Summary

Chemistry OL
Summary

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 Summary

States of matter
• How to convert states of matter

Xl Xg

Xs Xl

• Particles arrangement and motion

State Arrangement Molecular movement Shape and volume

Solid Regular & close together Vibrate at fixed point Fixed in both

Liquid Irregular & still close together Move past each other Unfixed shape, fixed volume

Gas Far apart & widely separated Free to move fast & randomly Unfixed in both

• Diffusion
Random movement of particles from area of high concentration to area of low concentration

Increasing temperature
Diffusion increases by Impurities
Decreasing molecular mass
• Increases boiling point
State Solid Liquid Gas • Decreases melting point
Pure water VS Impure water
Diffusion X Slow Fast Fixed Range
Melting point (0C) Melting point -2 to-5C
Boiling VS evaporation Boiling point (100C) Boiling point 102 to105C

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs on the surface of the
Occurs throughout the liquid
liquid
Occurs at specific Occurs at any temperature
temperature over the range

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 Summary

Atomic structure
Atom: Smallest particle which make up an element

Atomic number = proton number

Mass number = protons + neutrons
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Definition of:
Proton number→ number of protons in a nucleus of an atom
Nucleon number → Total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus
of an atom

Particles Proton Neutron Electron

Mass 1 1 1/1840
Charge +1 0 -1
Symbol P N e`

Same period → same number of shells

Same group → same number of outermost electrons

Valency: Is the number of electrons lost,

gained, or shred by an atom to reach stability of
the nearest inert gas.
Valency electron: Is the number outer shell
electrons of an atom.

Atom: P+ = e`
Ion: P+ = e`

+ve -ve
P+ more than e` e` more than P+

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 Summary

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of:
Same element
Same proton number
Different neutrons number

Isotopes have:
→ Same chemicals properties as they have same number of electrons in outer shell.
→ Different physical properties as they have different masses.

To calculate relative atomic mass:

Example: Chlorine-35 has 75% abundancy, while chlorine-37 has 25% abundance,

Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

Multiply percentage abundance by the Ar (mass number) then add them.

(75X35%)+(25X37%)= 35.5

Relative atomic mass of isotopes (Ar) → Average mass of all isotopes of an element relative to
carbon-12
Radioactive isotopes → Unstable nuclei

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 Summary

Bonding
Ionic bond Covalent bond

▪ Reaction between metal (1,2,3 e in outer ▪ Reaction between two non-metals

shell) & non-metal (5,6,7 e in outer shell) (4,5,6,7 e in outer shell)
▪ Electrons transfers from metal to non-metal ▪ Non-metals share equal number of
▪ Definition: The electrostatic attraction force electrons
between positive & negative ions in the ▪ Definition: The electrostatic
compound attraction force between shared pair
▪ Properties: 1. High melting & boiling of electrons and nuclei of each atom
points ▪ Properties
Due to strong attraction forces between +ve 1. Low melting & boiling points
& -ve ions and it’s require a high energy to Due to weak attraction forces between
overcome. molecules
2. Conduct electricity when molten or 2. Bad conduct electricity
aqueous Absence of free moving ions or electrons
Due to presence of free moving ions 3. Soluble in organic solvent
3. Soluble in water & polar solvent 4. High volatility (evaporate easily)
4. Low volatile
Example 1: Hydrogen chloride (single
Example 1: Sodium chloride
covalent bond)
Step 1 Na Cl NaCl
1 1
Step 1 H Cl HCl
1 1
-
+
Step 2
Na Cl Step 2

H Cl

Example 2: Lithium oxide

Example 2: Oxygen molecule (double covalent bond)
Step 1 Li O Li2O
1 2 Step 1 O2
+ 2-
Step 2
Li
Step 2
O O O
+

Li
Example 3: Nitrogen molecule (triple covalent bond)
Note Step 1 N2 Step 2

Mg2+O2- has higher melting point than Na+Cl- N N

because it has greater charge.
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 Summary

Chemical formula
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Valency +1 +2 +3 +4/-4 -3 -2 -1 0

#
How to write chemical formula
Equal Valencies

Transition Compound
1:1
Na Cl Group Radicals
Unequal Valencies Iron(III) Oxide
1 1
Fe O
NaCl Na OH
Na O 3 2
1 1
1 2 Fe2O3
2:2 NaOH
Na2O Copper (II) Chloride
Mg O Na CO3
Cu Cl
2 2 1 2
Al S 2 1
MgO Na2CO3
3 2 CuCl2
Ca OH
Al2S3 Silver (I) Oxide
3:3 2 1
Ag O
Al N Ca(OH)2
1 2
3 3
Ag2O
AlN

