Module 4

EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G.
Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur
MODULE 4 – FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

Frequency domain specifications- correlation between time domain and frequency domain
responses
Polar plot: Concepts of gain margin and phase margin- stability analysis
Bode Plot: Construction- Concepts of gain margin and phase margin- stability analysis,
Effect of transportation lag and non-minimum phase systems.
Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system subject to
sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a specific range, usually from
0 to ∞.
For linear systems the frequency of input and output signal remains the same, while the ratio of
magnitude of output signal to the input signal and phase between two signals may change. Frequency
response analysis deals with only steady state and measurements are taken when transients have
disappeared. Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried out for systems with large time
constants.
The transfer function of a system can be described in frequency domain by the relation,
G ( j )  G ( s ) s  j
The closed loop transfer function is frequency domain is

C ( j )
 M ( j )  M ( j )  M ( j )
R ( j )
G ( j ) H ( j ) = open loop transfer function in frequency domain
FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS
RESONANT PEAK It is the maximum value of magnitude of closed-loop frequency response

(Mr) |M(j)|.
Mr gives indication on the relative stability of a stable closed loop system.
Large Mr corresponds to a large maximum overshoot of the step response.
RESONANT It is the frequency at which resonant peak occurs.
FREQUENCY (r) r gives an indication of the speed of transient response.
BANDWIDTH (b) For feedback control systems, the range of frequencies over which |M(j)|
is equal to or greater than -3dB.
Large BW corresponds to small rise time.
BW also gives an indication of the noise-filtering characteristics and
robustness of the system. (A robust system is one that is insensitive to
parameter variations)
CUT-OFF RATE The slope of |M(j)| near the -3dB cut-off frequency is called the cut-off
rate.
Bandwidth alone is inadequate to indicate the ability of a system in
distinguishing signals from noise. Two systems can have the same
bandwidth, but the cut-off rates may be different.
GAIN MARGIN It is the amount of gain in dB that can be added to the loop before the closed
(GM) loop system becomes unstable.
Page 111 of 187

EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur
It is the reciprocal of the magnitude of open loop transfer function at phase

cross over frequency.
Phase cross-over frequency pc is the frequency at which the phase of the
open loop transfer function is 180˚.
1
GM 
G ( j pc )
1
Gain Margin in dB = 20 log  20 log G ( j pc )
G ( j pc )
Gain margin of second-order system is infinite.
PHASE MARGIN The amount of additional phase shift in degrees that can be added to the
loop before the closed-loop system becomes unstable.
It is the amount of additional phase lag at the gain cross-over frequency
required to bring the system to the verge of instability.
Gain cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the open loop transfer
function is unity (or the frequency at which the gain in dB is zero).
Phase margin = 180 + gc
gc  G ( j gc )
Typical gain – phase characteristics of a feedback control system is shown below.
EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT FREQUENCY

The closed loop transfer function of a standard second-order system is
C (s) n2
M (s)   2
R ( s ) s  2  n s   n 2
The sinusoidal transfer function is given by
Page 112 of 187

n2 1 1
M ( j )   
  2  j 2 n    n 2   
2
        
2
   j 2   1 1  j 2   
 n   n   n   n 
Let u  
n
1 1
M ( j )  
1  j 2 u  u 2
1  u  j 2 u
2
Magnitude M ( j )  1
1  u    2 u  2 2 2
M ( j ) is maximum when 1  u    2  u  is minimum or when its derivative is zero.

2 2 2
d  1  u    2  u  
2 2 2

du
   
   4 u 1  u  4 u  2  0 2
4 u 1  u    4  u   2 
2
1  u 2  2 2
u 2  1  2 2
2
 r 
  1  2
2

 n 
 r   n 1  2 2
EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT PEAK

At resonant frequency, M ( j )  M r
1
M ( j ) 
1  u    2 u 
2 2 2
Resonant peak, M  1 1 1
 
 
r
4   4   8 2 1   2
1  (1  2 ) 
2 2 4 2 4
2
 2 ( 1  2 2 )
1
Mr 
2 1   2
EXPRESSION FOR BAND WIDTH
At cut-off frequency, M ( j )  1 1

