ELECTRIC DRIVES

MODULE 2

JEENA JOHN, ASST. PROFESSOR, GEC THRISSUR

 Module 2 (7 hours)
Rectifier control of DC drives - separately excited DC motor drives using
controlled rectifiers - single-phase fully controlled rectifier fed drives
(discontinuous and continuous mode of operation), critical speed - single-phase
semi converter fed drives (continuous mode of operation) - three-phase semi
converter and fully controlled converter fed drives (continuous mode of
operation) - dual converter control of DC motor – circulating current mode.
• In a separately excited motor, it is possible to control both armature voltage and field
current, so as to control the speed over a wide range in the smooth manner.
• Speeds ranging from zero to base speed may be obtained at constant torque by armature
voltage control.
• Speeds above base speed are possible at constant power output by weakening of the flux.
• Under steady state,
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑒 ɸ ω𝑚
𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑒 ɸ𝐼𝑎

where T = torque developed by the motor, Φ = flux per pole, 𝐼𝑎 = armature current,
V = armature voltage, ω𝑚 = motor speed, 𝑅𝑎 = armature resistance, 𝐾𝑒 = motor constant

𝑉 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑉 𝑅𝑎
ω𝑚 = − = − T
𝐾𝑒 Φ 𝐾𝑒 Φ 𝐾𝑒 Φ 𝐾𝑒 Φ
2
For separately excited DC motor
or shunt motor,
K = 𝐾𝑒 Φ
E = Kωm
T = K 𝐼𝑎
𝑉 𝑅𝑎
ω𝑚 = − 2𝑇
𝐾 𝐾
Constant Torque & Constant Power Operations

• The strategy adopted in practice to control of DC

motors is to divide the speed range of interest into
two regions, with the motor’s rated (base) speed
separating the two regions.
• In the first region, the field excitation is fixed at its
rated value and speed adjustments are made by
decreasing the armature voltage below rated value.
This region is called the constant-torque or armature
voltage control region.
• Above base speed, field weakening is employed and
this is called the field control or constant power
region. Normally, the latter region extends to twice
the base speed.
CONSTANT TORQUE REGION
In this region, the output torque is required to be maintained
constant over the speed range from zero to base speed ωb. The field
flux is kept constant at its rated value throughout the region.
𝑉 −𝐸
Armature current, 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑅𝑎
Since back emf is proportional to speed, 𝑉𝑎 is varied in proportion to
the speed, so that armature current and hence torque is constant.
Since power output is 𝑃𝑂 = 𝐸𝐼𝑎 it increases in proportion to the
motor speed.

CONSTANT POWER REGION

For the region where motor speed exceeds the base speed ωb,
armature voltage control cannot be used, since full rated voltage is
applied to the armature terminals.
Here, the armature voltage Va is maintained at its rated value and
the field control is applied. In this region, power output is maintained
constant by weakening the field by reducing the voltage applied to
the field.
Since power output is 𝑃𝑂 = 𝐾Φ𝑓 𝜔𝑚 𝐼𝑎 , product of flux and speed is
kept constant. Back emf and armature current remains constant.
Braking of DC Motors
• Any moving or rotating object acquires kinetic energy. How fast we can bring the object to rest will
depend essentially upon how quickly we can extract its kinetic energy and make arrangement to
dissipate that energy somewhere else.
• Braking is a very important operation for DC motor drives. The need of decreasing the speed of a
motor or stopping it totally may arise at any moment, that’s when braking is applied.
• Braking of DC motors is basically developing a negative torque while the motor works as generator
and as a result the motion of the motor is opposed.

➢Types
●Regenerative braking
●Dynamic or rheostat braking
●Plugging or reverse voltage braking.
Regenerative braking
• Regenerative braking takes place when the generated energy is
supplied to the source,

