can neither be seen nor felt, but their
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
→ A material substance (i.e., it can be solid,
liquid, gas, or plasma) that can propagate to
energy waves.
→ While material substance is not required for
electromagnetic waves to propagate, such
waves are usually affected by the
transmission media they pass through, for
instance by absorption or by reflection or
refraction at the interfaces between media.
→ It also refers to a technical device that
employs the material substance to transmit
or guide waves.
→ Example of transmission medium: copper
cables, optical fibers, waveguides.
Evolution of Propagation
→ Human Voice
→ Hand Gesture
→ Courier
→ Postal System
→ Late 19th century, telegraph was made
possible invention, and later on, radio waves
discovered.
PROPAGATION
→ Movement through a medium
→ It means to move or transmit something
such as a sound wave or light wave forward
through a medium such as air.
→ Radio waves are propagated.
o Radio waves may spread out in all
direction, but they can also be
focused (concentrated) like the
flashlight, depending upon the need.
o Radio waves are a form of radiant
energy, similar to light and heat. They
presence can be detected.
o Our eyes can detect radiant energy
only within a fixed range of
frequencies.
WAVE
→ It is a disturbance or variation that transfer
energy progressively from point to point in a
medium.
→ Analogy: people jumping up and sitting back
down progressively)
MEDIUM
→ Where the wave travels may experience
some local oscillations as the wave passes
but caused the particles in the medium to
not travel with the wave.
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
→ Transmission medium for CURRENT in a
circuit is an ELECTRICAL WIRE CABLE
→ Transmission medium for RIPPLES is WATER.
→ Transmission medium for SOUND is AIR.
→ Transmission Medium for ELECTRICITY IN
THE FORM OF VISIBLE LIGHT is called
PLASMA.
Plasma
→ It is a hot ionized gas made up of ions and
electrons, that is found in the Sun, stars, and
fusion reactors.
→ Plasma is a good conductor of electricity and
reacts to a magnetic field, but otherwise has
properties similar to those of a gas.
SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 1
Fusion reaction
→ It involves the fusing or combining of two or
more atoms in their plasma state to make
one single atom.
→ Fusion reactions are the ones which power
our stars.
Mechanical Wave
→ It requires a physical medium for the
transmission. (e.g., sound and heat)
Electromagnetic Wave
→ It does not require a physical transmission
medium.
→ It can travel through the vacuum or free
space.
→ Regions of the insulative vacuum can
become conductive for electrical conduction
through the presence of free electrons,
holes, or ions. Transmission Media
(TERMINOLOGIES and CONCEPT)
→ Though a material substance is not required
to propagate electromagnetic waves, waves
may still be affected, through absorption or
reflection or refraction at the interface
between media.
→ EM waves may also pass through any
physical material that is transparent to the
specific wavelength just like water, air,
concrete, or glass.
→ → It can be as short as a few inches or span
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
→ It can transmitted through an optical media,
such as optical fiber, or through twisted pair,
coaxial cable, or dielectric-slab waveguides.
→ It may also pass through any physical
material that is transparent to the specific
wavelength, such as water, air, glass, or
concrete.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA CATEGORY
Guided Transmission Media
→ Those with some form of physical conductor
that provides a CONDUIT in which these
electromagnetic waves are contained.
→ They are the conductors that directs the
signal that is propagating down it.
→ Only device physically connected to the
medium can receive signals propagating
down a guided transmission medium.
Unguided Transmission Medium
→ Wireless systems
→ Without physical conductors
→ Unguided signals are emitted and radiated
through the air or vacuum or sometimes
water.
→ In Unguided transmission medium, the
direction of the propagation depends on the
direction in which the signal was emitted,
and any obstacle the signal may encounter
while propagating.
Metallic Transmission Line
→ Transmission line is a metallic conductor
system that is used to transfer energy from
one point to another using electrical current
flow.
→ It is two or more electrical conductors
separated by a non-conductive insulator
(dielectric)
several thousand miles.
→ It can be used to propagate DC or low
frequency AC or propagate very high
frequencies.
SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 2
Metallic Transmission Lines
- Metallic Conductor system that is used to
transfer energy from one point to another
using the electrical flow.