1  u    2 u  2
2 2 2
1  u    2 u 
2 2
2
2
1  2 u 2  u 4  4 2 u 2  2
u 4  2(1  2 2 ) u 2  1  0
u 2  (1  2 2 )  (1  2  2 ) 2  1  (1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2
1
When M ( j )  ,   b
2
Page 113 of 187

 b   n (1  2 2 )  4 4  4  2  2
CORRELATION BETWEEN TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSES
TIME RESPONSE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

SPECIFICATION SPECIFICATION
d  n 1   2  r   n 1  2 2
 1

1 2 Mr 
Mp e 2 1   2
Note 1
When   1  0.707 ,  r   n 1  2 2  0 ; M r  1
1
2 2 1   2
Note 2 When   0.707 , there is no resonant peak and  r  0 .
Note 3 When 0    0.707 , M r  1 and  r   n .
Note 4 When   0 , M r  and  r   n .
Note 5 BW decreases as  increases.
100
Find the resonant peak and resonant frequency of a unity feedback system with G ( s )  .
s ( s  10)
G (s) 100
M (s)   2
1  G ( s ) H ( s ) s  10 s  100
C (s) n2
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
 n  10 rad/sec
  0.5
Resonant peak, M r  1 1
  1.154
2 1   2
2  0.5 1  0.5 2
Resonant frequency,  r   n 1  2 2  10  1  2  0.5 2  7.071 rad/sec
Find the resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth of a unity feedback system with
36
G (s)  .
s ( s  8)
G (s) 36
M (s)   2
1  G ( s ) H ( s ) s  8 s  36
C (s) n2
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
 n  6 rad/sec
Page 114 of 187

  0.667
Resonant peak, M r  1 1
  1.006
2 1   2
2  0.667 1  0.667 2
Resonant frequency,  r   n 1  2 2  6  1  2  0.667 2  1.99 rad/sec
Bandwidth,  b   n (1  2  2 )  4 4  4  2  2 
 6 (1  2  0.667 2 )  4  0.667 4  4  0.667 2  2

 6.339 rad/sec
A second order system has overshoot of 50% and period of oscillation 0.2s in step response.
Determine resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth.
1

1 12
e  0.5
1
   0.6931
112
  0.2154
1
fd   5 Hz
0.2
 d  2    5  31.41rad/sec
d  n 1   2  31.41
n  32.16rad/sec
Resonant peak, M r  1
 2.377
2 1   2
Resonant frequency,  r   n 1  2 2  30.64 rad/sec
Bandwidth,  b   n (1  2  2 )  4  4  4  2  2  48.3rad/sec
Page 115 of 187

BODE PLOT
Magnitude plot - Plot of 20 log G ( j ) against log 
Phase plot – Plot of  G ( j ) against log 
K (1  sT1 )
Consider an open loop transfer function, G ( s ) 
s (1  sT2 )(1  sT3 )
K (1  jT1 )
Frequency response, G ( j ) 
j (1  jT2 )(1  jT3 )
20 log G ( j )  20 log K  20 log 1   2T1 2  20 log   20 log 1   2T2 2  20 log 1   2T3 2
 G ( j )  0  tan  1  T1  90  tan  1  T 2  tan  1  T3
The four different kinds of factors that may occur in a transfer function are as follows:-
1. Constant gain K
2. Poles or zeros at the origin
3. Poles or zeros on the real axis
4. Complex conjugate poles
BASIC FACTORS of G(j)
1 Constant Gain K G ( s )  K
G ( j )  K
20 log G ( j )  20 log K  A ; has constant magnitude
Phase angle,    G ( j )  0
When K > 1, A is positive
When K = 1, A = 0
When K < 1, A is negative
2 1
G (s) 
s
1
G ( j ) 
j
1
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log   20 log 

Phase angle,    G ( j )   90 
When  = 0.1, A = 20 dB
When  = 1, A = 0 dB
When  = 10, A = -20 dB
When  = 100, A = -40 dB
Page 116 of 187

As the frequency increases by a factor of 10, the corresponding magnitude in dB increases by a factor
of 20.
An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to 10 is called a decade.
An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to 2 is called a octave.
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to -20dB/decade.
3 1
G (s) 
sn
1
G ( j ) 
 j 
n
1
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log   20 n log 
n
Phase angle,    G ( j )   n 90 
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to -20ndB/decade.
4 G (s)  s
G ( j )  j
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log 
Phase angle,    G ( j )   90 
When  = 0.1, A = -20 dB
When  = 1, A = 0 dB
When  = 10, A = +20 dB
When  = 100, A = +40 dB
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to +20dB/decade.
5 G (s)  s n
Page 117 of 187

