aerospace
Article
Multi-Mode Interferometry: Application to TiO2–SiO2 Sol-Gel
Waveguide-Based Sensing in the Aerospace Domain
Maxime Royon 1, *,† , Thomas Blanchet 1,† , Muhammad Adnan 1 , Damien Jamon 1 , François Royer 1 ,
Francis Vocanson 1 , Emmanuel Marin 1 , Adriana Morana 1 , Aziz Boukenter 1 , Youcef Ouerdane 1 ,
Yves Jourlin 1 , Rolf Evenblij 2 , Thijs Van Leest 2 , Aditya Wankhade 2 , Marie-Anne De Smet 3 , Kathryn Atherton 4
and Sylvain Girard 1






Citation: Royon, M.; Blanchet, T.;
Adnan, M.; Jamon, D.; Royer, F.;
Vocanson, F.; Marin, E.; Morana, A.;
Boukenter, A.; Ouerdane, Y.; et al.
Multi-Mode Interferometry:
Application to TiO2 –SiO2 Sol-Gel
Waveguide-Based Sensing in the
Aerospace Domain. Aerospace 2021, 8,
401. https://doi.org/10.3390/
aerospace8120401
Academic Editor: Zhongqing Su
Received: 12 November 2021
Accepted: 15 December 2021
Published: 18 December 2021
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120401
1 Laboratoire H. Curien, UJM-CNRS-IOGS, Université de Saint-Etienne, 18 Rue Du Pr. Benoît Lauras,
42000 Saint-Etienne, France; thomas.blanchet@univ-st-etienne.fr (T.B.);
muhammad.adnan@etu.univ-st-etienne.fr (M.A.); damien.jamon@univ-st-etienne.fr (D.J.);
francois.royer@univ-st-etienne.fr (F.R.); francis.vocanson@univ-st-etienne.fr (F.V.);
emmanuel.marin@univ-st-etienne.fr (E.M.); adriana.morana@univ-st-etienne.fr (A.M.);
aziz.boukenter@univ-st-etienne.fr (A.B.); ouerdane@univ-st-etienne.fr (Y.O.);
yves.jourlin@univ-st-etienne.fr (Y.J.); sylvain.girard@univ-st-etienne.fr (S.G.)
2 Photonfirst, Pyrietstraat 2, 1812 SC Alkmaar, The Netherlands; rolf.evenblij@photonfirst.com (R.E.);
thijs.vanleest@photonfirst.com (T.V.L.); aditya.wankhade@photonfirst.com (A.W.)
3 Formerly at Airbus, 316 route de Bayonne, 31060 Toulouse, France; kathryn.atherton@airbus.fr
4 Airbus Operations Ltd., Filton, Bristol BS34 7PA, UK; kathryn.atherton@airbus.com
* Correspondence: maxime.royon@univ-st-etienne.fr
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract: The optimization of a 2D optical sensor based on TiO2 –SiO2 sol-gel waveguides for damage
detection in the aerospace domain was performed in the framework of the ADD-ON European
project. The sensor is based on the transportation of visible light along numerous waveguides, and
damage is detected and localized through the monitoring of the output light from the waveguide
grid. In this work, we have developed an architecture, inspired by a multi-mode interferometer
(MMI), allowing us to efficiently multiply the number of waveguides that can be probed by a single
optical source. For this, the beam propagation method (BPM) was used to model a rectangular MMI
coupler (40 × 5624 µm2 ) operating in the visible region (600 nm), ensuring the propagation of light
into three waveguides. The conceived device was then manufactured by UV photolithography (direct
laser writing technique). The simulations and experimental results show that light transport into this
architecture allows for the successful simultaneous probing of three waveguides. By complexifying
the device structure, successful MMI couplers were easily manufactured, allowing us to probe 9, 15,
or 45 TiO2 –SiO2 waveguides with a unique light source. Finally, a further investigation regarding
24 consecutive thermal cycles from −40 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C, representative of the temperature changes
during aircraft cruising, was performed. This study reveals that TiO2 –SiO2 sol-gel waveguides are
not mechanically damaged by temperature changes, while the light guidance remains unaffected,
confirming that this sensor is very promising for aerospace applications. Since a single source can
monitor several guides, the production of more compact, low-cost, and less intrusive sensors can be
achieved by fulfilling structural health monitoring requirements.
Keywords: structural health monitoring; sol-gel sensors; multi-mode interferometer; aircraft wings;
UV photolithography; direct laser writing technique
1. Introduction
Structural health monitoring (SHM) is a crucial and popular process involving the
analysis and observation of infrastructures in order to identify anomalies originating from
deterioration or damage [1]. This powerful tool can concern the monitoring of buildings [2],
bridges [3], or even architectures operating in the aerospace domain [4], namely in the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace
 Aerospace2021,
Aerospace 2021,8,8,401
x 22 of
of 16
17

civil aviation industry. For this latter, several techniques have been deployed over the
yearsin
years inorder
orderto tocheck
checkdeterioration
deteriorationatatearly earlystages,
stages,before
beforesignificant
significantdegradation
degradationcan can
occur. Among all these techniques, we can mention the use
occur. Among all these techniques, we can mention the use of piezoelectric wafer active of piezoelectric wafer active
sensors[5]
sensors [5]ororacousto-ultrasonic
acousto-ultrasonicmonitoring monitoring systems
systems [6]. [6]. In
In addition
addition to tothese
theseprinciples,
principles,
optical fiber sensors (OFSs), based on light transport, can also
optical fiber sensors (OFSs), based on light transport, can also be of interest regarding be of interest regarding the
in-situ
the monitoring
in-situ monitoring of aircraft
of aircraftarchitectures. Basically,
architectures. applications
Basically, using using
applications OFSs are OFSs largely
are
detailed
largely in the literature
detailed where where
in the literature fiber-optic interferometers
fiber-optic [7,8] allow
interferometers [7,8] temperature,
allow temperature, strain,
or refractive
strain, index (n)
or refractive evaluations,
index while Bragg
(n) evaluations, while grating-based
Bragg grating-based [9] and [9] Brillouin or Ray-
and Brillouin
leigh-based sensors operate as quasi-distributed and distributed
or Rayleigh-based sensors operate as quasi-distributed and distributed measurements. measurements. Alterna-
tive ways, related
Alternative to guided
ways, related optics, can
to guided be used
optics, can be regarding SHM applications.
used regarding For example,
SHM applications. For
we have recently
example, we haveevidenced the potential
recently evidenced theofpotential
a low-weight, low-cost, and
of a low-weight, non-intrusive
low-cost, and non- sol-
gel sensor,
intrusive operating
sol-gel sensor, in operating
the aerospace domain,
in the aerospace to detect
domain, andtolocalize damage
detect and on large
localize damage sur-
faces
on [10].
large This latter
surfaces [10].is This
investigated
latter is in the framework
investigated in the of framework
the Clean Sky 2 (Horizon
of the Clean Sky 2020)2
ADD-ON2020)
(Horizon project (Advanced
ADD-ON projectDamage
(AdvancedDetection
Damage through Optical
Detection SensorOptical
through Network). SensorThe
sol-gel process
Network). is a soft
The sol-gel chemical
process route
is a soft allowing
chemical for allowing
route the development of glass-likeofmateri-
for the development glass-
like materials [11] where metal alkoxide precursors are used
als [11] where metal alkoxide precursors are used to form an inorganic metal oxides ma- to form an inorganic metal
oxides matrix. Coupling
trix. Coupling this particular this particular
process with process with UV (ultra-violet)
UV (ultra-violet) photolithographic
photolithographic techniques
techniques
allows for the allows for the micro-structuration
micro-structuration and patterning andof patterning
sol-gel-based of sol-gel-based
materials. More materials.
specif-
More
ically,specifically,
the ability the ability to
to pattern suchpattern such relies
materials materials reliesphotosensitivity
on their on their photosensitivity
with respect with to
respect
UV photons:to UV photons:
sol-gel films sol-gelare films
listedareas listed
negativeas negative photoresists,
photoresists, implying implying
that thethatUV-ex-the
UV-exposed
posed area isarea is polymerized
polymerized and densified.
and densified. After a After a development
development procedure, procedure, in an
in an alcoholic
alcoholic solution (ethanol, butanol, propanol, etc.), the
solution (ethanol, butanol, propanol, etc.), the zones exposed to photons are resistantzones exposed to photons areto
resistant to alcohol while the unexposed zones are dissolved,
alcohol while the unexposed zones are dissolved, allowing us to reveal sol-gel compo- allowing us to reveal sol-gel
components
nents for which for which applications
applications can becan be achieved
achieved in many in many fields [12–14].
fields [12–14]. The SHM Thedevice,
SHM
device,
alreadyalready
largelylargely
introducedintroduced
in [10],inwas [10],manufactured
was manufactured usingusing the direct
the direct laser laser
writingwriting
tech-
technique and is schematically illustrated in Figure 1a. It consists
nique and is schematically illustrated in Figure 1a. It consists of TiO2–SiO2 sol-gel wave- of TiO 2 –SiO 2 sol-gel
waveguides
guides on large on large surfaces
surfaces (30(30cmcm × 35
× 35 cm) cm) arranged
arranged inina a2D2Dmatrix
matrix andand based
based on on light
light
transport while a ZrO –SiO cladding acts as a buffer layer.
transport while a ZrO22–SiO22 cladding acts as a buffer layer. After the injection of light After the injection of lightin
in
allall
thetheTiOTiO 2 –SiO
2–SiO 2 structures
2 structures
through
through optical
optical fibers,
fibers, we showed
we showed that that the localization
the localization of dam- of
damage is deduced
age is deduced fromfrom the optical
the optical mode mode extinction
extinction due to due
thetorupture
the rupture
of oneofor one
moreor more
TiO2–
TiO 2 –SiO 2 guides. For example, Figure 1b shows an overview
SiO2 guides. For example, Figure 1b shows an overview of a 2D waveguide grid on large of a 2D waveguide grid on
large
surfaces deposited on soda-lime glass, while a zoomed-in image is given in Figure 1c. 1c.
surfaces deposited on soda-lime glass, while a zoomed-in image is given in Figure