N.B. Transition metals’ valencies should be written for you BUT if not, you have to know that Zinc,
lead , Tin and Copper’s valencies are +2 and Silver’s +1

Radicals Naming of matels and non-metals in compound:

NH4 +1 CO3 PO4 Sodium atom Na Sodium ion Na+

-3
OH SO4 -2 PO3 Aluminium atom Al Aluminium ion Al+3
-1
NO3 SO3 Chlorine atom Cl Chloride ion Cl-

NO2 Sulphur atom S Sulphide ion S2-

Oxygen atom O Oxide ion O2-

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 Summary

Metals and alloys

▪ Element: Substances made of only one type of atom, and cannot be chemically separated into
smaller parts

• Group & transition metals

Group 1 Transition metals

Low melting point High melting point
Physical properties Low density High density
Soft Hard
White compounds, colourless in
Coloured compound
solution
Chemical properties More than one oxidation state
One oxidation state
Act as catalyst
Cannot act as a catalyst
Shiny (physical)
Common properties Conduct electricity & heat (physical)
Form basic oxides (Chemical )

* Group 1
Li As we down the group Note
Na
Reactivity increases All the metals are silver grey
K Melting point decreases except copper (reddish brown) &
Rb Density increases gold (yellow)
Cs

• Uses of metals
Use Reason
Kitchen foil Resistant to corrosion
Aluminum Cooking utensils Resistant to corrosion and heat conductor high melting
Aircraft & overhead power cables Low density & High strength
Copper Cables Good electric conductor and unreactive
Zinc Galvanizing iron More reactive than iron
* Al resists corrosion due to presences of Protective oxide layers

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 Summary

▪ Alloys: Mixture of elements designed to have useful properties for a particular purpose
* Characteristics of alloys:
No Chemical reaction
No Chemical formula
Just Physical reaction
Alloys are harder than pure metals
Alloys decrease conductivity
Alloys have lower melting point than pure metals
Alloys have higher boiling point than pure metals

Alloy Uses Reason

Brass (copper & zinc) Ornaments -
Bronze (copper & tin) Ornaments -
Mild steel (iron & carbon) Car bodies & machinery Due to high tensile strength
Stainless steel (iron, nickel & chromium) Cutlery & surgery tools Does not rust
High carbon steel (iron & carbon) Hammer & cutting tools Harder than mild steel
Solder (tin & lead) Welding Low melting point

• What is meant by the term steel alloy?

A mixture of elements that contains iron with other elements

• Explain why high carbon steel is harder than mild steel?

Because the greater difference in size of particles reduce sliding and increase hardness

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 Summary

Redox reaction
Oxidation Reduction
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
1. Gain of oxygen 1. Loss of oxygen
2. Loss of electrons 2. Gain of electrons
3. Increase in oxidation state 3. Decrease in oxidation state

Examples of redox reaction:

Oxygen transfer reaction

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Oxidation Occurs Reduction Occurs
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent

Electron transfer reaction

2Mg + O2 → 2Mg+2 + 2O-2
Oxidation Occurs Reduction Occurs
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
Change in oxidation state
Oxidation ( Increase in oxidation state) Reduction ( decrease in oxidation state)
Fe+2 → Fe+3 V+4 → V

• Test for reducing agents (using strong oxidizing agents) Note

Potassium Manganate (KMnO4): Purple → Colorless • Most reactive metals has greater tendency
Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7): Orange → Green to form ions
• Test for oxidizing agents (using strong reducing agents) • Most reactive metal loses electrons and

Potassium Iodide (KI): COLORLESS → Brown solution oxidised is the best reducing agent
• Least reactive metal ion gains electrons
Find oxidation state of manganese in kMnO4?
and reduced is the best oxidizing agent
- Overall charge equal zero and oxidation state
of k is +1 and oxygen is -2
So +1 + Mn -2 x 4 = 0 so Mn = +7