G ( j )   j 
n
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log  n  20 n log 

Phase angle,    G ( j )  n 90 
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to +20ndB/decade.
6 1
G (s) 
1  sT
1
G ( j ) 
1  j T
1
G ( j ) 
1   2T 2
 G ( j )   tan  1  T
1
A  20 log G ( j )  20 log   20 log 1   2 T 2
1  T 2 2
Case 1:  T  1 (for low frequency)

 2T 2 is neglected
A   20 log 1  0
Case 2:  T  1 (for high frequency)
A   20 log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = -20dB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line
with slope -20dB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a horizontal line of 0dB when  T  1 .
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot -20dB/decade when  T   1 .
These two straight lines meet at a point   1 which is called corner frequency.
T
Note: Bode plots constructed using straight lines are called asymptotic (approximate) plots. These
plots are not correct at or near corner frequencies.
7 1
G (s) 
(1  sT ) m
1
G ( j ) 
1  j T 
m
 G ( j )   m tan  1  T
A  20 log G ( j )   20 m log 1   2T 2
Page 118 of 187

A   20 m log 1  0
A   20 m log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = -20mdB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line
with slope -20mdB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot -20mdB/decade when  T  1 .
8 G ( s )  1  sT
G ( j )  1  j T
G ( j )  1   2 T 2
 G ( j )  tan  1  T
A  20 log G ( j )  20 log 1   2T 2
A  20 log 1  0
A  20 log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = 20dB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line with
slope 20dB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot 20dB/decade when  T   1 .
Page 119 of 187

9 G ( s )  1  sT 
m
G ( j )  1  j T 
m
 G ( j )  m tan  1  T
A  20 log G ( j )  20 m log 1   2T 2
A  20 m log 1  0
A  20 m log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = 20mdB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line
with slope 20mdB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot 20mdB/decade when  T   1 .
10 1
G (s) 
s T  2 Ts  1
2 2
1
G ( j ) 
  T  j 2 T  1
2 2
1
G ( j ) 
1   
2
2
T 2
 4 2  2 T 2
2 T
 G ( j )   tan  1
1   2T 2
1
A  20 log G ( j )  20 log
1   T 2   4 2 2T 2
2 2

A   20 log 1  0
Case 2:  T   1 (for high frequency)
1   T 2    4T 4
2 2
Page 120 of 187

4 2 2T 2 is negligible compared to  4T 4
1
A   20 log   40 log  T
 T22
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = -40dB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line

with slope -40dB/decade)
2000
Construct the Bode pot for a unity feedback control system having, G ( s )  .
s ( s  1)( s  100)
2000
G (s) 
s ( s  1)( s  100)
Converting to time-constant form,
20
G (s) 
s (1  s )(1  0.01s )
20
Sinusoidal transfer function, G ( j ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 0.01 )
Corner
Factor frequency slope Net slope Frequency Range
rad/s
K = 20 - 0 0 0
20 - -20 -20  = 0.5 rad/s to  = 1 rad/s
j A = 20log20 – 20log
A = 32dB to 26dB
1 1 -20 -40  = 1 rad/s to  = 100 rad/s
1  j
1 100 -20 -60  = 100 rad/s to  = ∞
1  j 0.01
Note: In second column, the corner frequency should be arranged in increasing order.
Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
 = 0.5 A = 20log20 – 20log = 32dB
 = c1 = 1 A = 20log20 – 20log = 26dB
 = c1 = 100 A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log = -54dB
Page 121 of 187

 = c1 = 200 A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log - 20log0.01 = -72dB

 = gc , A = 0 20log20 – 20log - 20log = 0; gc = 4.47 rad/s
   G ( j )   90  tan  1   tan  1 0.01

 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 ∞
 -90 -96 -101 -112 -129 -136 -172 -180 -188 -205 -224 -243 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180; pc = 10rad/s
Note: Use CALC button of fx-991ES or EX Casio calculator to find  in one step.
At  = pc = 10 rad/s, A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log = -14dB

At  = gc = 4.47 rad/s,    90  tan  1   tan  1 0.01 = -170dB
Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +14dB