Figure1.1.Two-dimensional
Figure Two-dimensionalsol-gelsol-gelmatrix
matrixsensor
sensorfor
fordamage
damageor ordelamination
delaminationdetection.
detection.(a)(a)Sensor
Sensor
principlewhere
principle wheredamage
damageleadsleadstotothe
therupture
ruptureofofone
oneororseveral
severalTiO
TiO 2–SiO
2 –SiO guides.Its
2 2guides. Itslocalization
localizationcancan
bededuced
be deducedthanks
thanksto tothe
the2D
2Dstructure.
structure.(b)
(b)Example
Exampleof ofaa2D
2Dgrid
gridwaveguide
waveguideobtained
obtainedon onsoda-lime
soda-lime
substrate glass.
substrate glass. (c) TiO22–SiO
(c) TiO –SiO2 2grid
gridobserved
observed with anan
with optical microscope.
optical microscope. ThisThis
figure is adapted
figure from
is adapted
[10].
from [10].
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 3 of 16

However, even if this robust technique shows satisfying results, the actual config-
uration implies that one source (typically one optical fiber) monitors a single straight
waveguide. In order to obtain access to miniaturized components leading to higher flexibil-
ity and lower costs, this paper is dedicated to the development of more complex TiO2 –SiO2
sol-gel photonic devices within the ADD-ON project. These structures are based on MMI
(multi-mode interferometers) couplers inspired by the literature [15,16] and which act
as splitters, where accurate splitting ratios between guides can be obtained. Thus, this
paper aims at giving additional information and is related to the optimization of the 2D
waveguide grid. We present results regarding the creation of MMI couplers, confronting
simulation and an experimental point of view, revealing the feasibility of multiplying the
number of TiO2 –SiO2 guides probed with a unique optical source, leading to the creation
of more compact components, while the coupling efficiency from optical fiber to sol-gel
waveguides is simulated in different configurations. The mechanical resistance of these
waveguides was also evaluated in our previous article [10], from 80 ◦ C down to −40 ◦ C,
showing that the integrity of those waveguides was not affected by temperature changes
between the takeoff and landing for a single thermal cycle. To complete these preliminary
results, further experiments have been performed during 24 complete thermal cycles by
also monitoring the output light of the waveguides. The presented results confirm the high
potential of such photonic devices in the aerospace domain for SHM applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sol-Gel Elaboration
Both waveguides and MMI couplers were created using a specific homemade organo-
titania-silica (TiO2 –SiO2 ) sol-gel, the elaboration of which has already been published and
detailed in our previous papers [10,17]. However, this latter is briefly recalled hereafter.
The hybrid sol-gel results from the mixture of 3–(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate
(TMSPMA, silicate precursor), titanium (IV) isopropoxide (TIPT, titanium precursor), and
2–(methacryloyloxy)ethyl acetoacetate (AAEM) acting as the chelating agent. All these
precursors were provided by Sigma-Aldrich (Saint-Quentin Fallavier, France). In summary,
two solutions were prepared. The first one was elaborated by the addition of AAEM in
TIPT while the second one consists of the incorporation of HCl in TMSPMA. Both solutions
were mixed and water was added to induce hydrolysis. Finally, a photo-initiator (2,2-
dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone) was incorporated to enhance UV photopolymerization
(already induced by precursor organic chains) in the form of 0.7 wt.%. The resulting molar
ratio of precursors Si:Ti:AAEM was fixed at 10:10:5.5.

2.2. Creation of TiO2 –SiO2 Photonic Devices

Thin films of TiO2 –SiO2 were deposited in a clean room at a fixed temperature (20 ◦ C)
and hygrometry (50%) by the spin coating approach at 4000 rotations per minute (RPM)
on soda-lime glass inducing a film thickness between 4 and 5 µm. Once deposited, a
preliminary heat treatment was performed at 60 ◦ C for 5 min, thus ensuring the evaporation
of the solvents. This step was followed by the photolithographic process. UV exposure,
in order to create TiO2 –SiO2 photo-induced devices, was performed using the Dilase
750 facility (Kloé, Montpellier, France), a photolithography machine based on the direct
laser writing technique whose description is detailed in [10]. More specifically, a continuous-
wave laser, providing UV light at 375 nm with 26 mW of power, was focused on the sol-gel
layers through a × 10 microscope objective with a nominal Numerical Aperture (NA)
of 0.3. In this particular condition, the creation of sol-gel patterns is determined by the
translation of a computer-controlled stage while the focused laser beam remains fixed. This
configuration allows access to a resolution and repeatability of 100 nm. Controlling both
laser power and scanning speed determines the lateral dimensions of the devices being
manufactured. Additionally, a NE10A optical density (OD) can also be placed on the optical
path to adjust the power (Thorlabs, Newton, NJ, USA). This condition is necessary to create
architectures with the highest resolution. For example, at 375 nm, a light transmission
Aerospace 2021, 8, x 4 of 17

Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 the optical path to adjust the power (Thorlabs, Newton, NJ, USA). This condition is4 of nec-
16
essary to create architectures with the highest resolution. For example, at 375 nm, a light
transmission of 1.9% is achieved, resulting in an OD of 1.72. After the photolithography
process, the layers were placed in a butanol solution: the non-exposed parts correspond-
of
ing1.9% is unpolymerized
to the achieved, resulting in an
regions ODremoved,
were of 1.72. After the photolithography
thus revealing process,
the sol-gel devices the
insofar
layers were placed in a butanol solution: the non-exposed parts corresponding
as sol-gels act as negative photoresists. Films were finally post-baked at 90 °C for 30 min to the
unpolymerized regions were removed, thus revealing the sol-gel devices insofar
to harden the layers. Before probing the sol-gel waveguides or MMI couplers, both sides as sol-gels
act
of as
thenegative
samplephotoresists.
were cleaved Films
so were
that finally
a properpost-baked at 90 ◦ Cand
light injection for 30 min to harden
collection couldthe be
layers.
achieved.Before probing the sol-gel waveguides or MMI couplers, both sides of the sample
were cleaved so that a proper light injection and collection could be achieved.
2.3. Characterization of TiO2–SiO2 Devices
2.3. Characterization of TiO2 –SiO2 Devices
The photo-induced devices were characterized using an Axio imager M1m optical
The photo-induced devices were characterized using an Axio imager M1m optical
microscope (Zeiss, Marly le Roi, France) operating in reflection mode while a Dektak pro-
microscope (Zeiss, Marly le Roi, France) operating in reflection mode while a Dektak
filometer (Bruker, Palaiseau, France) was employed to quantify the shapes, widths, and
profilometer (Bruker, Palaiseau, France) was employed to quantify the shapes, widths,
thicknesses by probing samples with a stylus force of 15 mg. Two different light sources
and thicknesses by probing samples with a stylus force of 15 mg. Two different light
were used in order to study the optical properties (light guidance) of the inscribed wave-
sources were used in order to study the optical properties (light guidance) of the inscribed
guides: a fibered
waveguides: laserlaser
a fibered diode operating
diode operating at at
638 nm
638 nm(Thorlabs,
(Thorlabs,Newton,
Newton, NJ, NJ, USA) and aa
USA) and
homemade supercontinuum white light source ranging from 350
homemade supercontinuum white light source ranging from 350 nm to 2000 nm. The setup, nm to 2000 nm. The
setup, dedicated to light propagation, is depicted in Figure 2 and is composed
dedicated to light propagation, is depicted in Figure 2 and is composed of a single-mode of a single-
mode optical
optical fiber (SMF28
fiber (SMF28 from Corning,
from Corning, Corning,Corning,
NY, USA) NY, USA)
with with
a core a core of
diameter diameter of 8
8 µm. This
µm. This latter was placed on a V-groove, thus ensuring high stability
latter was placed on a V-groove, thus ensuring high stability where motion can be achievedwhere motion can
bethe
in achieved in the XYZ
XYZ directions. Thedirections. The inside
light injection light injection inside
the different the different
sol-gel devices wassol-gel devices
performed
was performed through a butt-coupling configuration. A first camera,
through a butt-coupling configuration. A first camera, coupled with an objective (not coupled with an
objective (not shown), allows for a top-view image (XZ-plane) in order
shown), allows for a top-view image (XZ-plane) in order to optimize the light injection to optimize the
light injection
inside inside thewhile
the waveguides, waveguides,
another while
camera, another
whosecamera, whose
translation cantranslation
be performed can be per-
along
formed along the Z-axis, is dedicated to the output light observation once
the Z-axis, is dedicated to the output light observation once imaged through a long working imaged through
a long working
distance distance 20
20 × microscope × microscope
objective (NA =objective
0.42). (NA= 0.42).