- Composed two or more electrical
conductors separated by a non-conductive
insulator called “DIELECTRIC.”
→ Can be used to propagate DC or low
Frequency AC such as 60-cycle electrical
power or audio signals as well as propagate
very high frequencies like microwave radio
signals.
Longitudinal Wave
- Sound waves are examples of longitudinal
waves.
- Known as “COMPRESSION WAVES”
- The particles oscillate back and forth about
their individual equilibrium positions and
they do not move down the tube with the
waves.
Transverse Wave
- The particle displacement (amplitude) is
perpendicular to the direction if wave
propagation in a transverse wave.
- Transverse waves can exist on a string that is
displaced up and down as the wave travels
from left to right, but notice that the string
itself does not experience any net motion.
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
- Water waves are example of waves that
involve a mixture of both longitudinal and
transverse motions. The particles travel in
clockwise circles as a wave travel through
the water.
Transverse Electromagnetic Wave
- TEM waves propagate primarily in the non-
conductor which is the dielectric that
separates two conductors of the
transmission line and shows that the wave
propagates itself through a medium.
Magnetic Field
- Produced by the acceleration of an electric
charge. In conductors, Voltage and Current
are always accompanied by a magnetic field
(H) and an electric (E) in the adjoining region
of space.
Electric Field
- The smaller the distance between the
oppositely charged plates, the stronger the
electric field becomes when the potential
difference is held constant.
E = V/d
E (bigger) = V/d (smaller)
Voltage Change along a DC line
- Electric and magnetic fields are uniformly
distributed along the DC fed line.
Voltage along an AC line
- Magnetic and electric fields are
concentrated near the peaks of the wave
and decreases toward the minima of the
wave and they alternate in direction during
every half cycle of the wave along the AC fed
line.
- In an electric fed-circuit, the energy is stored
in the electric and magnetic fields.
Near Filed
- The source (induction field), the time
relationship between E and H fields is
referred as Time Quadrature since E and H
are 90 degrees apart in time (lead or lag).
The Spatial Relationship between the E and H fields
is referred as “SPACE QUADRATURE”
Far Filed
- The source (radiation field), the time
relationship between the E and H fields is
that they are phase with each other.
TEM waves that travel from source to load called
“INCIDENT WAVES”
TEM waves that travel from load back to the source
called “REFLECTED WAVES”
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 3
 - Formulating the classical Electromagnetic
Theory
- Built the equations of Electricity, Magnetism
and Optics
- Maxwell Equation demonstrate that
electricity, magnetism and light are all
manifestation of the same phenomenon,
called “ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD”
- Named the Second Great Unification in
Physics
- Light itself is an Electromagnetic Wave
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894)
- Clarified and expanded the electromagnetic
theory of light
- Known for his study, “ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION”
- Nature of radio waves refraction and
reflection was similar to those of light waves.
- Light indeed is a form of electromagnetic
radiation obeying the maxwell equation.
- Triggers the invention of wireless telegraph,
radio and television among others.
Hertz Spark Gap Transmitter
- High voltage induction coil, a condenser-
type capacitor called Leyden Jar and a Spark
Gap whose poles on either side are formed
by spheres of 2cm radius.
Hertz Spark Gap Receiver
- Hertz used a piece of copper wire that is
1mm in thickness, that is bent into a circle
7.5cm in diameter
- This receiver was designed such that current
oscillating back and forth in the wire would
have a natural period close enough to that of
the wave transmitter.
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)
- Adapted the complex numbers to the study
of electrical circuits, invented mathematical
techniques to the solution of differential
equations, later found the Laplace
Transform.
- Reformulate 12 of maxwell’s 20 equations
into four equations using only four variables
(B, E, J and p).
- Known for the study on the Kennelly-
Heaviside layer.
Reference Line
- Known as Rest Position or Point of Zero
Displacement is the position that a particle
of matter would have if it were not
distributed by wave motion.
Wavelength
- Distance in space occupied by one cycle of a
radio wave.
Lamba
- Used to signify wavelength (lambda =
Vpeak/frequency)
Wave Velocity
- Wave travels at several speeds depending on
the type of the wave and the characteristic
of the propagation medium.