Phase Margin PM = 180 + gc = 180 – 170 = 10˚
Both GM and PM are positive (or gc < pc). The system is absolutely stable.
10
Sketch the Bode pot of the open loop transfer function, G ( s )  .
s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.1s )
Page 122 of 187

10
G (s) 
s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.1s )
10
j (1  j 0.5 )(1  j 0.1 )
Corner
rad/s
K = 10 - 0 0 0
10 - -20 -20  = 1 rad/s to  = 2 rad/s
j A = 20log10 – 20log
A = 20dB to 14dB
1 2 -20 -40  = 2 rad/s to  = 10 rad/s
1  j 0.5
1 10 -20 -60  = 10 rad/s to  = ∞
1  j 0.1
Note: In second column, the corner frequency should be arranged in increasing order.
Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
=1 A = 20log10 – 20log = 20dB
 = c1 = 2 A = 20log10 – 20log = 14dB
 = c1 = 10 A = 20log10 – 20log - 20log0.5 = -14dB
 = c1 = 50 A = 20log10 – 20log - 20log0.5 - 20log0.1 = -56dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log10 – 20log - 20log0.5 = 0; gc = 4.47 rad/s
   G ( j )   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.1

 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 ∞
 -122 -185 -214 -238 -257 -264 -267 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180;    G ( j )   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.1   180  , pc = 4.47rad/s
Note: Use CALC button of fx-991ES or EX Casio calculator to find  in one step.
Here, gc = pc = 4.47rad/s, hence the system is marginally stable.
Page 123 of 187

36(1  0.2 s )
Draw the Bode pot of the open loop transfer function, G ( s )  .
s 2 (1  0.05 s )(1  0.01s )
36(1  0.2 s )
G (s) 
s (1  0.05 s )(1  0.01s )
2
36(1  j 0.2 )
( j ) (1  j 0.05 )(1  j 0.01 )
2
Corner
rad/s
K = 36 - 0 0 0
36 - -40 -40  = 2 rad/s to  = 5 rad/s
 j 
2
A = 20log36 – 40log
A = 19dB to 3dB
1  j 0.2 5 20 -20  = 5 rad/s to  = 20 rad/s
1 20 -20 -40  = 20 rad/s to  = 100

1  j 0.05
1 100 -20 -60  = 100 rad/s to  = ∞
1  j 0.01
Page 124 of 187

Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
=2 A = 20log36 – 40log = 19dB
 = c1 = 5 A = 20log36 – 40log = 3dB
 = c1 = 20 A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 = -8.9dB
 = c1 = 100 A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 - 20log0.05 = -36.8dB
 = c1 = 200 A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 - 20log0.05 - 20log0.01 = -54.9dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 = 0; gc = 7.2 rad/s
   G ( j )   180  tan  1 0.2  tan  1 0.05  tan  1 0.01

 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 ∞
 -180 -179 -178 -177 -174 -172 -152 -149 -160 -190 -217 -239 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180;    180  tan  1 0.2   tan  1 0.05  tan  1 0.01   180 , pc = 37.4rad/s
At  = pc = 37.4 rad/s, A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 - 20log0.05 = -19.8dB

At  = gc = 7.2 rad/s,    180  tan  1 0.2  tan  1 0.05  tan  1 0.01 = -149dB
Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +19.8dB

Page 125 of 187

10( s  3)
s ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  100)
10  3(1  0.33s ) 0.15(1  0.33s )

G (s)  
2  100  s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.04 s  0.01s ) s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.04 s  0.01s 2 )
2
0.15(1  j 0.33 )
Sinusoidal transfer function, G ( s ) 
j (1  j 0.5 )(1  j 0.04  0.01 2 )
Corner
rad/s
K = 0.15 - 0 0 0
0.15 - -20 -20  = 0.1 rad/s to  = 2 rad/s
j A = 20log0.15 – 20log
A = 3.5dB to -22dB
1 2 -20 -40  = 2 rad/s to  = 3
1  j 0.5
1  j 0.33 3 20 -20  = 3 rad/s to  = 10 rad/s
1 10 -40 -60  = 10 rad/s to  = ∞