• E > V and negative Ia

• As the field flux cannot be increased beyond a rated value, so

for a source of fixed voltage, regenerative braking is possible
only when the speed of motor is higher than the rated value.
With variable voltage source it is also possible below rated
speeds
• In actual supply system when the machine regenerates, the
terminal voltage rises.
• The regenerated power flows into the loads connected to the
supply and the source is relieved from supplying this much
amount of power.
• The regenerative braking is therefore possible only when there are loads connected to the line and
they are in need of power more or equal to the regenerated power.
• When the capacity of the loads is less than the regenerated power, all the regenerated power will
not be absorbed by the loads. The remaining power will be supplied to capacitors (including stray
capacitances) in line and the line voltage will rise to dangerous values leading to insulation
breakdown.
• Hence, regenerative braking should only be used when there are enough loads to absorb the
regenerated power.
• Alternatively an arrangement is made to divert the excess power to a resistance bank where it is
dissipated as heat.
• Such a braking is known as Composite Braking because it is a combination of regenerative braking
and dynamic braking.
• When the source is a battery, the regenerated energy can be stored in the battery.
• The regenerative braking is therefore possible only when there are loads connected to the line and
they are in need of power more or equal to the regenerated power.
• When the capacity of the loads is less than the regenerated power, all the regenerated power will
not be absorbed by the loads. The remaining power will be supplied to capacitors (including stray
capacitances) in line and the line voltage will rise to dangerous values leading to insulation
breakdown.
• Hence, regenerative braking should only be used when there are enough loads to absorb the
regenerated power.
• Alternatively an arrangement is made to divert the excess power to a resistance bank where it is
dissipated as heat.
• Such a braking is known as Composite Braking because it is a combination of regenerative braking
and dynamic braking.
• When the source is a battery, the regenerated energy can be stored in the battery.
Dynamic Braking
• Dynamic Braking is another type of braking of DC motor drives where the rotation of the armature
itself causes the braking. This method is also a widely used DC motor drive system.
• When braking is desired, then the armature of the motor is disconnected from the source and a
series resistance is introduced across the armature.
• Then the motor acts as a generator and current flows in the opposite direction which indicates that
the field connection is reversed. The diagram for separately excited and series DC motor both are
shown in figure below.
• When braking is required to occur quickly the resistance (RB) is considered to be of some sections.
As the braking occurs and the speed of the motor falls, the resistance are cut out one by one
section to maintain the light average torque.
Plugging
• Plugging is a type of braking where the
supply voltage is reversed when the need
of braking arises.
• A resistance is also introduced in the
circuit while braking takes place. When
the direction of the supply voltage is
reversed, then the armature current also
reverses forcing the back emf to a very
high value and hence braking the motor.
• For series motor only armature is
reversed for plugging. The diagram of
separately excited and series excited
motors are shown in the figure.
Plugging
• Plugging is a type of braking where the
supply voltage is reversed when the need
of braking arises.
• A resistance is also introduced in the
circuit while braking takes place. When
the direction of the supply voltage is
reversed, then the armature current also
reverses forcing the back emf to a very
high value and hence braking the motor.
• For series motor only armature is
reversed for plugging. The diagram of
separately excited and series excited
motors are shown in the figure.
Controlled Rectifier fed DC Drives

• Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac source of fixed
voltage. Controlled rectifiers can be classified into
i) 1-phase fully-controlled rectifier
ii) 1-phase half-controlled rectifier
iii) 3-phase fully-controlled rectifier and
iv) 3-phase half-controlled rectifier
• Fully-controlled rectifiers can be operated in two quadrants whereas half-controlled
rectifiers can be operated in only one quadrant.
• Controlled rectifier fed dc drives are widely used in applications requiring a wide range of
speed control and/or frequent starting, braking, and reversing.
• Some prominent applications are in rolling mills, paper mills, printing presses, mine
winders, machine tools.
Single-phase Fully-controlled Rectifier Control of DC
Separately Excited DC motor

• A single-phase fully controlled rectifier fed separately

excited DC motor is shown.
• Field supply is not shown. When field control is
required, field is fed from a controlled rectifier,
otherwise from an uncontrolled rectifier.
• When armature current does not flow continuously, the
motor is said to operate in discontinuous conduction.
When current flows continuously, the conduction is
said to be continuous.
• In continuous conduction mode, armature
voltage va, armature current ia and source
current is are shown in figure below.
• From ωt=α to π+α, thyristors T1 and T2 are
conducting. Armature voltage va is same as the
source voltage vs and source current is is same
as the load current ia.
• At ωt=π+α, T3 and T4 are turned ON. T1 and T2
are turned OFF automatically by the reverse
voltage applied due to the turning ON of T3
and T4. During ωt=π+α to 2π+α, armature
voltage, va = -vs and source current, is = -ia.
• When α < 90° , average armature voltage is
positive and when α > 90° , average armature
voltage is negative.
• In discontinuous conduction mode, armature voltage va,
armature current ia and source current is are shown in
figure.
• From ωt=α to β, thyristors T1 and T2 are conducting.
Armature voltage va is same as the source voltage vs and
source current is is same as the load current ia.
• At ωt=β, armature current ia decreases to zero and T1 and
T2 are turned OFF since its anode current falls to zero.
Hence, during ωt=β to π+α, all the devices are OFF.
• Since armature current is zero, armature voltage is same as
the back emf E.
• At ωt=π+α, T3 and T4 are turned ON. Armature voltage, va
= -vs and source current, is = - ia.
• Since armature current ia is not perfect dc, the motor
torque fluctuates. Since torque fluctuates at a frequency of
100Hz, motor inertia is able to filter out the fluctuations,
giving nearly a constant speed and ripple-less E.
• In discontinuous conduction, for a given α, any
increase in torque and corresponding increase in Ia
causes β to increase and Va to drop. Consequently,
speed drops by a larger amount.
• In continuous conduction, for a given α, any
increase in torque causes ωm and E to drop so that Ia
and T are increased. But Va remains constant.
• Boundary between continuous and discontinuous
conduction is reached when β = π+α .
Single-phase Half-controlled Rectifier Control of DC
Separately Excited DC motor