Light Objective +
source camera

Optical fiber
z
Translation Magnet
stage (x,y,z) Soda-lime
Sol-gel waveguide
glass

Figure2.2. Setup
Figure Setup used
used for
for the
the light
light injection
injection (top-view).
(top-view). An SMF28 fiber is placed
placed in a V-groove
V-groove plat-
plat-
formand
form andfixed
fixedwith
withmagnets.
magnets. The The light
light injection,
injection, performed
performed through
through aa butt-coupling
butt-coupling configuration,
configuration,
is optimized
is optimized by by moving
moving the the fiber
fiber in
in the
theX,
X,Y,
Y,and
andZZdirections.
directions.AAcamera
camera(not
(notshown
shownhere)
here)records
records
the top-view (XZ-plane) for optimal light injection while a second camera (on the right)
the top-view (XZ-plane) for optimal light injection while a second camera (on the right) is used for is used for
imaging the output light of the TiO 2–SiO2 sol-gel waveguides.
imaging the output light of the TiO –SiO sol-gel waveguides.
2 2

2.4. Simulation
2.4. Simulation Tools:
Tools:Waveguides
Waveguidesand
andMMI
MMICouplers
Couplers
All the
All the simulations presented
presented at at600600nmnmininthis
thismanuscript
manuscript were
wereobtained
obtained based on
based
on
thethe beam
beam propagation
propagation method
method (BPM)(BPM)and and related
related to thetobehavior
the behavior of through
of light light through
a wave- a
waveguiding
guiding medium. medium. The SMF28
The SMF28 was modeled
was modeled as a cylinder
as a cylinder of 1 mmoflength
1 mmwhile
length while a
a diameter
diameter corecladding
core (φ1) and (ϕ1 ) and(φcladding
2) of 8 µm(ϕand
2 ) of125
8 µm
µm, and 125 µm, respectively,
respectively, were fixed. were fixed. The
The correspond-
corresponding refractive index contrast between the core and the cladding was 5 ×a 10 −3
ing refractive index contrast between the core and the cladding was 5 x 10 and −3 butt-
and a butt-coupling
coupling injection
injection was was between
simulated simulatedthe between the single-mode
single-mode fiber and thefiber
TiOand
2–SiOthe2 sol-gel
TiO2 –
SiO 2 sol-gel (n=
waveguide waveguide (n =nm).
1.58 at 600 1.58 This
at 600latter
nm).isThis latter isasdesigned
designed as awhose
a rectangle rectangle
widthwhose
and
width andare
thickness thickness
10 µm areand104 µm
µm,and 4 µm, respectively.
respectively. All simulations
All simulations were performed
were performed assuming
assuming that the waveguides were placed on soda-lime glass (n = 1.52) and surrounded
by air (n = 1) as shown in Figure 3, where the YZ- (a) and XZ-planes (b) are given.
Aerospace 2021, 8, x 5 of 17

Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 5 of 16

that the waveguides were placed on soda-lime glass (n= 1.52) and surrounded by air (n=
1) as shown in Figure 3, where the YZ- (a) and XZ-planes (b) are given.

(a) y 1 mm Air (n= 1)

Cladding
(φ2= 125 µm)
Waveguide (n= 1.58),
Fiber core height= 4 µm
(φ1= 8 µm)
Substrate (n= 1.52)
z
x
(b)
Waveguide
(width= 10 µm)

z
x LMMI: MMI length
(c)

Fiber core 3 x output

WMMI: MMI width: 40 µm waveguides
(φ1= 8 µm)
z

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Schematic
Schematic of
ofthe
thedifferent
differentdesigns
designscomputed
computedwith the
with BPM.
the BPM. (a)(a)
YZ-plane
YZ-plane representing
representingthe
the 2–SiO
TiOTiO 2 waveguide
2 –SiO (n= 1.58)
2 waveguide deposited
(n = 1.58) on soda-lime
deposited glassglass
on soda-lime (n= 1.52)
(n =and
1.52)surrounded by air by
and surrounded (n=air
1).
(n = 1). (b) Corresponding XZ-plane (top-view). (c) Modeling of the 1 × 3 MMI coupler (top-view)a
(b) Corresponding XZ-plane (top-view). (c) Modeling of the 1 × 3 MMI coupler (top-view) with
fixedawidth
with of 40 µm.
fixed width of 40Inµm.
any In
case,
anyallcase,
simulations were performed
all simulations at 600 nm.
were performed Thenm.
at 600 laser
Theis laser
injected
is
through a butt-coupling approach using an SMF28 optical fiber.
injected through a butt-coupling approach using an SMF28 optical fiber.

In addition
In additionto tothe
thesimulation
simulationof ofstraight
straightwaveguides,
waveguides,we wehave
havemodeled
modeledNN××M MMMI MMI
couplers using the same sol-gel material where N and M are related
couplers using the same sol-gel material where N and M are related to the numbers of input to the numbers of
input
and and output,
output, respectively.
respectively. Basically,
Basically, these structures
these structures can be seen
can be mainly mainly seen as
as large large rec-
rectangular
tangular waveguides
waveguides supporting supporting a highofnumber
a high number guided of guided
modes modes
[18]: their [18]: their interferences
interferences allow for
allow
the for the reconstruction
reconstruction of the inputoffield
the profile
input field profileintervals
at periodic at periodic
alongintervals
the MMI along the MMI
propagation
axis (Z), where the superposition of the electromagnetic fields manifests itself as itself
propagation axis (Z), where the superposition of the electromagnetic fields manifests one
as several
or one or several peaks images)
peaks (called (called images) in thedimension
in the lateral lateral dimension
(X-axis).(X-axis). These optical
These optical multi-
multi-mode
mode interference
interference devicesdevices
are knownare known to beon
to be based based on the self-imaging
the self-imaging principleprinciple
largely
largely investigated
investigated in the literature
in the literature [15,18–20].[15,18–20].
The fact thatThe fact that
several several
images of theimages of theprofile
input field input
fieldbeprofile
can can be reconstructed
reconstructed is of since
is of great interest greatsplitting
interest into
sinceseveral
splitting into waveguides
output several output is
waveguides
possible, is possible,
as will be observedas will
in be observed
Section 3.3. in
TheSection
MMI 3.3. The(LMMI
length MMI ) length
is one (L
of the
MMI ) is one
most
of the most
crucial crucial andparameters
and important important to parameters
be modeled to be
and modeled and this
this quantity canquantity can be ap-
be approximately
proximately
defined defined as [16]:
as [16]:
ne W2e 2
LMMI = n W
LMMI =Nλe0 e (1)
(1)
Nλ0
wherewhere
ne represents the transverse
ne represents effective
the transverse index
effective of the
index waveguide
of the mode,
waveguide mode,WWe eisisthe
the
effective MMI width, while λ
effective MMI width, while λ0 and0 and
N are the wavelength and the number of outputoutput
N are the wavelength and the number of wave-
waveguides, respectively.
guides, respectively.
Figure 3c shows an example of a 1 × 3 MMI coupler with a 40 µm width (WMMI ),
Figure 3c shows an example of a 1 × 3 MMI coupler with a 40 µm width (WMMI),
ensuring a strongly multi-mode device. An electromagnetic wave at 600 nm is injected via
ensuring a strongly multi-mode device. An electromagnetic wave at 600 nm is injected via
an SMF28 through a butt-coupling approach, while the simulation of the field propagation
an SMF28 through a butt-coupling approach, while the simulation of the field propagation
along the Z-axis is performed, in order to evidence the reconstruction of several images
along the Z-axis is performed, in order to evidence the reconstruction of several images at
at periodic intervals. WMMI (40 µm) and the thickness (4 µm) being fixed, the simulation
periodic intervals. WMMI (40 µm) and the thickness (4 µm) being fixed, the simulation al-
allows access to the optimal TiO2 –SiO2 MMI length (LMMI ), where the field amplitude
lows access to the optimal TiO2–SiO2 MMI length (LMMI), where the field amplitude is uni-
is uniformly divided by 3, linked to the location of the output waveguides, and to the
formly divided by 3, linked to the location of the output waveguides, and to the center-
center-to-center spacing between two consecutive waveguides.
to-center spacing between two consecutive waveguides.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Creation of TiO2 –SiO2 Waveguides by Direct Laser Writing Technique
This part briefly recalls how TiO2 –SiO2 sol-gel waveguides are created while their
optical properties (namely the refractive index, n) are given. All the structures (straight
 3. Results and Discussion
3.1.
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 Creation of TiO2–SiO2 Waveguides by Direct Laser Writing Technique 6 of 16
This part briefly recalls how TiO2–SiO2 sol-gel waveguides are created while their
optical properties (namely the refractive index, n) are given. All the structures (straight
waveguides or MMI couplers) are photoinduced through the direct laser writing method
waveguides or MMI couplers) are photoinduced through the direct laser writing method
on a soda-lime glass substrate (n= 1.52 at 600 nm) and surrounded by air (n= 1). The spin
on a soda-lime glass substrate (n= 1.52 at 600 nm) and surrounded by air (n= 1). The spin
coating is fixed in terms of angular speed, the thickness of the structures is in the 4 µm–5
coating is fixed in terms of angular speed, the thickness of the structures is in the 4 µm–5 µm
µm range. However, depending on the laser power and the scanning speed, it is possible
range. However, depending on the laser power and the scanning speed, it is possible to
to tune their widths up to 20–30 µm [10]. For instance, at a fixed laser power, waveguides
tune their widths up to 20–30 µm [10]. For instance, at a fixed laser power, waveguides with
with high lateral dimensions are obtained, typically 20 µm (Figure 4a) using low scanning
high lateral dimensions are obtained, typically 20 µm (Figure 4a) using low scanning speeds
speeds while thinner ones (10 µm) can be induced by increasing the stage velocity (Figure
while thinner ones (10 µm) can be induced by increasing the stage velocity (Figure 4b).
4b). Additionally, their respective shapes, obtained by profilometer measurements, are
Additionally, their respective shapes, obtained by profilometer measurements, are given in
given in Figure 4c, and their output light distribution was recorded after excitation at 638
Figure 4c, and their output light distribution was recorded after excitation at 638 nm, as
nm, as shown shown
in Figure in 4d,e.
FigureThe factThe
4d,e. thatfact
intense output optical
that intense output light distribution
optical is ob- is observed,
light distribution
served, whatever their dimensions, is related to two points: TiO 2–SiO2 layers are known
whatever their dimensions, is related to two points: TiO2 –SiO2 layers are known to be
to be transparent from the visible
transparent from the to the infra-red
visible to therange [21,22]
infra-red while
range theirwhile
[21,22] refractive
theirindi-
refractive indices,
ces, evaluated evaluated
by ellipsometry,
by ellipsometry, are higher than those of the substrate [10]. aFor instance, a
are higher than those of the substrate [10]. For instance,
refractive index of 1.58 can
refractive indexbe of
achieved
1.58 canatbe 600 nm, leading
achieved at 600tonm,
a strong
leading refractive index
to a strong refractive index
contrast of 6 x 10
contrast of 6 × 10 between the sol-gel waveguide and the substrate. this
−2 between the sol-gel
− 2 waveguide and the substrate. The estimation of The estimation of
particular optical
thisconstant is optical
particular of greatconstant
importanceis offor theimportance
great development forofthe
simulation
developmentand of simulation
predictive toolsand
regarding light guidance, as will be observed in the following parts.
predictive tools regarding light guidance, as will be observed in the following parts.