- Speed of Light = 186.283miles/sec, or
299,793,000meters/sec in a vacuum or free
space.
Period
- Time (T) in which one complete vibratory
cycles of events occur.
Input End / Generator End
- End terminal of a two-wire transmission line
connected to a certain source.
- Also known as Transmitter End, Sending End
and Source.
Output End / Receiving End
- The opposite terminal of the line
- Also known as Output End are Load End and
Sink
Input Impedance
SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 4
 - The ratio of voltage to current (Ein/Iin) at the
input terminal is known as Input Impedance
(Zin)
Output Impedance
- The ratio of voltage to current at the output
(Eout/Iout) terminal is known as the Output
Impedance (Zout)
Balanced Transmission Line
- For two wire balance transmission lines,
conductors carry current, however, one
conductor transmits the signal and the other
conductor is the return path.
- Also called as “DIFFERENTIAL SIGNAL
TRANSMISSION”
- Wire that is measured at the potential
difference between the two wires known as
“DIFFERENTIAL SIGNAL VOLTAGE”
- Currents that flow in opposite direction are
known as “METALLIC CIRCUIT CURRENTS”
- Currents that flow in the same direction are
known as “LONGITUDINAL CURRENTS”
- Typically has a CMRR of 40dB and 70dB
Unbalanced Transmission Lines
- Also known as “SINGLE-ENDED”
- Requires only one wire for each signal, and
only one ground line is required no matter
how many signals are grouped into one
conductor.
Balanced to Unbalanced (BALUN)
- Conjunction of balanced to unbalanced
circuit device that is used to connect a
balanced transmission line such as a twin
lead television wire to an unbalanced load
which is the input antenna port of the
television.
Transformer Balun
- It can connect and unbalanced line such as
coaxial cable to a balanced load such as a
dipole antenna. It used for relatively low
frequencies.
Narrowband Balun
- Relatively high frequencies
- Several types such as CHOKE, SLEEVE OR
BAZOOKA BALUN.
A balun of the QUARTER-WAVELENGTH SLEEVE
type can be placed around and connected to the
outer conductor of a coaxial cable
Open Wire Line or Two Wire Open Line
- Two Wire parallel conductors are spaced 2 to
6 inches apart and are operated in the
balanced mode.
- Used in Power Lines, Rural Telephone lines
and telegraphs lines.
- Dielectric is Air; therefore, the velocity of
TEM is slower than the speed of light.
“SPACERS” are used for separation of construction
Twin Lead
- Two Wires parallel conductor known as
“TWO-WIRE RIBBON CABLE”
- Same as two-wire open line except with the
uniform spacing is assured by embedding
the two wires in a low-loss solid dielectric
usually Polyethylene or Teflon.
- The absence of shielding increases the
radiation losses and becomes susceptible to
noise pick up.
- Used to connect the television receiver
antenna to home television set
- The connector for the Twin-Lead is called
“ANTENNA EYELET”.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
- No use of spacers
- Twist the length together to form flexible
wires known as “PITCH”
- It is done to reduce the electromagnetic
interference.
- The mutual induction is similar to what is
known as “CROSSTALK.”
- The magnetic fields tend to cancel out each
other, if placed the wires opposite to each
other.
- Twisted pairs are often stranded into what is
called “UNITS”
- Used in the modern ethernet for date
networking standards
SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 5
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP Connector)
- It is commonly installed using the standard
connector which is the RJ45 or the
Registered Jack 45
- Commonly used in LAN (Local Area Network)
EIA/TIA 568 STANDARDS FOR UTP
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
- Consisting of two-wire parallel lines made
from of copper conductors and separated by
a solid dielectric material.
- The twisted pairs of copper conductors are
enclosed in a conductive metal sleeve known
as “METAL FOIL”
- If the sleeve is woven into a mesh, it is then
called “METAL BRAID”
- The sleeve prevents the radiation losses and
external EMI as noise and radio interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP Connector)
- STP cable is thicker and less flexible than UTP
cable, thereby it is making more difficult to
install and expensive to utilize.
- It offers greater security and immunity to
interference.
EIA/TIA 568 STANDARD FOR STP
Foil Twisted Pair
- Consists of four pairs of AWG 24 copper
wires encapsulated
→ It minimizes EMI susceptibility while
maximizing EMI immunity.
