CuaPTeR-1: INTRODUCTION Preovetreol Srome works one developed base on sntuttions cereloped! Shrou, cbsesvationrs gel experiments. eg Newtons laws of motion , Newtons Lacs of Gravitation ete. Such a framertorte rusually bas 0. regime of nelichity for example : 1. For particles proving with high speed We) Mestorion dynamues bxtaks door, velodivistye dymmics { takes overs " predictions Lecomes Aneosistan? boity experimental observedrone’ 2. Newtons theory of Gravity oils tb exphim the precession of ovbit of Mescurg » benching of Light wy Jmasstve, boolies 5 black hobs... we meed Stnstein’s Gemerat Rebdiu'tgThe mew Pavadigan which lxplains med obsesvations Greely Aad w Wider negrvme of “eliclity and She previous Sheowes omerge as a speoial past.” Ctomsting ase.) of She bigger fromeserk, — Newtons haw of potion is V< object focabiged ata posthren: agi Chkeetron 5 bullet > as long as it can be xonsidestc to bea pornt object - @) Waves > Electromugnet ve Waves. - Undergoes toter ference and bf fraction - Well explained by Maxwell's Electroognetic Hheory. - Always found ata Giver position. - Follows Necotormarr dymaaes We will mow see that these classical norcepts of particle /icave fouls Chreakeum) to describe ature in diverse suations. In these. Sébuataions we require a men powodigo of Guavtum PrysiesRreakdown of Newton | Maxwell classical dpeostes 1, ‘stabslity of atom: Eketron sevalving around proton fAonstiues a stem whose electore dipole moment xchuges with time Such « Syston must" tachiake’ enedgy an the fom of Electromagnetic sadiation ¥ Moxasells Theory, Eledlrone would! collagse b pooton and She electson - proton system Che atom) would! mevev be stadble- 2. Expewiments / observations sug gesting EM wavee ave a burch of pasticles wi tl energy far, and momentum fie a. Phebvelectine Effect 6. CGmyptow Seattering . Cc Black body radiation gpectrum: How «much power emitled at particnlar SreyuenyS. Eleetsons exhibit Phenomenon Similar ©) G interference and dif fractron- Bat rot same | (Q) Davecon- Germer oxpesimart — Eleeteon dif fraction. @® Double slit expesament - Ekcton dates ference (see vitleo frm ttacki Inks g shown in dass). Double slit expestmert with electoons: Gee Aiscusston tn Closs- 1 video) Main conclustons : 1. Paobabrlistre interpretation of eketrons Location: ~We snust give up alossteal cetesminism - This ¢¢ a new stheovetrook pavodigan 3 “Quantum Physics” a wave function 2. Associate a probability om pletude WY) with he electron. Probabelity density = ee]. 3. When an event Can occur im several woay s we ard probability amplitudes (rather than probabilities)B= (47%! Pax BIR 12 - " ” inter fexence tesm A 2. : . 1 I) tn proboleilty iste b uta'vn: (oft be Peomplsevalued fr terrence potown 4. If we toy to measure which Dole he glectron posses . Cwe detetaune sstich oltesmative Average malue of x (tf we mie smany repeats Chee on an ensemble) <) = JS x PCD Ax nth momemt s Xx") = JS. x” PG) dx. 2a (& mensuse of spread 2 oO! re Vawionee Ax = OY—KD™ Cop ee ats meanUncertainty PeinciPle A A x Ap > 5 h = 34 h=- a } h = 6-63 X [0 Joule- sec. OK Ax, AP can be sonsidestd to be the NVasiance of Re probability distsibufion - In the double shkt expestmeatt with. the gbectron if we ty to measuse which hole electron posse by vmtasusing secoil of Slit bolder» the tonter ference pottesor would be Gore. Lf we