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 Summary

Electrolysis
Inert electrodes Active electrodes

Definition of electrolysis: Breaking down of ionic compound when molten or aqueous by passing

electricity

1. Inert electrodes: using graphite or platinum as electrodes. Electrolyte

Molten Aquoues

-The least reactive +ve ion form at cathode

- Metals form at cathode (-ve)
-The less number of atoms -ve ion form at
-Non-metals form at anode (+ve)
anode
- Electrolyte used up
- Electrolyte changed
- Form 2 products only
- Form 3 prodects only

Example: Pb2+ Br-

Cathode: Pb2+ 2e` -->Pb (Silver grey metal)
Andoe: 2Br-- 2e` --> Br2 (Red-brown metal) Green

Note

• Electrolysis of aqueous tin sulphate and zin sulphate are similar to copper sulphate.
• Equation of hydroxide: 4OH- - 4e` → 2H2O + O2
• Electrolysis of brine solution (NaCl) form 3 important chemicals: Cl2, H2, NaOH
• During electrolysis of NaCl, the pH of electrolyte increases (due to the formation of NaOH)
• During electrolysis of CuSO4 the pH of electrolyte decreases (due to the formation of H2SO4) and
the colour of electrolyte fades or gets darker.

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 Summary

*Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride:

Oxidation at anode: 4OH- -4e- → 2H2O + O2
Reduction at cathode: 2H+ +2e- → H2
Observation at anode: Bubbles of colorless gas (oxygen gas).
Observation at cathode: Bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).
Electrolyte: more concentrated sodium chloride.

2. Active electrodes: using metals as electrodes.

Purification electroplating

1. At anode: impure metal 1. At anode: pure metal

2. At cathode: pure metal 2. At cathode: object to be plated
3. Electrolyte: a solution of the metal to be 3. Electrolyte: a solution of the metal used
purfied in electroplating

Example: Purification of copper Example: Electroplating pan with silver

At anode impure Cu: decrease in size as Cu At anode Silver (decrease in size as Ag convert
convert into Cu2+ into Ag+)
At cathode pure Cu: increase in size as Cu At cathode pan (increase in size as Ag metal
formed)
metal formed
Electrolyte AgNO3: No change
Electrolyte CuSO4: No change

Note

• Electrolyte doesn’t change: as ions used in electroplating replaced from anode by the same rate.
• Electrolysis is an endothermic reaction.
• Electrons flow from anode to cathode in external circuit NOT FORM +VE TO –VE
• Ions flow throw electrolyte

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 Summary

Metal extraction

Ore Ore
Bauxite Heamtite
Method of extraction Row materials
Electrolysis Heamtite, Hot air, Coke, Lime stone
Steps Method of extraction
Aluminum oxide dissolve in molten Cryolite Reduction by Carbon in blast furnace
Aluminum formed at cathode and oxygen Steps
formed at anode
Hot air is blown through holes
Reactions take place:
C + O2 → CO2 (Exothermic reaction)
Al2O3 → 2Al3 + 3O2-
CO2 + C → 2CO
At cathode: Al3+ + 3e- → Al
2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2 OR Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe +
At anode: 2O2- - 4e- → O2
3CO2 (Redox reactions)
Gases formed at anode:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Oxygen (from electrolyte)
To remove impurities:
Carbon dioxide (from complete reaction)
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (Acid & base reaction)
Carbon monoxide (from incomplete reaction)
Finally, two layers formed at the bottom of the
Fluorine (from cryolite) furnace:
Slag (less dense)
Molten iron (more dense)
Function of coke:
Release energy
Reduce hematite to iron

Note that for aluminum extraction: Steel making

▪ Purpose of cryolite:
* Increase the conductivity.
* To reduce its melting point.
* Reduce cost.
▪ We must use more than 1 anode:
Due to the high temperature liberated
oxygen burns the anode and produces CO2
Iron produced by blast furnace contains about 3-5% Carbon
and other impurities Sulfur, Silicon, Phosphorus.
Materials used are: Oxygen, heat, calcium oxide
C + O2 → CO2 (g)
S + O2 → SO2 (g)
P + O2 → PO2 (s)
Si + O2 → SiO2(s) Then CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

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 Summary

Electrochemical cell
Converts chemical energy Exothermic No battery needed
into electrical energy

• Mechanism of electrochemical cell.

