Culture, ethics and sexuality

David Waynforth
This LGRS contains subject matter which may be psychologically distressing for
some students. If you become distressed, please contact a mental health
professional.

Felicity Miller (Manager, Student Health and Wellbeing)

• Registered Psychologist
• HSM Room 1_14
• Email: fmiller@bond.edu.au
• Mobile: 0437 820 627

• Services are free, confidential, and provided in a safe and respectful

environment
Sexual behaviour has more coercion, discrimination and morality surrounding it
than any other set of normal human behaviours.

Session objectives:

1. Outline some of the Australian laws related to sexual behaviour, including why
these laws exist.

2. Be aware of normal variation in sexual practices and attitudes

3. Begin to appreciate the underlying biology of sexual behaviour

4. Be able to apply your knowledge of 1-3 above to discuss ethical issues

surrounding sexuality.
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is common in 29 countries around Africa and the Middle East.

It is becoming more common in Australia as people from these areas settle here.

David Bowie & Iman

WHO classification of female genital mutilation:

Excision: partial or total removal of the clitoris

and the labia minora, with or without excision of
the labia majora.

Clitoridectomy: partial or total removal of the

clitoris, and, in very rare cases, only the prepuce
(the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris).

Infibulation: narrowing of the vaginal opening

through the creation of a covering seal. The seal
is formed by cutting and repositioning the inner,
or outer, labia, with or without removal of the
clitoris.

Other: all other harmful procedures to the female

genitalia for non-medical purposes, e.g. pricking,
piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the
genital area.

Photo credit : Daily Mail, Nov 7th 2013

Anatomy of the clitoris

FGM often includes removal of the tip of the clitoris, eliminating the possibility of
sexual pleasure from clitoral stimulation.

The clitoris is not a simple homologue of the penis. It appears to have evolved
solely for sexual pleasure and orgasm.

Source: Helen O’Connell, JCU Medicine (reprinted in the Guardian 1/11/2020)

FGM is considered by communities in which it is practised to enhance purity.

But it is also expressly recognised as a method of controlling women’s sexuality by

minimising the possibility of sexual pleasure.

It is usually carried out in the teen years, and girls who have not undergone the
procedure are not considered fit for marriage.

All forms are illegal in Australia

-An example of humanistic values superseding cultural values.

Resource: https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2011/194/3/female-genital-mutilation-
australian-law-policy-and-practical-challenges-doctors

Excellent TEDX talk on a woman’s personal account of FGM:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4n0zcsdoN0&app=desktop
Cosmetic labiaplasty is legal in Australia

Why is secular female genital surgery legal, but performing it for “cultural”
reasons is illegal?

Part of artist Jamie McCartney’s 26 foot long sculpture of casts of vaginas, showing the natural range of variation
Should male circumcision be illegal?

-- it is also a cultural practice which carries a risk of infection and other

complications and reduces sexual pleasure (but to a vastly smaller degree than
FGM)

In Judaism, male circumcision

is performed in a ceremony --
bris
INCEST LAW: AVOIDING INBREEDING

Incest law vary by state, but all states have them.

SA (the least restrictive)

-Bans sex between parents & children, siblings

QLD & VIC (the most restrictive)

-As well as close genetic relatives, half-sibs, step-sibs, fostered sibs, adopted sibs;
QLD aunts, uncles, nephews, nieces.

You can currently marry a cousin in any state in Australia.

Is the law confused about the point of incest laws by banning sex between non-
genetic relatives?

Resource: http://www.aifs.gov.au/acssa/pubs/issue/i4.html
INCEST/INBREEDING: the science of why you probably shouldn’t marry your
cousin

Inbred mating will lead to increased homozygosity. This is a problem if there are
lethal recessives in an individual’s genome (recessives have no effect on
phenotypes of heterozygotes). The figure below shows inbreeding depression given
that each person has 2.2 lethal recessive alleles. R is the proportion of genes
shared by breeders.

Source for next 3 slides: Boyd & Silk (2000) How Humans Evolved
Humans appear to have a built-in aversion to inbreeding – a tendency not to be
attracted to those we were reared with (the Westermarck effect).
Arthur Wolf’s data on Taiwanese minor marriages: girls adopted into family to marry a
son have lower fertility
…and increased likelihood of divorce:
Bittles & Neel (1994) Nature Genetics:
Studied 38 populations in 7 countries, and found that marrying first
cousins led to an increase in child mortality of progeny of 4.4% (over
non-consanguineous offspring)

Ober et al. (1988) American Journal of Reproductive Immunology and

Microbiology:

Hutterites are a highly inbred population. A sample of Hutterite couples

who share HLA alleles (important for immune function) had 6.5 children
on average compared with 9 for couples sharing no HLA alleles.
BUT – some studies do not show negative effects of inbreeding on couples’
reproductive success:
Bittles et al. (2002) Annals of Human Biology
Compared cousin-marriage in 17 studies. In 11/17 studies consanguineous
couples had more children.

Why?

Keeping resources in the family. Some societies have inheritance rules favoring
cousin-marriage. If costs of inbreeding are outweighed by effects on
reproductive success of increased resources, then inbreeding can be favoured.
Arranged marriage

-In some parts of the world arranged marriage is often between cousins

-In Australia arranged marriage, usually arranged by the families of both parties, is legal only if
both partners consent.