1  j 0.04  0.01 2
T2 = 0.01; T = 0.1
Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
=1 A = 20log0.15 – 20log = 3.5dB
 = c1 = 2 A = 20log0.15 – 20log = -22dB
 = c1 = 3 A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 = -30dB
 = c1 = 10 A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 + 20log0.33 = -40dB
 = c1 = 20 A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 + 20log0.33 - 40log0.1 = -58dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log0.15 – 20log = 0; gc = 0.15 rad/s
0.04
   G ( j )   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan 1
1  0.01 2
0.04
Note: For   10 , use equation    90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan  1
1  0.01 2
0.04
For   10 , use equation    90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  180  tan  1
1  0.01 2
Remember:
Quadrant 1 1 + j   tan  1 
Quadrant 2 -1 + j   180  tan  1 (   )
Quadrant 3 -1 - j   180  tan  1 ( )
Page 126 of 187

Quadrant 4 1 - j    tan  1 ( )
 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 5 9 20 50 100 200 ∞

 -90 -91 -92 -95 -99 -101 -114 -158 -258 -266 -268 -269 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180;
0.04
   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan  1   180 , pc = 9.8rad/s
1  0.01 2
At  = pc = 9.8 rad/s, A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 + 20log0.33 = -40dB

0.04
At  = gc = 0.15 rad/s,    90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan  1 = -92dB
1  0.01 2
Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +40dB

25( s  1)
s ( s  2)( s 2  2 s  16)
Page 127 of 187

Ke 0.1s
For the system whose open loop transfer function is given as, G ( s )  . Find the
s (1  s )(1  0.1s )
value of K in order to get a phase margin of 40˚.
K
For the system whose open loop transfer function is given as, G ( s )  . Find the value
s ( s  1)( s  5)
of K in order to get a phase margin of 40˚.
10 K
For the system whose open loop transfer function is given as, G ( s )  . Find the
s (1  0.1s )(1  0.5 s )
value of K in order to get a gain margin of 10dB.
POLAR PLOT
A sinusoidal transfer function G(j) having magnitude |G(j)| and phase angle  G(j) can be plotted
on polar co-ordinates varying  from 0 to ∞.
Polar plot is the locus of phasor G ( j )  G ( j ) as  is varied from zero to infinity.
The polar plot is very useful in determining the stability of a closed loop system from its open-loop
frequency response.
Note: For closed-loop system stability, the open-loop transfer function is G(s)H(s) instead of G(s).
PROCEDURE TO SKETCH THE POLAR PLOT

1 Determine the transfer function G(s) of the system
2 Put s = j in the transfer function to obtain G(j)
3 Calculate the magnitudes of G(j) at limiting frequencies of →0 and →∞.
4 Calculate the phase angles of G(j) at limiting frequencies of →0 and →∞.
5 Calculate the value of  at which the polar plot crosses the real axis and hence the magnitude
of G(j) at the point.
6 Calculate the value of  at which the polar plot crosses the imaginary axis and hence the
magnitude of G(j) at the point.
7 Sketch the polar plot
1 Polar plot of G ( s )  1
s
1
G ( j ) 
j
1
G ( j ) 

 G ( j )  90
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
∞ 0 -90˚
2 Polar plot of G ( s )  s
Page 128 of 187

G ( j )  j
G ( j )  
 G ( j )  90 
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 0 90˚
∞ ∞ 90˚
s
1
G ( j ) 
 
2
j
1
G ( j ) 
2
 G ( j )   180
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -180˚
∞ 0 -180˚
1  sT
1
G ( j ) 
1  j T
1
G ( j ) 
1   2T 2
G ( j )   tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
1/T 0.707 -45˚
∞ 0 -90˚
5 Polar plot of G ( s )  1  sT
G ( j )  1  j T (Real part is always 1)
G ( j )  1   2T 2
G ( j )  tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
∞ ∞ 90˚
s (1  sT )
1
G ( j ) 
j (1  jT )
Page 129 of 187

1
G ( j ) 
 1   2T 2
G ( j )  90  tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
1/T 0.707T -135˚
∞ 0 -180˚
Note: G ( j )  1  j (1  jT )  j   2T
  2
j (1  jT ) j (1  jT )   j (1  jT )  (1   2T 2 )
 2T j T 
   j 2
 (1   2T 2 )  2 (1   2T 2 ) 1   2T 2
2
 (1   2T 2 )
When  = 0, real part is -T and imaginary part is ∞.
(1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
(1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
1   T1  1   2T2 2
2 2
 G ( j )   tan  1  T1  tan 1  T2
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
∞ 0 -180˚
50
Sketch the polar plot for the open loop transfer function G ( s )  .
( s  1)( s  2)
25
G (s) 
(1  s )(1  0.5s )
25
G ( j ) 
(1  j )(1  j 0.5 )
25
G ( j ) 
1   2  1  (0.5 ) 2
 G ( j ))   tan 1   tan 1 0.5
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 25 0
∞ 0 -180
Page 130 of 187