• A single-phase half-controlled rectifier fed separately

excited DC motor is shown in figure.
• In continuous conduction mode, armature voltage va,
armature current ia and source current is are shown in
figure.
• From ωt=α to π, thyristor T1 and diode D1 are
conducting. Armature voltage va is same as the source
voltage vs and source current is is same as the load
current ia.
• At ωt= π, diode D2 is forward biased and it starts
conducting. At the same instant, T1 is turned off due
to reverse voltage applied by the source through D2.
• When D1 and D2 are conducting (freewheeling),
armature voltage va is zero. Source current is is also
zero.
• At ωt=π+α, T2 is turned ON by applying a firing
pulse. D1 is automatically turned OFF. During
ωt=π+α to 2π, armature voltage, va = -vs and
source current, is = - ia.
3-Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier fed Separately Excited DC
Motor

• Discontinuous conduction is neglected because it occurs in a narrow region of its operation.

• Under continuous conduction, each thyristor conducts for 120° At any instant, two thyristors will
conduct - one thyristor from upper group and other from lower group.
• Thyristors are fired in the sequence of their numbers with a phase difference of 60°.
• A thyristor from upper group can be turned on when its anode voltage is greater than the other
two phase voltages. Firing angle of T1 is measured from 30° (reference angle) of phase
voltage vA. Reference angle for firing of T1, T3 & T5 are 30°, 150° and 270° respectively.
• A thyristor from lower group can be turned on when its cathode is most negative. Reference
angle for firing T2, T4 & T6 are 90°, 210° and 330° respectively.
• When a thyristor of upper group is conducting, then one thyristor from lower group must
conduct for return path.
• Consider the operation of a 3-phase fully controlled rectifier for a firing angle of α=60°.
Assume that the current is continuous and ripple free with sufficiently large value of
inductance in the armature circuit.
Input voltage/phase, output voltage and source current in phase A are shown below.
 3-Phase Half Controlled Rectifier fed Separately Excited DC
Motor

• Under continuous conduction, each thyristor/diode conducts for 120°. At

any instant, one thyristor from upper group and one diode from lower group
will conduct.
• A thyristor from upper group (connected in common cathode configuration)
can be turned on when its anode voltage is greater than the other two phase
voltages.
• Firing angle of T1 is measured from 30° (reference angle) of phase voltage
vA. Reference angle for firing of T1, T2 & T3 are 30°, 150° and 270°
respectively. D1
• A diode from lower group is forward baised when its cathode is most
negative. D1, D2 & D3 start conducting from 90°, 210° and 330° respectively.
When a thyristor of upper group is conducting, then one diode from lower
group will be conducting for return path.

• Consider the operation of a 3-phase half controlled rectifier for a firing angle of α=90°. Assume that the current is
continuous and ripple free with sufficiently large value of inductance in the armature circuit.
240
Input voltage/phase, output voltage and source current in phase A are shown below.
1-Phase Dual Converter (Four Quadrant Converter)

• Semiconverter operates in one quadrant(Quadrant I) only

and full converter operates in two quadrants (Quadrant I &
IV).
• Dual converters can operate in all the four quadrants
(output voltage and current may be either positive or
negative).
• In dual converter, two single phase or three phase fully
controlled rectifiers are connected in anti-parallel.
• They are of 2 types :-
i) Nor-circulating current type (non-simultaneous type) and
ii) circulating current type (simultaneous type)
 Dual Converter without Circulating Current

