Now 7 n+4=7 ( 2 k +1 ) + 4

B. Proof by Cases

A proof by cases occurs when all possible cases in which the given conditions are satisfied.

Prove the following statements

If x and y are both even or both odd then x + y is even.

Proof
The hypothesis suggests that there are two possible cases, when x and y are both even or both
odd.

Case 1: x and y are both even

Assume that x and y are both even.
Then x = 2k and y =2l for some integers k , l .
Now, x + y = 2 k +2 l .
x + y = 2(k +l ¿
Since x + y = 2(integer) then x + y is even.

Case 2: x and y are both odd.

Assume that x and y are both odd.
Then x =2k + 1 and y=2l+1 for some integers k , l .
Now, x + y=2 k +1+2 l+1
x + y=2(k +l+ 1)
Since x + y=2 ( integer ) then x+ y is even .
C. Exhaustive Proof

A special type of proof by cases is called an exhaustive proof that considers a small number of
examples for which the statement or theorem can be true.

Prove that n2 +1 ≥2 n when n is positive integer with 1 ≤n ≤ 4.

Proof
The truth of the statement can be verified for n= 1,2,3, and 4. Thus

2 1
for n = 1: 1 +1≥ 2 is correct
for n = 2: 22 +1≥ 22 is correct
2 3
for n = 3: 3 +1 ≥2 is correct
2 4
for n = 4: 4 +1≥ 2 is correct

Since the statement is true for the required values of n , the proof is done.

5. Mathematical Induction

The method of proof is called proof by mathematical induction and is primarily used in verifying
statements involving the set of natural numbers. Mathematical induction is a proof technique used to prove
propositions involving the set of natural numbers or its subset. It is said that the first known proof by
mathematical induction appeared in1575 in the book Arithmeticorum Libri fou, by Italian mathematician
Francesco Maurocilico. He proved that the sum of the first n positive odd integers is n2 , i.e.

1 = 12
1 + 3 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42

The Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let P(n) be the statement involving the set of natural numbers n (or its subset). If the following
statements are satisfied.
(a) P(1) is true.
(b) P(k ) → P(k +1) is true.

Showing statement (a) is doing the basis step and showing statement (b) is called doing Inductive Step.

Prove the given statement by mathematical induction.

n(n+1)
The sum of the first n positive integers is equal to .
2

Basis Step:

We need to show that P(1) is true. This is just the statement

1(1+ 1)
1= , which is true
2
 Inductive Step:

We assume that P ( k ) is true. This means that

k (k+ 1)
1+2+3+...+k =
2

We want to show that P(k + 1) is true, i.e.

(k +1)( k +2)
1+2+3+...+k + k +1=
2
Now, from the assumption
k (k+ 1)
1+2+3+...+k =
2

k ( k +1 )
we add k +1 on both sides. 1+2+3+...+k + ( k +1 )= +(k +1)
2

Simplifying further,
k ( k +1 ) +2( k +1)
1+2+3+..+k + ( k +1 )=
2
( k +1 ) +(k +2)
P ( k +1 ) ; 1+ 2+ 3+..+ k + ( k + 1 )=
2
Thus, P ¿) is true.

Since the two steps have been proved, we conclude that P(n) is true.

Example 1:
Prove the given statement by mathematical induction.

For every natural number n , 7n – 1 is divisible by 6.

Proof
Recall that a number m is divisible by p if and only if m= pk for some integer k
for some integer k . This definition shall be used in the proof.

Let P ( n ) ; 71−1 is divisible by 6.

Basis Step:
Since 71−1=6 , which is of course divisible by 6, then we can say P(1) is true.

Inductive Step:
Let P(k ) is true, i.e.

k
7 −1 is divisible by 6.
Hence, 7 k −1=6 k , for some integer k .
Now, multiply both sides by 7,
7 ( 7 −1 )=7 ( 6 k ) .
k

Simplifying further,
k+1
7 −7=42 k
k+1
7 −1=42 k +6
7 k+1−1=6(7 k +1)
 Since 7 k+1−1=6 (integer ) , then7 k+1−1 is divisible by 6.
Thus, P ( k +1 ) istrue .
Having proved the two steps, P(n) is true for all natural numbers.

Example 2:
Prove the given statement by mathematical induction.

2 >n if n is an integer greater than 4.

n 2

Proof
Let P ( k ) :2n >n2 , n is an integer and n> 4.
In this case, we will start at n=5 for the basis step.

Basis step:
Since 25 >52 , then P(5) is true.

Inductive Step:
Let P(k ) is true, i.e.

k 2
2 ¿ k , for some integer k > 4
Now,
=2 ( 2 ) >2 k
k +1 k 2
2

And because k > 4 ,

2 2 2 2
2 k =k + k >k +2 k +1.

Thus, 2k +1>(k 2 +2 k +1)

Hence the statement is true.

Exercises:

A. Prove the given statement using proof by cases.

1. If n is any integer then n2 −n is even.

2. If exactly one of x and y is even then x− y is odd.

B. For integer n , prove the given statement using mathematical induction.

n +1
2 3 n 3 −3
1. 3+3 +3 + …+3 = ,n ≥ 1
2