→ More reactive metal is the negative pole
→ Loses electrons and gets oxidized, since it has greater tendency to
form ions.
→ Electrons flow from more reactive metal to less reactive metal.
→ Zn – 2e- → Zn2+ , 2H+ + 2e- → H2
→ Less reactive metal does not lose electrons.
Increase difference between metals in reactivity
Q. How to increase electricity produced?
Increase concentration of electrolyte

• Observation when voltage increases (Gap/Conc.):

 More Hydrogen bubbles are seen to be produced
 Brightness of a bulb would increase

▪ Note that:
The solution used could be any acid e.g. sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid

• Fuel cell
Hydrogen fuel cells reactants are: Use data from the table to write the 3 metals
• Hydrogen (is a fuel used as a source of energy) in order of increasing of reactivity
• Oxygen (from the air) (-) (+)

• The product is water only. (That causes no pollution) Cell 1 X Y

• H2 loses electrons and O2 gains electrons Cell 2 Y Z

• Flow of electrons is from H2 to O2

From cell 1 X is more reactive than Y
• At the anode: 2H2 (g) – 4e- → 4H+ (oxidation)
From cell 2 Y is more reactive than Z
• At the cathode: O2 (g) + 4e- → 2O2- (reduction)
So the order is Z,Y,X

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 Summary

Rusting
Rust is the red-brown solid layer which forms on iron and steel.
Iron + Air Iron rust (Hydrated iron oxide)

2Fe + O2 Fe2O3 .xH2O

Salt (NaCl) increases the rate of rusting.
Better conductor

* To prevent rusting Prevent oxidation

• Methods of rust prevention: the main idea is to prevent oxidation

1. Painting
2. Oiling (Greasing)
3. Plating
4. Galvanization: coating iron or steel by zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron, iron doesn’t
lose electron, doesn’t oxidized so doesn’t rust.
5. Sacrificial protection (cell): more reactive metals oxidized in preference to iron by losing
electrons.

6. Cathodic protection (electrolysis): setting up an electrolysis using the iron or steel object as
cathode, while any other metals as anode. The power supply is needed to complete this form of
protection

CU Fe

Cu is contacted at anode so it lost electrons and oxidized, while Iron doesn’t lose e’ or oxidised

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 Summary

Chemical reaction and physical change

Physical change →A change in which the substances do not change identity, but changes from one
state to another. REVERSIBLE (No new product formed)
Chemical reaction → A change in which a new substance is formed.
1. Synthesis reaction: only formed one product (2Mg +O2 → 2MgO)

2.

Displacment reaction

Single Double

Metals Non-Metas Precipitation Neutralization

H2SO4 + 2KOH --> K2SO4 +

Zn +CuSO4 --> ZnSO4 +Cu Br2 + 2KI --> 2KBr +I2 K2SO4 +CaSO4 + 2KCl
2H2O

3. Thermal decomposition: Break down compounds by HEAT

Important notes:

o Group 1 metals have thermal stability

o As the reactivity increase the thermal decomposition decrease
o All chlorides are stable except ammonium chloride
o All Na, K compounds are stable except Nitrates

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 Summary

Rate of chemical reactions

• Reaction stars: Fast → Slow down → Stops
DUE TO High concentration Concentration of Reactants used up
of reactants reactants decreases (limiting reagent)
* Except aluminum oxide starts slow because it has a protective oxide layer.

Factors affecting rate of reaction:

Increasing the concentration ,increase the number

of particles per unit volume to produce more
Conecentration collision per unit time, hence the rate of the
reaction increase.

increasing pressure, the gas is compressed into

smaller volume the distance between particles
Pressure decreased and produced more frequent collision
per unit time, the faster rate of reaction

As temperature increases, the particles gain more energy and

move faster, so they collide more frequency with each other, as
Temprature more particles have enough energy to react. Thus, the rate of
Factors affect the

the reaction increases eventually.

The grater the surface are the fastest rate of reaction.

Surface area (Increasing surface area= decreasing the size)
rate

Presence of a catalyst in a reaction will increase the rate of

chemical reaction without being change or used up, as it lower
the activation energy by providing alternative route.

Catalyst Definition: Substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction

without being used up or changed at the end of the reaction.

To show that the catalyst is not used up in the reaction: measure

the mass of catalyst BFORE and AFTER the reaction.

Light Photochemical reaction.

Increasing the speed of stirring increases kinetic energy of

particles so the speed of particles increases, which leads to
Stirring increase the chances of collision, thus the rate of reaction
increases.

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 Summary

Methods to measure rate of chemical reaction:

1. Monitoring the decrease in reactants WITH TIME. 2. Monitoring the increase in products with time.

Reasons for differences in rates.