-
Shielded Foil Twisted Pair
- Consists of four pairs of AWG 24 copper
wires
→ Offers superior EMI protection
Shielded Cable Pair
- Consists of parallel conductors separated
from each other and surrounded by a solid
dielectric.
- The wires are contained within braided
copper tubing which acts as an electrical
shield. To protect the line from moisture and
mechanical damage, the entire assembly is
then covered with a rubber or flexible
composition coating.
- The main advantage is that the conductors
are balanced to the ground.
→ The Braided copper shield isolates the two
wires from stray magnetic fields.
Solid Flexible Coaxial Cable
- Patented in England by “OLIVER HEAVISIDE”
- Flexible coaxial lines are made with an inner
flexible conductor that is insulated from, the
outer conductor by a solid, continuous
insulating material.
- The outer conductor is made from metal
braids which gives the flexibility of the line.
- “POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC” was developed to
replace the rubber and eliminate the high
frequency losses.
Polyethylene Plastic
- It is a solid substance that retains its
flexibility over a wide range of temperatures.
→ It is not affected by seawater, oil, gasoline
and most liquids that may be found aboard a
typical ship.
Rigid Air-Filled Coaxial Cable
- It consists of a central, insulated inner
conductor mounted inside a tubular outer
conductor.
SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 6
 - Spacers are made of Pyrex, Polystyrene, and
other some good insulating material with a
low dielectric loss at high frequency.
→ The main advantage of this is to minimize the
radiation losses.
- Interference from other wire is reduced.
- Expensive to construct.
Leakage
- Caused by the condensation of moisture can
be prevented in some Rigid lines through the
use of an inert gas, such as helium, nitrogen
or argon.
Inert Gas
- Used to make the line dry and the pressure
value is maintained to make ensure that no
moisture enters the Rigid Line.
BNC Connectors
- Name came from Paul Neill and Car
Concelman, the two developers of this
connectors.
- Stands for Bayonet Neill-Concelman
- Common type of Radio Frequency connector
- Applications for radio, television and other
electronic devices that connects with the
Radio Frequency.
- This is developed to match the characteristic
impedance of coaxial cable which are
50ohms or 75ohms. Application usually
below 500V and below 3GHz of frequency.
Type N Connectors
- Invented by Paul Neill
- Threaded RF connector version
- First coaxial cable that is capable of carrying
microwave-frequency signals.
Threaded Neill-Concelman (TNC)
- It as 5ohms impedance and operates well in
the 0 to 11Ghz of frequency spectrum
application.
- It is better than the BNC.
- It is utilized in a wide range of radio and
wired application.
Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit
For its electrical properties:
- Wire Conductivity
- Insulator Dielectric constant
For its physical properties:
- Wire Diameter
- Conductor Spacing
-
Lumped CONSTANT are the following:
- Series DC Resistance = (R) ohms/length
--- Oppose the flow of the Current, Expressed in
Ohms per unit length, and is illustrated at existing
continuously from one end of the line to another.
- Shunt Capacitance = (C) farad/length
--- Two Wire line behaves like a ling capacitor,
Expressed in Farads per unit length, and is
illustrated at two charged plates of a capacitor.
- Series Inductance = (L) henry/length
--- Current flows through a conductor, concentric
magnetic lines of forces, keep the current flowing
the same direction called “FLY-WHEEL EFFECT”,
Expressed in Henry’s per unit length.
- Shunt Conductance = (G) or Shunt Leakage
Resistance (1/Rs) mho/length
--- Flowing of electrons are able to move from one
conductor to the other through this Dielectric,
Expressed in Mho’s per unit length.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD ABOUT TRANSMISSION
LINE
- Distributed constants of resistance,
inductance and capacitance are
fundamental properties that are common to
all types of transmission lines. They exist
whether or not any current flow exists on the
transmission line.
- As soon as current flow and voltage occur in
a transmission line, another property
SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 7
becomes quite evident, this is the
emergence of Electromagnetic Fields or line
of magnetic and electric force about the
conductors of the Transmission line.

SANTOS, AMIRA LYD L. 8