rreasuse seeoth snomentum prectce the wilh be uncerstumity in Location of slits ( by Unvcestaintty poinctple) This with Cause pumncertoa'ta sr Ipeation of UBS ontearinima of Svinges - The averagect 2ffeet would blue oul the furnges OnceRTANITY Principe “protects” apuantwm effects. It is the most xomtral prrceple in Quantum Physies: Quantum Dynamics The entive probabilistic Anfosaration obrut a qruartuor gashele 4s pontatned in the probability amplinde — wavefunction “Y Cx) - The probability distibabim is | ¥G0)* acs) function What ts the Aymaaies of the probability amplitude 2 Potential af force ex pertrmed by particle F --Ave@ aX th UGH = - A? PUGD 4 vOvEd ot 2m Ox Sehr dinger Equation : Remaw. alt is not true that qwadtuemn physies only Aoncerms Lhe Ymicroscopie’ vspsled - These axe severod Pmacrosenpie Gfuonttume effects — Bose- Emmstum condensate ¢ * Supesfluids”, * Superconductors” - You can see He Plonek congtant appear inv the uncertainty Petnaipleah wl as in the Schridinger Equation» Te appeatance of Shic porstant ia eigredute of * quuontuanmess Usually of we ponstouct o dimensionless gnantity wif, and afer dimentionful ponormeters tw the prrbleon , the magnitude (smaltness) of suck a quantita soit repect fo1 indicates ssheter quomtum offectt toould be Suppressed of oot - Since the walue of L, tn Slunits is small [ remember $) nits ase sonstractec! based on dimensions percerable to Humons | , dt ds move commen Le see qruorttum offeets at the smiesoscopte lerel- Ht the rmecroseopie lene! Hece gruantum affects are esualy suppressed Cdue t decohesemte) andl clossical clesestplion is on excellent of fective description.NorMALI ZATION At any given time, the quantum particle must be found Semedhere ad Pe sin. space (1D for simplitty) rs Solutions to Schvedinger ey. 5 f [ov Gt = 1 ase atlowed setubiens! Must be walid at all times Nowmalizgtion o We anust anultiply cthe asavefunction ty ar appmpwidte number C Complex i necessary) So as te ensuse the abore Sot: we Only Styuase- integrable Once nowmalized at any given time, of stays mowralized al all times > Of He time crotution is Gen the, Sclvsdinger ey o Pat és. G ih ay -- 8B OY 4 venyoo at “ ae . ot Im Ox* ° then, 4 [ f IyGblax] =0 oo oo teat 2 [ feo] = [OO , = (de (2) + CRYO] SL lg @ Noy 2 z aye + [OM ew oe f [4 ab +w] xt @! ‘| oF a Im ox a am 2x Complex conjugate- fale BB? DCE BW] - [4% [5 CE)WR - VEE) ° Cog Taal - 2 [ vee - ¥2F] am th [ ay oY yar yo =o am Ke™ t Ox ] ~2o Physicad novmalizable wave funchions vanish, ab “> tOExpecTATION VALUES oF Position AND Momentum Consider an ensemble of a. quartum particle dlescribed by save function YEd) A large collection of - Let W(x, #4) = ¥0) Histogram of measured value of x ¥6) aon 8 5 No. of times X fourd within aun intewal x ° x QO) is the average ef hece values Sound én andeperdemt smeasuse mente ew the ensemble > = S x [YD [ax < Ih genes this expietotiow Zoo cvalue 18 o funchiow of Hime what is the expectotiow walue of smomentunn 2Follewnimg ous olessital intushow we can soy = m AX* Note time depend, & =m lote time dependence inv <> a =[iby, (482,) +yv |4 a2 -[f£4+v jy am RA Kinetic Enesgy Potential Energy Hamiltonian A not indicates that these objects does mat se present mumbess Father they sepsesem)- derivative opemtors.S, we Lan Compact ly vosite Schvidinger Loymalior os AY (et) = th BVO). H