Figure 4. Microscope observationobservation

Figure 4. Microscope (top view) obtained
(top view)inobtained
reflection
inmode (×63)
reflection for (a)
mode a waveguide
(×63) written using a low
for (a) a waveguide
scanning speed (lateral
written dimension
using = 20 µm)speed
a low scanning and (b) a higher
(lateral scanning speed
dimension= 20 µm) (lateral dimension
and (b) a higher= scanning
10 µm). (c)speed
Corresponding
profilometer(lateral dimension=
measurements. 10 µm).
Output light(c)distribution
Correspondingat 638profilometer measurements.
nm for the (d) 20 µm and (e)Output light distribu-
10 µm waveguides, respectively.
In any case,tion at 638
the blue nmisfor
line the (d)
related 20 µm
to the 20 µmandwaveguide
(e) 10 µm waveguides, respectively.
in width while the red color Inrefers
any case, the10blue
to the µm line
one.
is related to the 20 µm waveguide in width while the red color refers to the 10 µm one.
3.2. Optical Fiber and Sol-Gel Waveguide Coupling: Simulation of Connection Losses
3.2. Optical Fiber and Sol-Gel Waveguide Coupling: Simulation of Connection Losses
Apart from the waveguiding properties, the quality of the light propagation is also
Apart from the waveguiding
related properties,
to the connection between the
thequality
opticaloffiber
the (SMF28)
light propagation
and the TiO is also
2 –SiO2 waveguides
related to the connection between the optical fiber (SMF28) and the TiO 2–SiO2 waveguides
to be probed. Since these two structures have different geometries and shapes, connection
to be probed. Since
lossesthese two structures
are induced haveadifferent
even with geometries and
proper butt-coupling shapes, connection
configuration, while an important
losses are induced even with a proper butt-coupling configuration,
misalignment can drastically affect the light injection and the while anreliability
importantof our damage
misalignment sensor.
can drastically affect
To this aim, wethe
havelight injection
estimated theand the reliability
connection of 600
losses (at our nm)
damage
using a simulation-
sensor. To thisbased
aim, we have estimated the connection losses (at 600 nm) using a simula-
approach in a perfect injection condition (no misalignment) and for several fiber
tion-based approach in a perfect
misalignments alonginjection condition
the X-axis of 1 µm,(no misalignment)
4 µm, and 8 µm, as and for several
shown in Table 1, while the
fiber misalignments along the X-axis of 1 µm, 4 µm, and 8 µm, as shown in
waveguide position is constant. We recall that the parameters (refractive Table 1, while
index, geometries)
the waveguideusedposition is constant.
for the We recall are
present simulation thatdepicted
the parameters (refractive
in Section index, geom-
2.4. The sol-gel waveguide thickness
etries) used foristhe present
fixed simulation
at 4 µm, are depicted
while two widths are in investigated:
Section 2.4. The 10sol-gel
µm and waveguide
30 µm, easily achieved
thickness is fixed
by aatdirect
4 µm,laser
while two widths
writing are investigated:
technique. In addition10 to µm and
Table 1, 30
weµm, easilyin Figure 5 the
present
repartition of the optical light power for 10 µm × 4 µm waveguides with different X-axis
misalignments: 0 µm (a), 1 µm (b), 4 µm (c), and 8 µm (d).
 tion losses are created. Even with an ideal injection (misalignment: 0 µm), a minimum loss
of 15% is induced. For this latter, the light intensity distribution is given in Figure 5a,
showing a quasi-symmetric pattern with an intense light collection, while a 1 µm shift (b)
will not affect the connection losses. Even if the corresponding intensity distribution
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 7 of 16
seems to be similar compared with the previous simulation (ideal case), the resulting pat-
tern is slightly asymmetric. Higher shifts along the X-axis will lead to an important deg-
radation of both connection losses and distribution shapes. For instance, a 4 µm shift fa-
Table
vors 1. Effect of thelosses
connection X-axis of
misalignment
35% (Table(01), 1 µm,
µm,and the4 light
µm, 8 distribution
µm) on the connection
presents losses
threebetween
maximum
SMF28 and TiO –SiO waveguides at 600 nm.
peaks (c) with a global decrease in the intensity, while an 8 µm shift induces a dramatic
2 2

decrease in the
Waveguide intensity
Width (µm) (d) related to high connection
X-axis Misalignment (µm) losses (95%). Interestingly,
Connection Losses (%) with a
higher width (30 µm), the connection losses remain similar (15%) compared with a 10 µm
10 0 15
width waveguide.10 The simulations presented 1 in this section were performed
15 at a fixed
thickness (4 µm),
10 while similar results were4 obtained for thicknesses from
35 3.5 µm to 5 µm.
This range is10representative of the range 8accessible using the spin coating 95 approach (4–5
µm). 30 0 15

distribution in the
Figure5.5. Spatial distribution
Figure the XY-plane
XY-plane ofof the
the output
outputlight
lightintensity
intensityfrom
fromaawaveguide
waveguide(4 µm
(4× µm
8 µm)
× 8atµm)
600 at
nm600
under excitation
nm under with anwith
excitation SMF28 (butt-coupling
an SMF28 configuration)
(butt-coupling for different
configuration) for dif-X-axis
misalignments
ferent of: (a) 0 µmof:
X-axis misalignments (perfect
(a) 0 µmcase), (b) 1case),
(perfect µm, (b)
(c) 41 µm, (c)
and (d) 8and
4 µm, µm.(d) 8 µm.