Arranged marriages are often arranged in childhood, but the marriage cannot legally take place
when one or both parties is not yet 18.

The reasons given in support of arranged marriage as a cultural practice often include:
• to control unwanted sexuality (typically female sexuality)
• to prevent relationships outside the ethnic, cultural, religious or caste group
• to protect ‘family honour’
• to respond to peer group or family pressure
• to attempt to strengthen family links
• to achieve financial gain or immigration
• to ensure land, property and wealth remain within the family
• to protect perceived cultural and religious ideals

Further legal information:

http://www.ag.gov.au/Consultations/Documents/Consultationonforcedandservilemarriage/Discussion%20Paper%20for%20Publi
c%20Release%20forced%20and%20servile%20marriage.pdf
The age of consent

o The age of consent for sexual interaction is 16 in all states other than Tasmania
and South Australia, where it is 17.

o If a child reports sexual abuse by an adult, doctors are required to contact the
department of human services in their state. In QLD this is the state
government’s Child Safety service. If a doctor believes there is immediate
danger to a child, contact is via 000.
Child sexual abuse: who is most at risk? and who is most likely to be a
perpetrator?

o Statistics vary widely depending on factors such as whether the study was a
community survey, or whether the statistics are based on police reports or
convictions.

o In almost all studies: girls are more likely to be victims. Men are more likely
to be perpetrators.
Why are men more likely to be perpetrators of child sexual abuse?

o Across all cultures that have been studied, men are more sexually attracted to younger women.
This is likely to maximise male reproductive success, and hence is a biological, evolved tendency.

o Age preferences gone awry: One hypothesis for paedophilia and why men are most likely
perpetrators is that the tendency to prefer younger partners can be maladaptively extreme in
some men. At the other end of the spectrum, attraction to much older women is much less
common.

Schwarz, S., & Hassebrauck, M.

(2012). Sex and Age Differences in
Mate-Selection Preferences.
Human Nature, 23(4), 447–466.
doi:10.1007/s12110-012-9152-x
Sexual abuse of children: health-related outcomes
Common long-term health outcomes of childhood sexual abuse:

o Pain without a clear underlying cause or tissue damage

o Vaginal discharge and problems urinating
o Chronic fatigue
o Stomach/digestive problems including constipation and lack of appetite.
o Shortness of breath
o Eating disorders
o Depression
o PTSD and associated behaviours, such as excessive alcohol and drug use.

For a literature review see Springer et al. J GEN INTERN MED 2003;18:864–870
Sexual abuse in childhood shifts the timing of pubertal development. The mechanism
is stress-related: stress in childhood (except nutritional) usually accelerates pubertal
development.
Rape and sexual coercion

The majority of cases of rape (including cases not reported to the police), are
female victims of male acquaintances:

In one influential study of university students (ref below):

84% of reported (to the researcher) rapes were by acquaintances

57% of these occurred while on a date
5% were reported to the police
5% of victims sought help from a rape crisis centre
84% of the men accused stated that the sex was consensual or didn’t occur

Rape victims are both much more likely to be female and to suffer post-traumatic
stress afterwards.

Koss, M.P. (1988). Hidden rape: Sexual aggression and victimization in the national sample of students in
higher education. In M.A. Pirog-Good & J.E. Stets (Eds.)., Violence in dating relationships: Emerging social
issues (pp. 145168). New York, NY: Praeger.
Are routine pelvic exams just another aspect of sexist culture?

o Routine pelvic exams are controversial: there is little evidence to support their use
in asymptomatic women.

o STIs can be diagnosed using first catch urine. For cervical cancer a cervical smear
test can be performed without the rest of the pelvic exam procedure.

"The pelvic examination has held a prominent place in women's health for many
decades and has come to be more of a ritual than an evidence-based practice...With
the current state of evidence, clinicians who continue to offer the examination should
at least be cognizant about the uncertainty of its benefits and its potential to cause
harm through false-positive testing and the cascade of events it prompts.“

Vanessa Jacoby, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, UCSF

For more information see: https://www.acponline.org/acp-newsroom/american-

college-of-physicians-recommends-against-screening-pelvic-examination-in-adult-
asymptomatic
Why are women more likely to be the unwilling victims of or subject of
- Sexual harrassment
- sexual coercion
- forced marriage
- societal norms related to restricting sexuality (for example in Western culture, of slut shaming)

Sexually active single young women are perceived very differently by society than sexually active
young men – what if men were treated the same as women? (In this case, buying birth control)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9IhgwCB14To
Biological underpinnings

A biological explanation for sex differences in reproductive ethics and cultural

expectations:

Reproduction is less physiologically costly for males than for females: anisogamy

• Eggs are physiologically less costly than sperm to produce

• Male mammals do not bear the costs of pregnancy and lactation
• Anisogamy means that females necessarily have more energy invested in a
reproductive event.
• A result is that males compete for access to reproductive opportunities granted by
females – which in turn influences behavioural/cultural sexual practices.

Why seek a biological explanation?

• It helps explain why men are more likely to rape in all known cultures. There are no
exceptions.
• Women have a greater expectation of providing child care in all cultures.
• If we want to change reproductive ethics and attitudes, it’s best to understand their
basis.