Y@+) be Hamiltonian tine -evolution Aan 6 A © P=-h2 ) we Aan alse put ov hat on x andl Think ef UE as an opesation — & trivial opesatiow OF anubtipliontion by a seal mumieer!Sotu7n To Scropinger #8. (ID) vb ih OY 24? OF avy ot am Orr Tk is asecond osder Linear Partial AifferenbiaR eayodion A solution fockuiye for PDES like this (s Sepembion of variables. Assume: V&t) = PO) EO Substihde back 2 ¢ . se __ #2 2 (905®) +v tk ace D 30) =~ Sp S ih o® B40 --h® £6 2 eOB+V h p@ 22 a 40 gs) Py Divide by PS th 08 - WL 20 4 ve 5a) Ot 2m GO) Bx* Purely funckion purely Sunckion of x of & (nox) \ J (no t)- And they ase eqyuad v Only possible if bodt sides ave Aonstant |Let the constant be € — sepesatiow tonstont Then, ah A hrs) = €é ORDI NaRy DIFFERENTIAL 2 E QUATIONS- wd POD ¢ Vipoo= € 2O0- 2m dx> The Fiast eqnotion is tramectiotely solved. -2 4®=- Ae A is some integontion fonstant arhich can be absorbed tn Po stich we ave yet to solve The second equation fg a Second exes ODE anf ne med Ls provide too Soumdorg Conditions for solving ed =n dpe) + VOW = € OW. 2m dx* E tsan posometer and we must ponsider all possthle ablewed values of Huis parameter. Useadly boundary Aonditton plus Pre tondttion that o setutior must exist sh ficant lg Aonstonins the allowed valuee of € Let us denote the allowed sralues of & by fe, 5 then couesponding, Ie every value, of Em 2% Kory Faye a Soludton POD = 0% En) ~tEnt/er So, V&D=K%CGt 3€.) = BOE) SHence the (GB GonealSull EAD sc Ainear pemrbination of all these allowed Solutions: , iy AV (Xf) = Ge BGtA)= 7, Cn B,C Ed E . Many Aomplex no- Note = Allowed value of E may be disesete ox jonbinnous tf it & portinuous them we have 05 pecform aw inkegenbiow instead of a Summ Stationary States The WY, im the above discussion — the imdinAual sepernted Ledahons gre fabled Seong Sdn. The probability ensity and ex pectabion palues remains unchanged whew the systems Gportide) ts ina Shtiomany able. vit le Ts yA) = POs &) e Crono gine abl Gx are Zero except) them poobabt lity Bish bution 2G) = [UGA = [RG x6) time independentSimtlanty 0©O Lm = J | ¥eu0) ox -00 = S$ (GGje)|* de > tinme in dependent " & om oye 7 = QO 7 eo CHD = J wr [-£ F sv) fy oe Lo ie 2m ae EP by time-independent— Shrschinger equation SEY de = e foty & a & “op number 41 ‘nosmalized wWave-fumetion ged waves apy = (se v|-£ = +v60| [-# 2 +ve)yo Yoo VY 5 Eve) - C a*[- BS +vG0] £¥6) EY humber. co oO cam - ( EY EY ax - er {ova = So vasiance im Energ'4 Measure Aw = - dH = = E Wwe will see later Sat She vastous allowed wolues of & are the only values of wmeugy whicly we Can find [fF WE AN€asute LnL%5Y * [also see below prmciple ef spect! Secomposition |Linear combimation of Stobionary shte is NOT a Sfobionary Stete - Exomple : “tét ib, ve) = GQ, 00 Fra aqme 2”. UY LY Y Fox sim plicity Set us fewme | Probability Aistribution L272 Far ore real Vo / et -t 1et Figgt/y [anne +e quoe@¥][annd he amd ™ J NW Signy Changes Awe to complex Conjugate- W cre, + cy a) + Ua Pe, [expGG-a2t) + %p Ci E-%)] Part For + 24GQA, cos (EG e%,) Prokabi lity demsity osciMoctes wt. foeqneney G4) etBapy Examete: Tnermte S@uare Wet. Potonbial # Vix) = iy oc xcs Y UY oD 5 ow & Phy sicak input 8 Boundary 2onditions V(x20,4) =0, Y&t)=0- We will use seperation of vasiables : Vt) = PO EQ) uddece, . 