3.3. Since the waveguides

1 × 3 MMI and the SMF28 have different shapes and dimensions, connec-
Coupler Simulation
tion losses are created. Even with an ideal injection (misalignment: 0 µm), a minimum loss
of 15%Asis mentioned
induced. Forinthis
Section
latter,2.4,
thethe BPM
light is used
intensity in order to
distribution is compute the light
given in Figure 5a, field
show-prop-
ing a quasi-symmetric pattern with an intense light collection, while a 1 µm shift (b)that
agation into the MMI architecture at a 600 nm wavelength. This is to remind us willWMMI
not affect the connection losses. Even if the corresponding intensity distribution seems
to be similar compared with the previous simulation (ideal case), the resulting pattern is
slightly asymmetric. Higher shifts along the X-axis will lead to an important degradation
of both connection losses and distribution shapes. For instance, a 4 µm shift favors con-
nection losses of 35% (Table 1), and the light distribution presents three maximum peaks
(c) with a global decrease in the intensity, while an 8 µm shift induces a dramatic decrease
in the intensity (d) related to high connection losses (95%). Interestingly, with a higher
width (30 µm), the connection losses remain similar (15%) compared with a 10 µm width
waveguide. The simulations presented in this section were performed at a fixed thickness
(4 µm), while similar results were obtained for thicknesses from 3.5 µm to 5 µm. This range
is representative of the range accessible using the spin coating approach (4–5 µm).

3.3. 1 × 3 MMI Coupler Simulation

As mentioned in Section 2.4, the BPM is used in order to compute the light field
propagation into the MMI architecture at a 600 nm wavelength. This is to remind us that
WMMI is fixed (40 µm), and the simulation aims at providing the optimal MMI length where
three output waveguides start. First, the behavior of self-imaging (Figure 6) in the sol-gel
device is obtained for a 40 µm width waveguide after light injection with an SMF28 (left).
For all the simulations presented in this section, the fiber is centered (no misalignment) with
the waveguide or MMI coupler. The field propagation through the multi-mode waveguide
shows several interesting features. The input field is reproduced at periodic intervals
 is fixed (40 µm), and the simulation aims at providing the optimal MMI length where
three output waveguides start. First, the behavior of self-imaging (Figure 6) in the sol-gel
device is obtained for a 40 µm width waveguide after light injection with an SMF28 (left).
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 For all the simulations presented in this section, the fiber is centered (no misalignment) 8 of 16
with the waveguide or MMI coupler. The field propagation through the multi-mode
waveguide shows several interesting features. The input field is reproduced at periodic
intervals
along along the
the Z-axis, Z-axis,inresulting
resulting in single
single principal principal
images images
at 4.126 at 4.126
mm and 8.287mm
mmandfrom 8.287
the mm
from the waveguide input. Additionally, we can observe three images
waveguide input. Additionally, we can observe three images (peaks) of interest at four(peaks) of interest
at four positions
positions along thealong the1.400
Z-axis: Z-axis:
mm,1.400
2.733mm,
mm,2.733
5.624 mm,
mm, 5.624 mm,mm,
and 6.860 andseparated
6.860 mm,bysepa-
arated by adistance
12.5 µm 12.5 µmindistance in the
the lateral lateral dimension
dimension (X-axis). their
(X-axis). Obviously, Obviously, theirpowers
respective respective
powers
are lowerare lower compared
compared withimage
with a single a single image
since since the
the power powerThese
is shared. is shared. These
results results
clearly
clearly indicate
indicate the potential
the potential MMI lengthMMIforlength
probing forthree
probing three
distinct distinct waveguides.
waveguides.

2.733 5.624
1.400 mm mm 6.860
mm mm

a)
Waveguide
20

10
12.5
Width (µm)

µm
X (µm)

-10

-20

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Z (mm)
Length (mm)
Figure6.6.BPM
Figure BPMsimulation
simulation(at(at600
600 nm)
nm) of of
thethe light
light field
field propagation
propagation along
along a strongly
a strongly multi-mode
multi-mode
waveguide(width:
waveguide (width:4040µm)
µm) inin the
the XZ-plane.
XZ-plane. Self-imaging
Self-imaging cancan be observed
be observed for or
for one one or three
three imagesimages
at at
periodicintervals
periodic intervalsalong
along the
the Z-axis.
Z-axis. The
The waveguide
waveguide is excited
is excited bySMF28
by an an SMF28 optical
optical fiberfiber
(left)(left) through
through
aa butt-coupling
butt-couplingconfiguration.
configuration.

Considering
Consideringthe theposition
positionofofthe three
the peaks
three peaksalong thethe
along Z and X axes,
Z and it is it
X axes, possible to to
is possible
design the final MMI coupler to be manufactured using the direct laser writing
design the final MMI coupler to be manufactured using the direct laser writing technique. technique.
Among
Amongall allthe
thefour
fourpossibilities
possibilities given
givenbybythethe
BPMBPM(1.400 mm,
(1.400 2.733
mm, mm,mm,
2.733 5.6245.624
mm,mm,
and and
6.860 mm), a 1 × 3 MMI coupler simulation is performed
6.860 mm), a 1 × 3 MMI coupler simulation is performed with an with an LMMI of 5.624 mm,
LMMI of 5.624 mm, as as
represented
representedininFigure
Figure7a.7a.
The three
The output
three waveguides,
output whosewhose
waveguides, widthswidths
are fixed
areatfixed
5 µm,at
are
5 µm,
placed in accordance with the results obtained in Figure 6 since a center-to-center spacing of
are placed in accordance with the results obtained in Figure 6 since a center-to-center spac-
12.5 µm is realized (X-axis). Under this exact configuration, the simulation reveals that light
ing of 12.5 µm is realized (X-axis). Under this exact configuration, the simulation reveals
propagation is possible within three different waveguides, using a 40 µm × 5624 µm MMI
that lightAdditionally,
coupler. propagationthe is possible within three
three waveguide outputdifferent waveguides,
spots (600 using
nm) are given inaFigure
40 µm7b,× 5624
showing intense symmetric light patterns where the energy seems to be equally shared in
µm MMI coupler. Additionally, the three waveguide output spots (600 nm) are given
Figure 7b,
between showing
each outputintense
spot. symmetric light patterns where the energy seems to be equally
shared between each output spot.
Aerospace 2021, 8, x 9 of 17
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 9 of 16

Figure 7.7. (a) BPM simulation (at 600 nm) of light field propagation
Figure along aa 40 µm
propagation along µm ×
× 5624
5624 µm
µm MMI
coupler, allowing for the simultaneous probing of 3 waveguides
MMI coupler, allowing for the simultaneous probing of 3 waveguides withwith an SMF28 (XZ-plane). (b)
SMF28 (XZ-plane).
(b) Corresponding output light distribution (XY-plane) where the distance between two two
Corresponding output light distribution (XY-plane) where the distance between consecutive
consecutive
waveguides is 12.5
waveguides is 12.5 µm. µm.

3.4.
3.4. TiO
TiO22–SiO
–SiO22 MMI
MMICouplers
CouplersManufacturing
Manufacturing
The
Thecreation
creationofofMMI MMIcouplers
couplers is is
of of
great
great importance
importance regarding
regarding the manufacturing
the manufacturing of of
photonic sensors: a single source can be used to interrogate several waveguides, leading
photonic sensors: a single source can be used to interrogate several waveguides, leading
to the production of more compact sensors. Indeed, the miniaturization of the photonic
to the production of more compact sensors. Indeed, the miniaturization of the photonic
devices, related to non-intrusive methods, remains a very crucial parameter, especially in
devices, related to non-intrusive methods, remains a very crucial parameter, especially in
the aerospace domain. To this aim, we have focused our work on the feasibility of building
the aerospace
more complex domain.
architecturesTo this aim,
such aswe MMIhave focusedusing
couplers our work on thewriting
the direct feasibility of building
technique.
more
It should complex
be noted architectures such as structures
that the MMI-like MMI couplers usingin
presented the direct
this writingdo
subsection technique.
not fit It
should be noted that the MMI-like structures presented
with the simulation parameters but aim to provide important information regarding the in this subsection do not fit with
the simulation of
manufacturing parameters but aim to
complex structures provide
using important
the direct writing information
approach, namelyregarding the man-
in terms
ufacturing
of of complex
surface quality. All the structures
MMI-likeusing the direct
structures shownwriting
in Figure approach, namely
8 (microscope in terms
image in of
reflection mode, ×All
surface quality. 40)theare MMI-like
written using structures
70% of the shown in Figure
total laser power, 8 while
(microscope
an OD isimage placedin re-
along
flectionthemode,
path with
× 40)a are
scanning
written speed
using of 200 of theUnder
70%µm/s. this condition,
total laser power, while a TiOan2 –SiO
OD2isline placed
waveguide
along the path is induced
with awith a lateral
scanning speeddimension
of 200 µm/s.of roughly
Under 5–6 µm.
this The resulting
condition, a TiO pattern
2–SiO2 line
consists of a 100 × 100 µm 2
waveguide is induced withsquare withdimension
a lateral three different waveguides
of roughly 5–6 µm.separated by a 25 µm
The resulting pattern
distance. In order to fill the square pattern, it is essential to
consists of a 100 × 100 µm square with three different waveguides separated by a 25 µm
2 control the filling factor (FF),
adistance.
crucial parameter
In order to determining
fill the square the surface
pattern,quality and fostering
it is essential to control the best performance
the filling factor (FF),
possible. Typically, the filling of the square pattern can be achieved by several consecutive
a crucial parameter determining the surface quality and fostering the best performance
polymerized guides where the distance between them (pitch) can be adjusted. The FF
possible. Typically, the filling of the square pattern can be achieved by several consecutive
allows for a more or less homogeneous surface. For example, an FF of 0% corresponds
polymerized guides where the distance between them (pitch) can be adjusted. The FF al-
to several guides where the pitch is the lateral dimension of the guides. For this latter,
lows
no for a moreoccurs.
overlapping or lessHowever,
homogeneous a 50%surface. For example,
FF corresponds an FF ofof0%
to an overlap 50% corresponds
between to
several guides where the pitch is the lateral dimension
two consecutive waveguides, insofar as the pitch is the half-width of the waveguides. of the guides. For this latter, no
The influence of the FF on the shape of this kind of architecture is clearly observed in two
overlapping occurs. However, a 50% FF corresponds to an overlap of 50% between
consecutive
Figure 8, wherewaveguides,
several MMIs insofar as the using
are created pitch different
is the half-width
FFs of 0%of (nothe waveguides.
overlapping), The in-
50%,
fluence
and 75%.of Regarding
the FF on the the shape of this
first case (FF kind
of 0%), of architecture
a microscopeisimage clearly(× observed
40) is shown in Figure
in 8,
where 8a.
Figure several
We can MMIs arediscern
easily createdthe using different
different FFs of 0%composing
waveguides (no overlapping), 50%, and 75%.
the wave-shaped
final square.the
Regarding This
firstaspect
case (FF is highlighted through a profilometer
of 0%), a microscope image (× 40) measurement
is shown in Figure given 8a.in We
Figure
can easily8b, discern
where all thethe waveguides
different are clearly
waveguides evidenced,
composing resulting in afinal
the wave-shaped low-quality
square. This
surface
aspect is with a mean peak-to-peak
highlighted roughness value
through a profilometer of aroundgiven
measurement 56 nm. in However,
Figure 8b,for an all
where
FF of 50%, better quality is achieved using this configuration,
the waveguides are clearly evidenced, resulting in a low-quality surface with a mean as observed through the
microscope
peak-to-peak image and thevalue
roughness profilometer
of around measurement
56 nm. However, plotted for in Figure
an FF of8c,d, respectively.
50%, better quality
This clearly reveals a relatively flat surface, ideal for use in waveguiding applications since
is achieved using this configuration, as observed through the microscope image and the
lower optical losses related to light scattering occur. For a higher FF (i.e., 75%), the same
profilometer measurement plotted in Figure 8c and 8d, respectively. This clearly reveals
behavior is visible (Figure 8e,f).
a relatively flat surface, ideal for use in waveguiding applications since lower optical
 Aerospace 2021, 8, x 10 of 17

Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 10 of 16

losses related to light scattering occur. For a higher FF (i.e., 75%), the same behavior is
visible (Figure 8e and 8f).

Figure8.8.Influence
Figure Influenceof ofthe
thefilling
fillingfactor
factor(FF),
(FF),ranging
rangingfrom
from0%0%toto75%
75%ononthe
theshape
shapeofofTiO
TiO2 –SiO
2–SiO22 MMI-
MMI-
like
likestructures
structures(square
(squareshape
shapeand andthree
threewaveguides
waveguideswithwithaa66µmµmlateral
lateraldimension).
dimension).(a) (a)Microscope
Microscope
images(×
images (× 40)
40)ofofananMMI-like
MMI-like structure
structure obtained
obtained withwith anofFF0%,
an FF of (b)
0%,corresponding
(b) corresponding
profile,profile,
(c) MMI (c)
MMI at an FF of 50%, (d) corresponding profile, (e) MMI at an FF of 75%, and (f)
at an FF of 50%, (d) corresponding profile, (e) MMI at an FF of 75%, and (f) corresponding profile. corresponding
profile.
3.5. Creation of 1 × 3 and 1 × 9 MMI Couplers
3.5. Creation
The 1 × of3 1MMI × 3 and 1 × 9 MMI
coupler, whose Couplers
dimensions were defined using the simulation ap-
proach in Section
The 1 × 3 MMI 3.3, was experimentally
coupler, manufactured.
whose dimensions were To this aim,
defined thethe
using MMI coupler was
simulation ap-
created
proach by the direct
in Section 3.3,laser
waswriting approachmanufactured.
experimentally using a laser power To thisofaim,
70%theandMMIa scanning
coupler
speed of 200 by
was created µm/s, while laser
the direct the OD of 1.72
writing was placed
approach usingalong thepower
a laser opticalofpath.
70% Inand order to
a scan-
ensure a flat, small roughness and a uniform surface, the FF was set at
ning speed of 200 µm/s, while the OD of 1.72 was placed along the optical path. In order 75%, as evidenced in
Section 3.4. The photoinduced device (top-view) is presented in Figure
to ensure a flat, small roughness and a uniform surface, the FF was set at 75%, as evi- 9a, where a micro-
scopic
dencedimage is given
in Section 3.4.illustrating the input (left),
The photoinduced device the(top-view)
transition isfrom MMI to in
presented waveguides
Figure 9a,
(center),
where a and the threeimage
microscopic outputiswaveguides (right).
given illustrating theWe can (left),
input clearlythe
seetransition
a satisfyingfrommatch
MMI
between
to waveguides (center), and the three output waveguides (right). We can clearly see acan
the simulation and the experimental procedure: the same exact architecture sat-
be created
isfying match a 40 µm ×the
with between 5624 µm rectangular
simulation and the shape, while a distance
experimental of 12.5
procedure: theµm between
same exact
two adjacent waveguides
architecture can be created is achieved.
with a 40 The
µm ×fact that
5624 µm therectangular
distance between
shape, each
whilewaveguide
a distance isof
more important at the end of the device (55 µm) is related to a positive
12.5 µm between two adjacent waveguides is achieved. The fact that the distance between and negative 0.12◦
tilt
eachforwaveguide
waveguides 1 andimportant
is more 3, respectively.
at the We
endcan also
of the observe
device (55 that
µm) both ends to
is related (input and
a positive
output) are perfectly cleaved, allowing for the optimization of light injection and collection.
and negative 0.12° tilt for waveguides 1 and 3, respectively. We can also observe that both
The guiding properties of this coupler were also investigated after excitation at 638 nm
using the experimental setup described in Section 2.3, and the result is represented in
Figure 9b. We can clearly observe that with one single injection source (SMF28 fiber), it is
possible to probe the three waveguides, as predicted through simulations. Intense optical
light spots were experimentally observed at the outputs of the device.
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 11 of 16

The output light observation reveals a key point: despite the multiplication of probed
waveguides, an important amount of light can still be detected. This opens the way for
increasing the number of TiO2 –SiO2 guides monitored by a single source. To this aim, we
have manufactured a more complex architecture allowing us to probe more waveguides,
as presented in Figure 10a. This architecture results from the combination of four MMI
couplers (1 × 3), whose dimensions (40 µm × 5624 µm) are similar to the one illustrated
Aerospace 2021, 8, x
in Figure 9. A 1 × 3 coupler splits the optical power into a straight waveguide and two
11 of 17
curved waveguides (S-guides), whose length and bending radius are 6.8 mm and 125 mm,
respectively. Each waveguide probes three similar MMI couplers (1 × 3), resulting in nine
outputs. Microscopic images can also be observed in Figure 10b in order to have a better
visualization of the manufactured device. The first 1 × 3 MMI, which was probed with an
ends (input
SMF28, and output)
is represented onare
theperfectly
left, whilecleaved, allowing
particular for is
attention thegiven
optimization of light from
to the transition injec-
tion and collection. The guiding properties of this coupler were also investigated
three waveguides to three couplers (center). Finally, the nine output TiO2 –SiO2 waveguides after
excitation at 638 nm using the experimental setup described in Section
are imaged on the right. Output optical light observation at 638 nm was performed on 2.3, and the result
is represented
this in as
architecture, Figure 9b. Weincan
presented clearly
Figure 10c,observe that with one
thus evidencing single injection
the possibility source
of probing
(SMF28
nine fiber), it iswith
waveguides possible to probe
a single theInterestingly,
source. three waveguides, as predicted
it should be notedthrough
that thesimula-
signal
tions. Intense
seems optical
to be quite lightinspots
similar were
all the experimentally
observed observed
optical spots, at the
despite theoutputs
presence of of
thetwo
de-
vice. waveguides.
curved

Aerospace 2021, 8, x 12 of 17

Figure9.9.(a)
Figure (a)Microscopic
Microscopicobservation
observationof ofaa11×× 33 MMI
MMI coupler
coupler obtained
obtainedby bymicro-structuration
micro-structurationof
ofaa
TiO
TiO22–SiO
–SiO22 layer.
layer. (b) Output
Output light
light intensity
intensity distribution
distribution under
under excitation
excitation at
at 638
638 nm.
nm.