• Between B and C
Curve C has:
1. Higher temperature
Or
2. More surface area
Or
3. Catalyst
Or
4. Higher concentration of reaction in excess

•Between B and A
Curve A has:
Higher concentration / Mass of reaction in limited factor

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 Summary

Chemistry and energy

Endothermic Exothermic
• H = +ve • H= -ve
• Activation energy > Energy released • Activation energy< Energy released
• Energy taken in • Energy is given out
• Temperature decreases • Temperature increases
• EG: thermal decomposition and • EG: Combustion and condensation
evaporation (Group 1 metals + water)

We calculate Net Energy (Delta H) = Energy in from bond breaking – Energy out of bond formation
As to determine if reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
Example:
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
(H—H + Cl—Cl) → 2x (H—Cl)
H—H Cl—Cl H—Cl
436KJ 242KJ 431KJ
You have to break H—H and Cl—Cl to start the reaction,
So, the energy IN (Bonds Broken) = 436+242=678KJ
Energy release due to the bond formation,
So, the energy out (Bonds formed) = 2x431=862KJ
H (energy in-energy Out) = 678-862= -1840 KJ hence it is exothermic

Note that:

• We multiply the bond energy by the mole ratio

(Number beside the chemical) as to get the total
energy.

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 Summary

Reversible reactions
Forward

A+B C+D
Backward

Equilibrium→ Rate of forward reaction equal rate of backward reaction without changing in
concentration.

Factors that affect rate of reaction:

1. Concentration
• Increasing concentration of reactants shift equilibrium forward.
• Increasing concentration of products shift equilibrium backward.
2. Pressure
• Increasing pressure shift equilibrium in direction of less moles Note: Pressure affects gasses ONLY

4 2
E.G N2+3H2 2NH3

Pressure → Forward (less Moles)

Pressure → Backward (more Moles)

3. Temperature Endo

A+B C+D

Exo

Temperature → Endo (needs heat) → Forward

Temperature → Exo → backward

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 Summary

Air and water

❖ Water
Test
1- Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate
(White to Blue)
2- Anhydrous cobalet (II) chloride
(Blue to Pink) Puirty Test
Uses
Boiling point 100 C
1. Solvent
Freezing ponit 0 C
2. Coolant
3. Manfacture of ethanol
Natural
Treatment
1- filtration Sources • Dissolved oxygen
large insoluble substance
• Metal compounds
2- Sedmintation
-Natural • Plastics
Small insoluble substance
3- Use of carbon
Water -Artificial •
•
Sewage
Harmful
microbes
Remove odor and taste
• Nitrated and
4- chlorination
phosphate
kill bacteria
Pure water has a sharp melting and boiling point (test for purity of water)

Beneficial Harmful
Incomplete combustion of fuels
Dissolved oxygen Plastics
for aquatic life are polymers
harm aquatic life

Some of Metal compounds

are toxic
Metal compounds e.g.
provide essential minerals for life lead can cause liver and kidney damage
e.g Mercury damage the nervous system
Calcium salts Nitrates and Phosphates
Magnesium salts These fertilizers when enter the waterways, such
as streams and rivers they cause a rapid growth
of algea.

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 Summary

❖ Air
Mixture of:

N2 O2 Ar CO2 Other gases

(78%) (21%) (0.9-1%) (0.04%)

To separate oxygen and nitrogen:

1- Liquefied the air 2-Fractional distillation

Properties
. Colourless gas Properties
. Slightly soluble in water . Colourless and Odourless gas
Test . Unreactive
Glowing splint . Diatomic
Oxygen (Relight)
Nitrogen
Uses
Uses . Making ammonia in haber process
.Welding . Making nitric acid
. Breathing in hospitals . Making fertilizers
. Converting iron to steel

Pollutant Its source Harmful effect Solution

Prevents blood from Catalytic converter:
Incomplete combustion of
Carbon monoxide carrying oxygen &
fuels
Poisonous gas. Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon
dioxide

2CO + O2 → 2CO2
Reaction between
nitrogen and oxygen At Causes acid rain Nitrogen oxide is reduced to nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen high temperature and Brown fumes prevent
electric spark in the car sunlight 2NO → N2 + O2
engines
Over all equation
2NO + 2CO → 2CO2 + N2