20 = ee i = EP V=0O inside I ot Vv or | x2 VI 3 a Solution? cp&® = A sinkx + B cos «xUse boundary Kondition $ @&=0) #9 > B=o Hence, VG) = Asin Kx But we also have cp (x= a) =0- > Simka =O oN > Ka = 0, ER, 42K cho iv ate SH Leavefnetion vases Allowed K values a= Sustain ede kK, = OA > n= 1,2, [Fhe stgm ean b8 absorbed En A a 2 But, «= ,f2me 5 B= a pe DL nen m1 od &: Ey = Hence allued yalues of Seah Bo. Determine + boa snatanaliging Yy,. for a given Ey.PeincieLe Of Spectrat Decomposion . * A quantum stake js denoted by & wavefunction v@b) oA physneal Gruomsity which com be measured 18 Called an OBSERVABLE “OBSERVABLES axe represunted by ‘opesetors” atvioly cam act ow the adave fumef7on ogi R > x (ackion > anuldiplication) 8 > -ih 2 (action — dew! votive) Ox fo F .ve Ox When an obsewalble (aj) 1s measured the result »musl belong to a set of ‘igem” (seod spectal!) rests. $a} + Fach of these, speetal vesults (wefesed to as elgern-lue) Js assootated with a speuial “apensinte > a pastioular wave function 5 Yay These set of Speuol ales and asave functions (fap, §x) Chavocterige the chsexvable .[we witl see Sater thal C fa3, fms) axe respectively He wigewyolue and ergenctate associate with the OPERATOR cowresperndiing fo tte absemeble inv question J. If the Wave function Ost) ae one of Shese Special wave function Ms, , then the vesult of measure smut of absesvable A ¢é abloays a * Tf we ave im a genesal stode, woe must be able to wotte the general davefunetion untesme of all the LH Emibave function feb of any giver observable Ht) = 2 Ca We spectral & 4 This (3 an totegral Cleeom pesition 18 Jap te a Contmunws) Complex nos Set ® In such a genevel state, the probability 0 tuning the Upon aelue °Q4" within 4 set ay Ahem K is (meosured fs Given by R, « [Capl Z I col”° Tf aw ameasuctment gives "0," the wave function of the pooticle (qvontum tele) tonmecticlely after Mecca rsemsnl- is Na € {ta} “Be wavefunction Collapses from WwW to Va, due + the measusement ” For an gdvanced Sxphuation of Fixe point see fandau-bifshitz vel 3 Chopter- 4.THe Quantum Free Parricte (ins = THE GluanTUM FREE PARTICLE : Limiting gose of #h ( a prelea where FREE PARTICLE you take the ‘walls’ of — NO FORCE ACTS ON IT the “oe ae) te lnfamé = POTENTIAL ZERO EVERYWHERE - . yA Ne VOQ)=0 , xe) ‘The Schyidinger eqy Sf V=0 ds giver bg 3h VED _ _ 2 YC. at Qm Ox Substrtatin mn. cbstrtatinag the ansoly Cex —wt) phe We ge lio) 2-2 Gey thee) =- 2 G4) 2 Hu = GK de Byogli {oo 4 & X > E= pe Goeespondls Adenlified E gz En ty Chesfeah 2m Comerpt | E~ hwoHence, the fuee particle must be decribed by - ix -we) = 17x? 4- Ae » 08 With Me allowed! value af k beng abiteary weal (ontims), So, the most Gere solution is a binead Super postten of all these solutions xt he W&t) = ox J a eik oD 4 dk. 5 Fa ~ [~— Soe tee of te ainsi Meee ( : for Sane Ke Fre amplitude & ios het absorbed in gO) a Complele én fororation about 7 & fan be povided y Sreaiigeng The wavefurnct at a given énstan F of time Crag £70) - Giien WOytD= % @® Then, kGO= (is L (gH o™ akHence, GY ts the Fourier toone fava of the —nktiol save fomction Hence, GOO = {moo e* Once we Know GN from “h 5 ét tan be mst Le weite down the most General selufion x dx . Remark: The individual udions —_—_ woe A ew 2 axe mot Syme integrable, since el =A Hasever, Certain Linear tembinatlont f fr }- ae (90 EO d 0 are Squave éntegia ble- Such a “near Lombtnation way be abed Js fe firre oabized eave packet .