The output light observation reveals a key point: despite the multiplication of probed
waveguides, an important amount of light can still be detected. This opens the way for
increasing the number of TiO2–SiO2 guides monitored by a single source. To this aim, we
have manufactured a more complex architecture allowing us to probe more waveguides,
as presented in Figure 10a. This architecture results from the combination of four MMI
couplers (1 × 3), whose dimensions (40 µm × 5624 µm) are similar to the one illustrated in
Figure 9. A 1 × 3 coupler splits the optical power into a straight waveguide and two curved
waveguides (S-guides), whose length and bending radius are 6.8 mm and 125 mm, respec-
tively. Each waveguide probes three similar MMI couplers (1 × 3), resulting in nine out-
puts. Microscopic images can also be observed in Figure 10b in order to have a better
visualization of the manufactured device. The first 1 × 3 MMI, which was probed with an
SMF28, is represented on the left, while particular attention is given to the transition from
three waveguides to three couplers (center). Finally, the nine output TiO2–SiO2 wave-
guides are imaged on the right. Output optical light observation at 638 nm was performed
on this architecture, as presented in Figure 10c, thus evidencing the possibility of probing
nine waveguides with a single source. Interestingly, it should be noted that the signal
seems10.
Figure to (a)
be Overview
quite similar
of theinphotonic
all the observed opticalofspots,
device composed 4 MMI despite the(1 presence
couplers × 3): one of two
source
Figure 10. (a) Overview of the photonic device composed of 4 MMI couplers (1 × 3): one source can
curved
can waveguides.
monitor 9 waveguides. (b) Microscopic images of the device, showing the end of the first
monitor 9 waveguides. (b) Microscopic images of the device, showing the end of the first MMI cou-
MMI coupler (left), the transition from waveguides to 3 MMI couplers (center), and the 9 output
pler (left), the transition from waveguides to 3 MMI couplers (center), and the 9 output waveguides
waveguides (right). (c) Corresponding
(right). (c) Corresponding output lightoutput light distribution
distribution underatexcitation
under excitation 638 nm. at 638 nm.

3.6. Toward the Development of More Compact Architectures (1 × 45)

This section is dedicated to the optimization of the 1 × 9 MMI splitter detailed in
Figure 10, namely in terms of the number of waveguides probed by a single source. This
optimization can be achieved by replacing the last three MMI (1 × 3) couplers (Figure 10)
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 12 of 16

3.6. Toward the Development of More Compact Architectures (1 × 45)

This section is dedicated to the optimization of the 1 × 9 MMI splitter detailed in
Figure 10, namely in terms of the number of waveguides probed by a single source. This
optimization can be achieved by replacing the last three MMI (1 × 3) couplers (Figure 10)
with three alternative structures, allowing for the probing of more sol-gel guides. First of
all, we created another compact MMI coupler allowing us to probe 15 waveguides whose
architecture was adapted and arranged from other authors [16]. The results are presented
in Figure 11, where a scheme and a microscopic image are given in (a) and (b), respectively.
The corresponding structure is a 200 µm × 3720 µm rectangular MMI coupler, splitting the
optical power into a series of 15 straight waveguides separated by a 12.5 µm distance. The
creation of this structure is still achieved using the direct laser writing approach with the
Aerospace 2021, 8, x 13 of 17
same exact parameters (laser power, scanning speed, FF) defined in Section 3.4. Despite
the high number of probed waveguides, the output optical power at 638 nm, represented
in Figure 11c, remains intense for each waveguide.

Figure 11. A 1 × 15 MMI sol-gel coupler obtained by direct laser writing technique. (a) Overview of
Figure 11. A 1 × 15 MMI sol-gel coupler obtained by direct laser writing technique. (a) Overview of
the splitter. (b) Corresponding microscopic image and (c) output light at 638 nm under excitation
the splitter. (b) Corresponding microscopic image and (c) output light at 638 nm under excitation
with
withan
anSMF28.
SMF28.TheThecoupler
couplercorresponds
correspondsto
toaa200 µm×× 3720
200µm 3720 µm
µm rectangular
rectangular structure.
structure.

As the ultimate goal is the functionalization of large surfaces such as aircraft wings, it
As the ultimate goal is the functionalization of large surfaces such as aircraft wings,
is essential to investigate how to massively increase the number of sol-gel guides probed
it is essential to investigate how to massively increase the number of sol-gel guides probed
by a unique source. The latest resulting component, illustrated in Figure 12a, is a cascade
by a unique source. The latest resulting component, illustrated in Figure 12a, is a cascade
between a first 1 × 3 MMI (40 µm × 5624 µm) coupler to three structures (1 × 15). Under
between a first 1 × 3 MMI (40 µm × 5624 µm) coupler to three structures (1 × 15). Under
this condition, 45 potential TiO2 –SiO2 waveguides can be monitored. It should be noted
this condition, 45 potential TiO2–SiO2 waveguides can be monitored. It should be noted
that the bending radius of the S-guides is the same compared with the former 1 × 9
that the bending radius of the S-guides is the same compared with the former 1 × 9 struc-
structure (125 mm), while their lengths are 11.6 mm. Finally, under excitation at 638 nm,
ture
as (125 mm),
shown while12b,
in Figure their
thelengths are 11.6 mm.
organo-mineral Finally,
circuit underreveals
definitely excitation at 638 nm,by
its efficiency as
shown in Figure 12b, the organo-mineral circuit definitely reveals its
successfully probing 45 waveguides using one light source, allowing the use of moreefficiency by suc-
cessfullydevices.
compact probing Additionally,
45 waveguides using
the one light
division source,
of light allowing
can be obtainedtheafter
use of more
short compact
distances,
devices. Additionally, the division of light can be obtained after short distances, since
since the total length of the device is as low as 3 cm, increasing the possibility of integration the
total
in thelength of the
aerospace device is as low as 3 cm, increasing the possibility of integration in the
domain.
aerospace domain.
 that the bending radius of the S-guides is the same compared with the former 1 × 9 struc-
ture (125 mm), while their lengths are 11.6 mm. Finally, under excitation at 638 nm, as
shown in Figure 12b, the organo-mineral circuit definitely reveals its efficiency by suc-
cessfully probing 45 waveguides using one light source, allowing the use of more compact
devices. Additionally, the division of light can be obtained after short distances, since the
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 13 of 16
total length of the device is as low as 3 cm, increasing the possibility of integration in the
aerospace domain.

Figure
Figure12. A 11×× 45
12. A 45 MMI
MMI coupler.
coupler. (a)
(a) Overview
Overview of
of the
the MMI.
MMI. (b)
(b)Output
Outputlight
lightdistribution
distributionunder
under
excitationat
excitation at638
638nm.
nm.

3.7.
3.7. Behavior
Behavior of of TiO
TiO22–SiO
–SiO22 Waveguides
Waveguides with WithRespect
RespecttotoSeveral
SeveralThermal
ThermalCycles
Cycles
Aerospace 2021, 8, x 14 of 17
Since
Since this sensor will be operational in the aerospace domain, namely in the civilcivil
this sensor will be operational in the aerospace domain, namely in the avi-
aviation industry,
ation industry, it crucial
it is is crucial to to check
check thethe impact
impact of of
thetheTiOTiO 2 –SiO
2–SiO 2 architectures
2 architectures underunderex-
extreme temperaturechanges.
treme temperature changes.Aircraft
Aircraftare areusually
usuallylocated
located nearnear the
the tropopause,
tropopause, in inthe
thelower
lower
stratosphere
stratosphere (10–15
(10–15 km),
km),while
whilecruising
cruising[23],[23],leading
leading to
todramatic
dramatic temperature
temperature variations
variations
from
from the
the ground
ground temperature
temperatureto toroughly
roughly−50 −50 °C. In In
◦ C. [10], we we
[10], evidenced
evidenced the the
satisfying me-
satisfying
chanical resistance of TiO 2–SiO2 waveguides for one thermal cycle (TC) with extreme tem-
mechanical resistance of TiO2 –SiO2 waveguides for one thermal cycle (TC) with extreme
peratures ranging
temperatures ranging fromfrom80 80
°C◦ Ctoto−40
−40 °C,◦ C,
showing
showingthat thatnonodilation
dilationisis induced
induced while
while thethe
guide structure remains unaffected. However, the impact of the
guide structure remains unaffected. However, the impact of the thermal cycle on the light thermal cycle on the light
guidance was
guidance was notnot investigated.
investigated. To this aim,
To this aim, aa deeper
deeper investigation
investigation was was performed
performed on on aa
series of 24 TCs from 60 °C
◦ to −40 °C◦ on two sets of samples:
series of 24 TCs from 60 C to −40 C on two sets of samples: the first corresponds to the first corresponds to a 10a
cmcm
10 × 10× cm grid,
10 cm while
grid, whilethethe
second
second is isrelated
relatedtotostraight
straightwaveguides
waveguides dedicated
dedicated to to optical
optical
light observations.
light observations. The Theselected
selectedTC TCis is
depicted
depicted in Figure
in Figure 13. 13.
Once placed
Once in theinoven,
placed sam-
the oven,
ples are exposed
samples are exposedto three consecutive
to three consecutive steps: an an
steps: initial temperature
initial temperature increase from
increase from 2020°C◦ C
to
6060
to °C,◦ C,
followed
followed bybya adecrease
decreasetoto−40 −40°C, ◦ C,
while
whilea afinal
finalincrease
increaseup up toto 20 ◦ C concludes the
20 °C the
TC. It
TC. It should
should be be mentioned
mentionedthat thateach
eachtemperature
temperaturelevel levellasts
lasts11h,h,while rampofof11◦°C/min
whileaaramp C/min
is applied between two two consecutive
consecutive temperatures.
temperatures.

