1.

4 ERRORS
1.4.1 Errors, Types of Errors
Error (Definition) : An error is a fault, which may occur even in the most careful
observation.
Or Error is a deviation of measurement from standard value.
Or error is an uncertainty in a given measurement.
Error arises due to human limitations and instrumental limitations. Errors cannot be
completely eliminated but can be reduced.

(1) Instrumental error or constant error :

Instrumental error (Definition) : An error caused due to faulty instrument is called
instrumental error.
Fault in the instrument may be because of faulty construction or faulty calibration.
Constant error (Definition) : When number of observations taken by instrument
possess same amount of error then the error is said to be a constant error.
e.g. Local made measuring scale having faulty calibration on it, say 1 cm on scale actually
corresponds to 1.1 cm. The length measured by such scale will differ from its value by a
constant amount. In this case, measured length will always be smaller than true value by a
constant amount. Hence such error is called constant error or instrumental error.
(2) Systematic error or Persistent error (Definition) :
Error caused due to defective setting of instrument or defective adjustment or
unsystematicness of the experimentor is called systematic error.
This error exists due to known causes. Such errors can be reduced or eliminated by
identifying the sources of error and applying the rules governing the error.
Systematic errors may be subdivided into four main types.

(i) Instrumental error (Definition) : The error because of wrong adjustment or

defective setting of the instrument is called as instrumental error.
e.g. (1) Zero error in micrometer screw gauge.
(2) Pointer of the voltmeter if not pivoted at exact zero of the calibrated scale.
These types of errors can be minimized by identifying its causes.
(ii) Personal error : As the name suggests this error is due to carelessness or fault of an
observer while taking readings.

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Basic Science : Physics 1.2 Units and Measurements

For example, while taking readings of ammeter, the eye sight of an observer should be
exactly perpendicular to the display. For this, removal of parallax is necessary i.e. the pointer
and its image in mirror should exactly match with each other.
(iii) Error because of external causes: Such errors arise due to changes in
environmental conditions i.e. change in temperature, humidity, pressure etc. For example if
metal meter scale is used it shows different readings in summer and winter, due to change in
length of scale itself due to change in temperature.
(iv) Error due to defect in the system : This error is because of defective (imperfect)
experimental setup.
For example, while performing experiment to determine coefficient of linear expansion
by Pullinger’s apparatus, there may not be proper thermal contact between thermometer and
the metal rod.
(3) Random errors (Definition) : The error caused due to experimental conditions
and human limitations is called random error.
For example
(a) While performing electrical experiments if there is voltage fluctuation then some
error may be included.
(b) While performing Stoke's experiment to determine coefficient of viscosity of liquid :
when metal sphere crosses marking ‘A’, stop watch should be started and as soon as
it crosses marking ‘B’, stop watch should be stopped. Same person may get different
readings because of human limitations.
Errors can be minimized by :
(i) Taking large magnitude of the physical quantity which is to be measured.
(ii) Taking large number of readings.
(iii) Using smaller least count instrument.
1.4.2 Estimation of Errors
As we know, errors cannot be completely eliminated but can be reduced or minimized.
Estimation of errors helps to minimize the error, and also to understand accuracy and
precision of the measurement process. It also helps to calibrate the instrument. In quality
control department, it helps to take decision whether the measured job is to be selected or
rejected with known tolerance.
To understand the process of estimation of errors and different steps involved in it,
we will go through one example.
Example : The diameter of a rod is measured with micrometer screw gauge for three times
as x1 = 1.223 cm, x2 = 1.224 cm and x3 = 1.224 cm. Calculate percentage error in measuring
diameter of rod if zero error of micrometer is +0.002 cm.
(Note : Actually, sufficient large number of readings should be taken, but here for
simplicity only three readings are taken.)
Solution : (1) Corrected reading :
Corrected reading = reading  constant error
Basic Science : Physics 1.3 Units and Measurements

= reading  zero error

If zero error is +ve, correction is –ve and if zero error is –ve, correction is +ve.
In the given example, zero error is +ve therefore correction is –ve (z = +0.002 cm)
 Corrected reading
xc1 = x1 – z = 1.223 – 0.002 = 1.221 cm
xc2 = x2 – z = 1.224 – 0.002 = 1.222 cm
xc3 = x3 – z = 1.224 – 0.002 = 1.222 cm
(2) Mean (average) reading : To get mean reading add all corrected readings and
divide it by total number of readings. In many cases, mean reading is also called as most
probable value.
xc1 + xc2 + xc3
Mean (average) reading, xm =
3
(1.221 + 1.222 + 1.222)
xm =
3
xm = 1.2217 cm
(3) Absolute error (Definition) : The difference between reading or (corrected reading)
and the mean (average) reading is called absolute error.
Absolute error,
x1 = |xc1 – xm| = |1.221 – 1.2217| = 0.0007 cm
x2 = | xc2 – xm| = |1.222 – 1.2217| = 0.0003 cm
x3 = | xc3 – xm| = |1.222 – 1.2217| = 0.0003 cm
(4) Average (mean) absolute error (Definition) :
The average of absolute error is called average absolute error.
 Average absolute error,
(x1 + x2 + x3)
xavg =
3
(0.0007 + 0.0003 + 0.0003)
=
3
xavg = 0.00043 cm
(5) Relative error (Definition) : It is the ratio of average absolute error to mean
(average) reading.
xavg
Relative error =
xm
0.00043
=
1.2217
= 0.000352
(6) Percentage error : It is the product of relative error and 100.
Definition : Percentage error is defined as a way of expressing a relative error as a
fraction of 100.
Percentage error = Relative error  100
Basic Science : Physics 1.4 Units and Measurements

xavg
=  100
xm
= 0.000352  100 = 0.0352%