Meeting point on imaginary axis, G ( j )   tan 1   tan 1 0.5  90 ;  2;

25 25
G ( j )    11.785
1    1  (0.5 )
2 2
1  2  1  0.52  2
(1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )(1  sT3 )
1
G ( j ) 
(1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )(1  jT3 )
1
G ( j ) 
1   T1  1   2T2 2  1   2T3 2
2 2
 G ( j )   tan 1  T1  tan 1 T2  tan 1  T3

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
∞ 0 -270˚
40
(1  2 s )(1  3s )(1  4 s )
40
G ( s) 
(1  2 s )(1  3s )(1  4 s )
40
G ( j ) 
(1  j 2 )(1  j 3 )(1  j 4 )
40
G ( j ) 
1  4 2  1  9 2  1  16 2
 G ( j ))   tan 1 2  tan 1 3  tan 1 4
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 40 0
∞ 0 -270
Meeting point on imaginary axis, G ( j ))   tan 1 2  tan 1 3  tan 1 4  90 ;
  0.1961 rad/sec;
40 40
G ( j )  
1  4  1  9  1  16
2 2 2
1  4  0.1961  1  9  0.19612  1  16  0.19612
2
=25.254
Page 131 of 187

Meeting point on negative real axis, G ( j ))   tan 1 2  tan 1 3  tan 1 4  180 ;

  0.6124 rad/sec;
40 40
G ( j )  
1  4  1  9  1  16
2 2 2
1  4  0.6124  1  9  0.6124 2  1  16  0.6124 2
2
=4.571
s (1  sT )
2
1
G ( j ) 
( j ) 2 (1  jT )
1
G ( j ) 
 1   2T 2
2
G ( j )  180  tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -180˚
∞ 0 -270˚
Note: G ( j )  1  (1  jT )  1  j T
 2  2
 (1  jT )  (1  jT )  (1  jT )  (1   2T 2 )
2
1 T
 2  j
 (1   T )
2 2
 (1   2T 2 )
When  = 0, both real part and imaginary part are ∞.
s (1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
( j )(1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
 1   T1  1   2T2 2
2 2
 G ( j )   90  tan  1  T1  tan 1 T2

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
∞ 0 -270˚
s 2 (1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
( j ) (1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )
2
Page 132 of 187

1
G ( j ) 
 2
1   T1  1   2T2 2
2 2
 G ( j )   180  tan 1  T1  tan 1  T2

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -180˚
∞ 0 -360˚
10
s ( s  1)( s  2)
5
G ( s) 
s (1  s )(1  0.5s )
10
G ( j ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 0.5 )
10
G ( j ) 
 1   2  1  (0.5 ) 2
G ( j ))  90  tan 1   tan 1 0.5
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90
∞ 0 -270
Meeting point on negative real axis,  G ( j )  90  tan 1   tan 1 0.5  180 ;
 2;
5 5
G ( j )    1.667
 1    1  (0.5 )
2 2
2  1  2  1  0.5 2  2
MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTION

A transfer function G(s) is minimum phase if both G(s) and 1/G(s) are causal and stable. A minimum
phase transfer function has all its poles and zeros in the left-half of the s-plane. (It means that the
system does not have zeros or poles on the right-half s-plane or on the j axis, excluding the origin.)
Moreover, it does not have delay.
Page 133 of 187

NON-MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTION

Non-minimum Phase systems are causal and stable systems whose inverses are causal but unstable.
When a transfer function has a zero in the right-half of the s-plane, it is called non-minimum phase
transfer function.
Non-minimum phase systems are much more difficult to control than minimum phase system.
ALL-PASS FUNCTION
If all the zeros of a transfer function lie on the right half of the s-plane, all poles lie on the left half of
the s-plane and the location of every pole zero pair is symmetric about the j axis, the transfer
function is termed as all-pass function.
An all-pass system is a system that has a magnitude response of unity, but which provides a phase
shift.
( s  a ) ( s  b)
Example is G ( s )  
( s  a) ( s  b)
( j  a ) ( j  b )
G ( j )   1
( j  a ) ( j  b )
 