20°C (1 h)
0°C (1 h) 40°C (1 h)

Beginning/end
-20°C (1 h) 60°C (1 h)

-40°C (1 h) 40°C (1 h)

-20°C (1 h) 20°C (1 h)
0°C (1 h)

Figure 13. Description of the thermal cycle performed on TiO2 –SiO2 architectures between two
Figure 13.
extreme Description60
temperatures: of ◦the thermal
C and −40 ◦cycle performed
C. Each on TiO
temperature 2–SiO2 architectures between◦two ex-
level lasts 1 h, while a ramp of 1 C/min
treme temperatures: 60 °C and −40 °C. Each temperature level lasts 1 h, while a ramp of 1 °C/min is
is applied between two consecutive values.
applied between two consecutive values.

First of all, after each TC, microscope observations of a waveguide grid were rec-
orded. Figure 14a presents an image of the sol-gel device, namely a crossed area, before
being submitted to the first TC. A series of 24 cycles were performed on the same grid,
and the final architecture is presented in Figure 14b. Despite the cumulative number of
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 14 of 16

First of all, after each TC, microscope observations of a waveguide grid were recorded.
Figure 14a presents an image of the sol-gel device, namely a crossed area, before being
submitted to the first TC. A series of 24 cycles were performed on the same grid, and the
final architecture is presented in Figure 14b. Despite the cumulative number of cycles,
the structure was not altered by dramatic temperature changes from 60 ◦ C to −40 ◦ C,
where no shrinkages, dilations, or fatigue cracks occurred. It should be remembered that
the 10 cm × 10 cm waveguide grid is composed of 30 sol-gel waveguides separated by a
5 mm distance, resulting in 3 m of TiO2 –SiO2 guides. After investigation of all the grid
architectures, we did not observe any damage across all TCs, definitively evidencing that
this sensor based on sol-gel devices is very promising for aerospace applications in terms
of mechanical resistance, where important temperature variations can occur. In addition
to microscopic observations, the output light of straight waveguides (thickness: 5 µm
and width: 9 µm) was recorded after each TC in order to identify the potential impact of
negative temperatures on the guiding properties. They were obtained under excitation with
Aerospace 2021, 8, x 15 of 17
a supercontinuum source, emitting photons in the 350 nm–2000 nm range, and the results
are synthesized in Figure 14c. The output light of a sol-gel guide is firstly recorded before
being placed in the oven, revealing an intense light collection, as expected. Interestingly, it
should be noted that the light propagation seems to be unaffected by a cumulative number
of cycles
with the(1, 4, 7, 10,
highest 17, 18, of
number 24), where
cycles excellent
(24) used inlight transport is still
the experiment. achieved
In Figure 14c,even withonly
we have the
highest number of cycles (24) used in the experiment. In Figure 14c, we have
presented the results regarding a single waveguide. However, this latter is representative only presented
the results
of all regarding ainvestigated
the waveguides single waveguide. However,
in this work insofarthis
aslatter
opticalis light
representative
observationsof all the
reveal
waveguides
that none ofinvestigated
the waveguides in this work
were insofarby
affected as temperature
optical light observations
changes. Through revealthis
thatpartic-
none
of thestudy,
ular waveguides werestructures
the sol-gel affected by temperature
appeared changes.
to show Through
no sign this particular
of material fatigue orstudy,
wear
the sol-gel structures
(mechanical resistance appeared
and lighttoguidance),
show no sign of material
despite fatigue
aggressive or wear (mechanical
environmental conditions
resistance and light
up to 24 cycles. Even guidance), despiteare
if these results aggressive environmental
a good indicator, conditions
more tests need toupbetoperformed
24 cycles.
Even
to predict the lifespan of sol-gel architectures and a dedicated test campaign shouldthe
if these results are a good indicator, more tests need to be performed to predict be
lifespan
performed of sol-gel architectures
to validate this aspect.and
Fora instance,
dedicatedit test campaign
is possible should be
to increase theperformed
ramp appliedto
validate
betweenthis twoaspect. For instance,
consecutive it is possible
temperatures and theto increase
number the ramp applied
of cycles, between two
while representative
consecutive temperatures and the
aircraft panels can be used as a substrate. number of cycles, while representative aircraft panels
can be used as a substrate.

Figure14.
Figure 14. Influence
Influenceofof24
24thermal
thermalcycles
cycleson
onTiO
TiO22–SiO
–SiO22 sol-gel
sol-gel waveguides.
waveguides. Microscope
Microscopeobservations
observations
of a waveguide grid (a) before the thermal cycle and (b) after 24 cycles. (c) Output light observations
of a waveguide grid (a) before the thermal cycle and (b) after 24 cycles. (c) Output light observations
afterinjection
after injectionofofwhite
whitelight
light(supercontinuum)
(supercontinuum)ininstraight
straightwaveguides
waveguidesafter
afterseveral
severalthermal
thermalcycles.
cycles.

4. Conclusions
In the framework of the ADD-ON project (Clean Sky 2, H2020), an optimization of a
2D sol-gel waveguide sensor based on light transport for damage detection in the aero-
space domain was presented. This work is mainly related to the optimization of the num-
ber of TiO2–SiO2 guides that can be probed from a unique optical source. Our main goal
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 15 of 16

4. Conclusions
In the framework of the ADD-ON project (Clean Sky 2, H2020), an optimization of a
2D sol-gel waveguide sensor based on light transport for damage detection in the aerospace
domain was presented. This work is mainly related to the optimization of the number
of TiO2 –SiO2 guides that can be probed from a unique optical source. Our main goal
was to obtain access to more compact sensors based on MMI effects and the self-imaging
principle. A BPM simulation approach was first selected in order to design a rectangular
MMI coupler (40 µm × 5624 µm), allowing us to split the injected light in the visible
domain (600 nm) equally between three waveguides. The manufacturing of the conceived
device was achieved using the direct laser writing approach. After the injection of light
into this optimized component, three intense optical spots were observed at the device’s
output, confirming the simulative approach. Based on this architecture, we have created
more complex and exotic TiO2 –SiO2 MMI couplers, allowing for the probing of 9, 15, or
45 waveguides with a single optical source. The output light observations provide clear
evidence of a satisfying light collection despite the multiplication of waveguides and the
presence of curved waveguides between the various MMI device subparts. Additionally, a
deeper investigation regarding temperature effects on the waveguide properties, represen-
tative of the ones induced during aircraft cruising, were performed using 2D and straight
TiO2 –SiO2 sol-gel waveguides. After being submitted to 24 consecutive thermal cycles
from 60 ◦ C to −40 ◦ C, the structures remained unchanged, since no cracks were induced,
while their optical guiding properties remained unaltered, providing sufficiently large
intense light for our sensor operation principle. Even if this particular temperature study is
a satisfying indicator at this stage, more tests need to be performed in order to validate this
aspect. The fact that a single source may monitor several guides simultaneously can be
exploited to produce more compact, less intrusive, and lower-cost sensors, thus fulfilling
SHM requirements in the aerospace domain. Finally, this architecture will be implemented
into a 2D matrix configuration, while preliminary results concerning the functionalization
of aircraft panels with sol-gel show that it can be easily spread and a satisfying adherence
is possible without any preparation of the panel substrate. Further investigations are in
progress regarding this aspect.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R., T.B., M.A., D.J., E.M., M.-A.D.S., K.A. and S.G.;
methodology, M.R., T.B., M.A., F.V., D.J., F.R., E.M., A.M. and S.G.; software, T.B. and D.J.; validation,
M.R., T.B., F.V., Y.J., R.E., T.V.L., A.W., M.-A.D.S., K.A. and S.G.; formal analysis, M.R. T.B., M.A.
and D.J.; investigation, M.R., T.B., M.A., D.J., E.M., A.M., R.E., T.V.L., A.W., M.-A.D.S., K.A. and
S.G.; resources, D.J., F.R., F.V., A.B., Y.O., Y.J. and S.G.; data curation, D.J.; writing—original draft
preparation, M.R. and T.B.; writing—review and editing, M.R., T.B., D.J., F.R., F.V., E.M., A.M., Y.O.,
Y.J., R.E., T.V.L., A.W. and S.G.; visualization, M.R. and T.B.; supervision, Y.J., M.-A.D.S., K.A. and
S.G.; project administration, M.-A.D.S., K.A. and S.G.; funding acquisition, R.E. and S.G. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This project has received funding from the Clean Sky 2 Joint Undertaking under the
European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement n◦ 785341.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not Applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not Applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not Applicable.
Acknowledgments: This work was partly supported by the French RENATECH+ network led by
the CNRS on the NanoSaintEtienne platform.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Aerospace 2021, 8, 401 16 of 16

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