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Abstract
For a mining operation to be successful, it is important to bring fundamental and applied science together. The mining
engineer needs to understand the importance of geology, mineralogy and petrography, and how projects can benefit from the
data collected during the exploration and pre-exploration stage. Geological scientists also need to understand the process of
project development from the exploration stage through mine design and operation to mine closure. Kimberlite pipe or dyke
emplacement, geology and petrology/mineralogy are three areas that illustrate how information obtained from the geological
studies could directly influence the mining method selection and the project strategy and design. Kimberlite emplacement is one
of the fundamental processes that rely on knowledge of the kimberlite body geology. Although the importance of the
emplacement model is commonly recognized in the resource geology, mining engineers do not always appreciate its importance
to the mine design. The knowledge of the orebody geometry, character of the contact zones, internal structures and distribution
of inclusions could directly influence pit wall stability (thus strip ratio), underground mining method selection, dilution,
treatability, and the dewatering strategy. Understanding the internal kimberlite geology mainly includes the geometry and
character of individual phases, and the orientation and character of internal structures that transect the rock mass. For any
mining method it is important to know ‘‘where the less and where the more competent rocks are located’’ to achieve stability.
On the other hand, the detailed facies studies may not be important for the resource and mine design if the rock types have
similar physical properties and diamond content. A good understanding of the kimberlite petrology and mineralogy could be
crucial not only to the treatability (namely diamond damage and liberation), but also to the pit wall and underground excavation
stability, support design, mine safety (mudrush risk assessment) and mine dewatering. There is no doubt that a better
understanding of the kimberlite and country rock geology has a direct impact on the safety and economics of the mining
operations. The process of mine design can start at the beginning of kimberlite discovery by incorporating the critical geological
information without necessarily increasing the exploration budget. It is important to appreciate the usefulness of fundamental
geological research and its impact on increased confidence in the mine design. Such studies should be viewed as worthwhile
investments, not as cost items.
D 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: Kimberlite geology; Diamond mining; Kimberlite contact zone; Kimberlite weathering
1. Introduction
Fig. 3. Enhanced processing of the aeromagnetic data reveals structural patterns transecting the kimberlite pipe.
3.2. Kimberlite orebody geology Kimberlite orebody size and geometry are key
aspects of resource estimating. They are also funda-
Three main aspects of kimberlite orebody geology mental for selecting the mine method and design. Pipe
that have a direct impact on the mining method shape and dimension, together with rock mass com-
selection and design are: petency, determine cavability and pipe or dyke contact
geometry helps determine dilution estimates.
Kimberlite body emplacement model, The simplistic pipe geometry model developed
Kimberlite body internal geology model, during the exploration stage is often followed
Kimberlite petrology/mineralogy. throughout the feasibility study, when it should be
refined. It is not uncommon to find the pipe contacts
3.2.1. Kimberlite body emplacement model in the ‘‘wrong’’ location only when pre-production
This is one of the fundamental studies that can help development starts. Pipe shapes can be quite variable
in understanding the kimberlite geology. Although the even within close clusters of kimberlites, as docu-
significance of the emplacement model is commonly mented, for example, at Gahcho Kué (Hetman et al.,
recognized among geologists, mining engineers do 2003). Without sufficient drilling data, it is impossible
not always appreciate its importance to the mine to predict such geometry with any degree of certainty.
design. The pipe or dyke emplacement mechanism, This problem could be even worse when dealing with
however, directly influences several parameters that ‘‘2D’’ deposits such as kimberlite dykes. Because of
are fundamental to the mine method selection and the relatively large lateral extent of the kimberlite
design. Those are: dykes, the drillholes are widely spaced. Simplistic
dyke geometry models from the exploration stage
Kimberlite body size and geometry, could prove to be insufficient for mine design in later
Internal structures and rock mass competency, stages of the project development.
Extent and competency of the kimberlite body Often, during the kimberlite pipe delineation pro-
contact zones. cess, holes are terminated as soon as they leave the
J. Jakubec / Lithos 76 (2004) 337–345 341
kimberlite. This could (and does) lead to erroneous zones are often represented by highly jointed rocks
interpretations of pipe geometries, in some cases mass where existing fabric was enhanced by alteration
because the ‘‘country rock contact’’ is only a xenolith. and in some cases new fractures were created. An
It is often found that poor quality rock mass adjacent to example of a highly jointed external contact zone is
the kimberlite body contacts create mining difficulties illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5.
in both open pit and underground operations. From the
geotechnical point of view, two types of contact zone 3.2.2. Kimberlite body internal geology model
can be recognized: the internal contact zone within the Understanding the internal geology of the pipe or
kimberlite body and the external contact zone devel- dyke in the context of mine design involves under-
oped in the country rocks. Their character depends standing the geometry and character of individual
largely on the kimberlite emplacement mechanism and phases, and the orientation and character of internal
could be further affected by kimberlite weathering (and structures that transect the rock mass. For any mining
associated volumetric change) and by groundwater method it is important to know ‘‘where the less and
movement along the contact. Typically, internal con- where the more competent rocks are located’’. How-
tact zones consist of series of shear zones sub-parallel ever, from the mine design point of view, the detailed
to the kimberlite body contacts. The external contact internal geology studies may not be important if the
Fig. 4. Example of well-developed external contact zones outside the kimberlite pipe. The contact zone geometry and rock mass competency
will impact on physical mine stability and dilution.
342 J. Jakubec / Lithos 76 (2004) 337–345
Fig. 6. Example of a geotechnical domain model based on the internal kimberlite pipe geology (left). This domain model was used to create a
geotechnical block model (right) used in numerical stability analyses. Each block has attached series of geotechnical parameters used in
calculations.
J. Jakubec / Lithos 76 (2004) 337–345 343
One of the fundamental geotechnical issues to group are exposed to moisture or, even worse, to wet
consider in selecting the mining method and design and dry cycles, they swell and disintegrate the rock
is the strength and deformation characteristic of the matrix, dramatically reducing the strength of the rock
rock mass in which mining takes place. Not only can mass. This can have major consequences for the
various kimberlite rock types have variable properties, stability of excavations (Fig. 8), supportability of the
such properties can change rapidly with time. Most rock mass, driving conditions, risk of mudrush, etc.
kimberlites fall into the category of weak to moder- To combat kimberlite deterioration, many under-
ately strong rocks (see Fig. 7). In the context of mine ground diamond operations apply sealant to prevent
design, this would not pose a challenge. The problem moisture from entering the exposed rock. Failure to do
arises if the kimberlite loses it strength within days of so can result in rapid tunnel deterioration. Preventing
exposure. This can happen if the ‘‘wrong’’ clays are kimberlite weathering could pose particular chal-
present in the rock matrix. If clays from the smectite lenges in the Arctic where low temperatures or con-
Fig. 7. Comparison of typical ranges of unconfined compressive strength of major kimberlite and country rock types encountered on various
diamond mining projects worldwide. Note that the strength of various kimberlites ranges from very weak (less than 5 MPa) to very strong (over
200 MPa).
344 J. Jakubec / Lithos 76 (2004) 337–345
4. Conclusions