 G ( j )  2 tan 1  2 tan 1
a b
TRANSPORTATION LAG
The transportation lag is the delay between the time an input signal is applied to a system and the time
the system reacts to that input signal. Transportation lags are common in industrial applications. They
are often called “dead time”.
Time delay systems are of non-minimum phase behaviour.
 sT
The transfer function of the transportation lag is given by G ( s )  e , where T is the delay.
 j T
G ( j )  e
G ( j )  e  jT  1
Introduction of transportation lag has no effect on magnitude plot.
G ( j )  T radians =  57.3T 
Page 134 of 187

RELATIVE STABILITY USING POLAR PLOT (FOR MINIMUM-PHASE SYSTEMS)
GAIN CROSS-OVER FREQUENCY AND PHASE CROSS-OVER FREQUENCY
The frequency at which the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function is 1 is called the gain cross-
over frequency gc.
The frequency at which the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function is -180˚ is called the phase
cross-over frequency pc.
A circle with unit radius is drawn having centre at origin in G(j)-plane (ReG(j)Vs ImG(j)). The
point of intersection of the circle with polar plot gives the point at which |G(j)| = 1 and the
corresponding frequency is gc.
At the point of intersection of polar plot with negative real axis gives the point at which G(j) = -
180˚ and the corresponding frequency is pc.
The point -1+j0 on the negative real axis is called critical point.
GAIN MARGIN & PHASE MARGIN

As the polar plot gets closer to -1+j0 point, the relative stability reduces and the system tends towards
instability. In frequency domain, relative stability is characterised by gain margin and phase margin.
Page 135 of 187

Gain margin (GM) is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function
evaluated at the phase cross-over frequency pc.
It is nothing but the margin in gain which can be introduced in the system till the system reaches on
the verge of instability.
1 1
GM   where  G ( j pc ) H ( j pc )  180 
G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) a
1 1
Gain Margin in dB is GM  20 log10  20 log10  20 log10 a
G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) a
If a  1 , GM is negative, the system is unstable.
If a  1 , GM is positive, the system is stable.
Phase margin (PM) is the amount of phase lag that can be introduced into the system at the gain
cross-over frequency gc to drive the system to the verge of instability.
The value of phase margin can be obtained from the following relation,
PM  180    G ( j gc ) H ( j gc )  180    gc
For a stable system, the phase margin is positive.
The critical point -1+j0 is outside the polar plot for stable system whereas it is inside the plot for unstable
system. If the critical point is enclosed by the polar plot, the system is unstable. If it is not enclosed by
the polar plot, the system is stable. (Note: A point will be enclosed by the polar plot when it lies to the
right-hand side during travelling along the polar plot from the point corresponding to  = 0 to point
corresponding to  = ∞)
If  gc   pc , system is stable.
If  gc   pc , system is marginally stable.
If  gc   pc , system is unstable.
Note: For non-minimum phase systems, a system may be stable even when the phase-crossover point
is to the left of -1+j0 point and thus a negative gain margin may still correspond to a stable system.
75
Sketch the polar plot for the open loop transfer function G ( s )  . Determine the gain
( s  3) 3 ( s  1)
margin and phase margin.
75 75 2.778
G ( s)   
( s  3) ( s  1) 27(1  0.333s ) (1  s ) (1  0.333s )3 (1  s )
3 3
2.778
G ( j ) 
(1  j 0.333 )3 (1  j )
2.778
G ( j ) 
1  (0.333 )2   1   2
3/ 2
G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1 
Page 136 of 187

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 2.778 0
∞ 0 -360
Meeting point on negative real axis, G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1   180 ;
 pc  2.326 rad/sec;
Magnitude at  pc  2.326 rad/sec;
2.778
G ( j pc )   0.542
1  (0.333  2.326) 
2 3/2
 1  2.326 2
Gain Margin, GM  20 log10 G ( j pc )  5.32 dB

Meeting point on negative imaginary axis,  G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1   90 ;
  0.876 rad/sec;
Magnitude at   0.876 rad/sec;
2.778
G ( j )   1.85
 