• Assumption :- Load current is continuous

• Only one converter is operated at a time and it alone carries
the entire load current. ( Positive current is possible with
converter 1 and negative current is possible with converter 2)
• Initially let the drive be in operation in quadrant I. Converter
1 is operated as rectifier (α1 < 90°) and firing pulses to the
converter 2 is blocked. Motor runs in forward direction.
• For speed reversal, motor must initially operate in the second
quadrant and then in third quadrant. For this, the operation
must transfer from converter I to converter II.
• Before converter II is activated, all thyristors in converter I
must turn off; otherwise a line side short circuit of converter
II through the conducting thyristors of converter I will take
place. Hence, the armature current is forced to zero by
increasing the firing angle of converter I
• After zero current is sensed, a dead time of 2 to 10 mS is provided to ensure the turn-off of all
thyristors of converter I.
• Now, the firing pulses are withdrawn from converter I and released to converter II. Motor speed
will not change appreciably during this period owing to inertia. α2 is initially set to make the
armature voltage equal to back emf. It is then reduced to make the maximum allowable current
(braking current) to flow (α2> 90°, armature voltage is positive & armature current is negative).
• Speed reversal is achieved at maximum braking torque. Speed decreases to zero and the motor
starts rotating in the opposite direction. Back emf is developed in the opposite direction.
• The drive starts operating in third quadrant (α2< 90°, both armature voltage & current are
negative). Armature current is maintained at maximum value till the motor reaches rated speed.
• Disadvantages of non-circulating current type dual converter are
i) Proper protection is necessary for avoiding a short circuit due to malfunctioning ie, Both
converters are simultaneously operated.
ii) A delay is required to shift the operation from one mode to the other mode.
 Dual Converter with Circulating Current
• Two converters are operated simultaneously so that the sum of
their average terminal voltages is zero so that no dc current
circulates in the loop formed by the two converters.

• Hence, when one converter operates as rectifier with firing

angle α1, the other is operated as inverter with firing angle
(180-α1).
• Though their average output voltages are equal, instantaneous
voltages va1 and va2 may be different. This results in a voltage
difference and hence a large circulating current flows between
the two converters but not through the load.
• This circulating current is limited to a tolerable value by inserting a reactor between the two converters.
• Although both thyristors are operated simultaneously, motor control in first and fourth quadrant are
provided by converter I (Ia positive & Va1 positive or negative).
• Converter II carries only circulating current. The circulating current is limited to 15 to 30% of the rated
armature current.
• The two converters reverse their roles when the operating takes place in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
• Advantages :
i) No short circuit;
ii) better dynamic response
• Disadvantages :
• i) Additional reactor is needed to limit the circulating current which increases size and cost
• ii) Due to circulating current (=15 to 20% of rated current), current rating of SCR is higher.
Reversible Drive using Circulating Current type Dual Converter

• Stage 1: Initially motor is operating in first quadrant. Converter I operates as a rectifier ( 0 <α1 < 90°)
and converter II as inverter ( 90° < α2 < 180° ). Armature current is supplied by converter I and only
circulating current flows through converter II. The motor is unloaded.
• Stage 2: This is the speed reversal stage. It is initiated with a command to reverse the speed. α1 is
increased (Va1 decreases) and α2 is decreased (Va2 increases) such that α1 + α2 = 180° . Motor back
emf exceeds the magnitude of both Va1 and Va2. Armature current becomes negative and shifts
toconverter II. Motor operates in 2nd quadrant.
• Armature current is maintained constant at maximum permissible limit during regeneration. During this
period, only circulating current flows through converter I. Kinetic energy is supplied back to the source.
Speed decreases to zero.
• Now α2 is reduced below 90° and converter II will act as rectifier and the motor will be operating in 3rd
quadrant (both armature voltage and current negative). Back emf is developed in the opposite direction.
• During acceleration also, the current is maintained at maximum permissible value. Motor is accelerated
to rated speed. Current is decreased to its no-load value by adjusting α2.
• Stage 3: The load is reapplied to the motor. The motor takes a current to drive the load.
• Simultaneous control (circulating current type) has number of advantages.
• The control is simple.
• Continuous conduction is guaranteed because of the natural freedom of motor current to flow in
direction.
• Drive has good speed regulation.
• But presence of reactors L1 and L2 increases the cost, weight, volume, noise and power loss.
• Transient response is slow because of increase in the time constant.
• Power factor and efficiency are low because of the circulating current.