Burning of fossil fuels

Sulphur dioxide which contain Sulphur Main cause of acid rain
like coal

Burning petrol which Damage to brain causing

Lead compounds
contains lead additives
Inefficient combustion of
Unburnt Hydrocarbon
petrol
Remove lead before burning petrol
mental retardation
Increases the risk of Catalytic converter:
cancer CH4+ 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

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 Summary

Acid rain harmful effects:

1. Acid rain damages trees and limestone buildings.

2. Acid rain makes lakes too acidic for fish to live in.
3. Acid rain removes minerals from soil and increases the acidity of the soil.
Calcium oxide used in desulfarisation of flue gases.
Calcium oxide (base) neutralised sulfur dioxide (acid) present in flue gas.

• Greenhouse gases: • Sources of methane: • Sources of carbon dioxide:

Methane 1- Burning of fossil fuels
Produced by the decomposition of
Carbon dioxide 2- Respiration
vegetation and waste gases from
3- Thermal decomposition of
digestion in animals.
CaCO3

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Non-metals
Sulphur Sulphuric Carbon
Name Chlorine Hydrogen Ammonia Sulphur
dioxide acid dioxide
Colorless and
Low density Acidic oxide
Properties Green gas
Diatomic
Weak base Yellow solid
Poisonous
odourless gas
Denser than air
From crude oil
By the reaction
by cracking
By electrolysis between an acid
Production By the Haber - By burning Made by the
of brine and a carbonate
/Sources solution
By electrolysis process Sulphur in air contact process
salt such as
of brine
calcium carbonate
solution
It turns
damp red
litmus paper Acidified
Using a bright
into blue potassium
splint,
Bleaches damp OR manganete Lime water turns
Test litmus paper
hydrogen
It forms (VII) turns from milky
burns with a
white fumes purple to
pop sound
with colourless
hydrogen
chloride gas

Conc H2SO4
1.Bleaching
Making 1.detergents
agent 1.Used as a
1. making Sulphur 2. Drying
non-pollutant
fertilizers dioxide that 3.agent 1.fire
2.Water source of
Uses treatment to energy
NPK is used in - Dyes extinguishers
2. making making 2.dry ice
kill microbes 2. Making
nitric acid sulphuric Dilute H2SO4
ammonia
acid batteries and
3.Making HCl
fertilisers

Fluorine
(gas)

Chlorine
(gas) Reactivity decreses
Group (VII) &
Halogens Bromine Melting , Boiling points and Density
Exist as diatomic (liquid) increases
&
Iodine Colour becomes darker
(solid)

Astatine
(solid)

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 Summary

Name
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Oxide (CaO)
Group 8 (VIII)
(CaCO3)
1. Making cement • Called Noble gases
2. Making glass 1. Neutralize soil acidity • Exist as Mono-atomic
Uses
3. Remove impurities in 2. Neutralize acidic • Unreactive (Complete outer shell)
the blast furnace gases and industrial • He : Used in filling balloons
4. Making lime and acidic waste
• Ar : used in filling light bulb
slaked lime

Production of ammonia by the Haber process:

200 atm.pressure
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
450°C/iron (catalyst)
The reaction is exothermic and reversible.

Reaction conditions: Temperature: 450 °C

Pressure: 200 atm

Atmospheres Catalyst: Iron

− The temperature (450 °C) is high enough for fast (economic) rate of reaction.
− If the temperature is decreased, the reaction would be slow.
− Using iron as a catalyst and temperature 450 °C gives high yield with economic rate.
− Pressure 200 atmospheres is used to obtain high yield of ammonia as the pressure favors the side with
less number of moles which is the ammonia.

Sulphuric acid is made by the contact process:

Step 1: Sulphur reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide. S+O2 → SO2
450°C/l-2atmophere
−

Step 2: Sulphur dioxide + oxygen Sulphur trioxide

Vanadium(V) oxide
450°C/l-2atmophere
2SO2 + O2 V2O5
2SO3
Reaction conditions: Temperature: 450 °C
Catalyst: Vanadium (v) oxide
Pressure: 2 atmospheres (for circulation of gases)
Step 3: Sulphur trioxide + sulphuric acid → oleum
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
Step 4: Oleum + water → sulphuric acid
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
- In reaction of step 3, SO3 is dissolved in 98% concentration sulphuric acid and not in water, in
order to prevent explosions, as this reaction is explosive.
- No need for high pressure because yield of SO3 is high enough at 2 atm

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