3/ 2
1  (0.333  0.876) 2  1  0.876 2
Meeting point on positive imaginary axis, G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1   270 ;
  5.941 rad/sec;
Magnitude at   5.941 rad/sec;
2.778
G ( j )   0.06
1  (0.333  5.941) 2   1  5.9412
3/ 2
Meeting point of polar plot on unit circle,

2.778
G ( j )  1
 
3/ 2
1  (0.333 ) 2  1 2
 gc  1.614 rad/sec;
 G ( j gc ))  3  tan 1 0.333 gc  tan 1  gc  3  tan 1 0.333  1.614  tan 1 1.614  143
Phase Margin, PM = 180 +(-143) = 37˚
Both GM and PM are positive. Hence, the system is stable.
Page 137 of 187

1
Sketch the polar plot for the open loop transfer function G ( s )  . Determine the gain
s (1  s )(1  2 s )
margin and phase margin.
1
G (s) 
s (1  s )(1  2 s )
1
G ( j ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 2 )
1
G ( j ) 
 1   2  1  4 2
G ( j ))  90  tan 1   tan 1 2
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90
∞ 0 -270
Meeting point on negative real axis,  G ( j )  90  tan 1   tan 1 2  180 ;
 pc  0.707 rad/sec;
1 1
G ( j pc )    0.667
 pc 1   pc  1  4 pc
2 2
0.707  1  0.707 2  1  4  0.707 2
Gain Margin, GM   20 log10 G ( j pc )  3.517 dB

Meeting point of polar plot on unit circle,
1
G ( j )  1
  1    1  4 2
2
 gc  0.5716 rad/sec;
G ( j gc )  90  tan 1  gc  tan 1 2 gc  169
Phase Margin, PM = 180 +(-169) = 11˚
Both GM and PM are positive. Hence, the system is stable.
Page 138 of 187

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G.

Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

MODULE 4 – FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

The closed loop transfer function is frequency domain is

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

RESONANT PEAK It is the maximum value of magnitude of closed-loop frequency response

Page 111 of 187

It is the reciprocal of the magnitude of open loop transfer function at phase

Typical gain – phase characteristics of a feedback control system is shown below.

EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT FREQUENCY

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M ( j ) is maximum when 1  u    2  u  is minimum or when its derivative is zero.

EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT PEAK

Page 113 of 187

CORRELATION BETWEEN TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSES

TIME RESPONSE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Page 114 of 187

 6 (1  2  0.667 2 )  4  0.667 4  4  0.667 2  2

Page 115 of 187

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Page 117 of 187

20 log G ( j )  A  20 log  n  20 n log 

Case 1:  T  1 (for low frequency)

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Page 119 of 187

Case 1:  T  1 (for low frequency)

Page 120 of 187

(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = -40dB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line

Page 121 of 187

 = c1 = 200 A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log - 20log0.01 = -72dB

   G ( j )   90  tan  1   tan  1 0.01

At  = pc = 10 rad/s, A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log = -14dB

Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +14dB

Page 122 of 187

   G ( j )   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.1

Page 123 of 187

1 20 -20 -40  = 20 rad/s to  = 100

Page 124 of 187

   G ( j )   180  tan  1 0.2  tan  1 0.05  tan  1 0.01

At  = pc = 37.4 rad/s, A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 - 20log0.05 = -19.8dB

Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +19.8dB

Page 125 of 187

10  3(1  0.33s ) 0.15(1  0.33s )

1 10 -40 -60  = 10 rad/s to  = ∞

Page 126 of 187

 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 5 9 20 50 100 200 ∞

At  = pc = 9.8 rad/s, A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 + 20log0.33 = -40dB

Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +40dB

Page 127 of 187

PROCEDURE TO SKETCH THE POLAR PLOT

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Meeting point on imaginary axis, G ( j )   tan 1   tan 1 0.5  90 ;  2;

 G ( j )   tan 1  T1  tan 1 T2  tan 1  T3

Page 131 of 187

Meeting point on negative real axis, G ( j ))   tan 1 2  tan 1 3  tan 1 4  180 ;

 G ( j )   90  tan  1  T1  tan 1 T2

Page 132 of 187

 G ( j )   180  tan 1  T1  tan 1  T2

MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTION

Page 133 of 187

NON-MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTION