MODULE 5:

Permeability and Seepage

Prepared by: Victor Czar A. Austria

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module, students will be able to:
❖ Design filters using the permeability and seepage parameters

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
❖ Explain terms used in permeability and seepage.
❖ Solve problems on permeability and seepage.
❖ Apply permeability and seepage in filter design.

MODULE OVERVIEW:
❖ This module is designed to explain permeability and seepage. It also includes the
application of permeability and seepage in filter design.
 Lecture
Basic Hydrogeology
5.1.

5.1.1. Introduction
Importance of Hydrogeology in Geotechnical Engineering:
• moving water affects the properties and behavior of soil and can influence both
construction operations and the performance of completed construction
• permeability and capillary action in soil relates to the type and manner of water
movement
• drainage, seepage, and frost heave relate to practical effects of water
movement
• soil and groundwater contamination expand on environmental effects and
concern
Wi-FI} 8dry

0880T€:
=
5.1.2. Hydrologic Cycle
− the cycle of changes and
movements that surface water
and shallow groundwater
repeatedly passes through.
5.1.3. Hydrogeology
• is the study of the groundwater
phase of the hydrologic cycle
t
tho
(both surface and subsurface)
related to the effects of
geophysical features of soil and
rock formations.
Groundwater
– may be either relatively stationary or mobile
(that is, underground flow is occurring)
– conditions for stationary groundwater:
• phreatic surface is at similar elevation over a
large area or when adjacent to a large body of
water
• where the top boundary of a subsurface soil or
rock layer restricts the entry of water and
creates a buried basin in which the collected
groundwater is prevented from escaping via
movement through the buried soil or rock
(perched water table)
– groundwater tends to be mobile where strata of
soil or rock have porous characteristics, moving
primarily under the effect of gravity
 Lecture
Permeability
5.2.

5.2.1. Introduction
One of the major physical parameters of a soil that controls the rate of
seepage through it is hydraulic conductivity, otherwise known as the coefficient of
permeability. In this chapter, we will study the following:
Ki – Definition of hydraulic conductivity and its magnitude in various soils
– Laboratory determination of hydraulic conductivity
– Empirical relationship to estimate hydraulic conductivity
i.
-

:
, . Kx
– Equivalent hydraulic conductivity in stratified soil based on the direction of the
flow of water
. – Hydraulic conductivity determination from field tests

k -

coefficient of permeability
5.2.2. Bernoulli’s Equation
Mathematically, the Bernoulli Theorem expresses the energy head possessed by a body of
water at any position as

v2 p
h= + +z
2g 
h = energy head based on total or absolute hydraulic head, possessed by a body of water
at an elevated location (units are length, L)
v = flow velocity (L/T)
g = acceleration of gravity (L/T2)
p = fluid pressure at any point in the body of water (F/L2)
 = unit weight of water (F/L3)
z = a gravitational position potential head indicating the vertical distance
between an arbitrary reference datum and the point where pressure p is
measured (L)
 1191
If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow
of water through a porous soil medium, the term
containing the velocity head can be neglected
because the seepage velocity is small, and the
total head at any point can be adequately
represented by
q@

O
𝑝
O ℎ = +𝑍

1. i
𝛾 O
The loss of head between two points, A and B,
can be given by

:-.
The pressure difference, vp, causing flow to continue between the two locations, becomes,
approximately,
p = (h1 - h2)

The head loss, ∆h, can be expressed in a nondimensional form as,

∆ℎ
𝑖=
𝐿

Where:
i = hydraulic gradient
L = distance between points, the length of flow over which
the loss of head occured
 In general, the variation of the
velocity, v, with the hydraulic gradient, i,
is as shown in the figure. This figure is
divided into three zones:

1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)

2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
5.2.3. Darcy’s Law
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity of water through saturated
soils, which may be expressed as

v = ki

Where:
v = discharge velocity, which is the quanity of water
flowing in unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional
area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow
k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as the
coefficient of permeability)

In the equation, v is the discharge velocity of water based on the gross cross-sectional area of
the soil. However, the actual velocity of water (that is, the seepage velocity) through the void spaces
is greater than v.
 A relationship between the discharge velocity and the seepage velocity can be derived by referring to the
figure, which shows a soil of length L with a gross cross-sectional area A. If the quantity of water flowing
through the soil in unit time is q, then

qfm%)
'

--B
q = vA = Avvs

Where:
vs = seepage velocity
Av = area of void in the cross section of the specimen
 V1 ) / tee]
'
'
Art As vs v

)
A :
:
:

q=vA=v( Art AD

{ g.
Arvs

✓ ( Art As)
vi. viii.
Av
: Av

Asif;-)
"
Vs
=V(t £
4- from
←

module 2

↳
Alma) ✗ Llm)
A
:&
v( Vr )
In
Vs + Vs
Vs
:
=

Vv
 She also proposed that the quantity of water flowing through the soil in a given period was
proportional to the soil area normal to the direction of flow and the difference in water levels, and
inversely proportional to the length of soil through which flow took place.

( mys
Q h x A h x A
Q  h x A = (a constant) discharge
h x A )(2.1 - 7)

¥=i
t  L = (a constant) L (2.1 - 7)
t L L
velocity ( mls )
Q Q
t t g.
(h)( A)
= k= k (h)( A)
LL , (2.1 (2.1
- 8) - 8)

The ratio of ∆h/L is termed the hydraulic gradient, i, and therefore,

Q
= q = kiA
t
9. Kitt
5.2.4. Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity is a physical property which measures the ability of the material to
transmit fluid through pore spaces and fractures in the presence of an applied hydraulic gradient. The
hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore size distribution, grain-
size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles, and degree of soil saturation.

Table 5.1. Typical Values of Hydraulic Conductivity of

The value of hydraulic Saturated Soils
conductivity (k) varies widely for
different soils. Some typical values
for saturated soils are given in Table
5.1. The hydraulic conductivity of
unsaturated soils is lower and
increases rapidly with the degree of
saturation.

080
¥
 The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the properties of the fluid flowing
through it by the equation

where:
k = coefficient of permeability
 = unit weight of fluid, kN/m3, pcf
ad = absolute or dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Pasec
(1 Pa = 1 N/m2) or poise or centipoise (cp) (1 poise = 1
g/cmsec or 0.1 Pasec); or lbsec/ft2
k = kinematic viscosity, cm2/sec, ft2/sec
5.2.5. Permeability, K
– the ability of water (or other fluid) to flow through a soil by traveling through the void
spaces.
– flow is occurring through the void spaces between particles and not actually through
the particles themselves

Figure 5.7. Schematic diagram indicating manner

in which water flows through soil.
 Rt Radius
The equation for permeability can be expressed as,
:
Hydraulic
K = CsRH2n

Where:
Cs = shape factor, dimensionless
n = porosity, dimensionless
K = L2 or area

• applicable only to the material through which flow can occur

• it reflects the effect of the size, shape, and number of flow channels, and is independent
of any fluid properties
• K, for soil deposits is expressed in darcys (1 darcy = 9.88 x 10-13 m2 or 1.062 x 10-11 ft2)
5.2.6. Hydraulic Radius, RH
The hydraulic radius is one of the main properties that
control the amount of fluid discharge of a channel and its
ability to move sediments. This is a measure of channel
flow efficiency, is defined as the ratio of the cross-
sectional area of fluid flow, A, to the length of the wetted
perimeter.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑅𝐻 =
=
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Example 5.1. The relationship expressed by Eq. – 5.16 permits a soil's coefficient of permeability
(hydraulic conductivity) to be determined with fluids other than water if the value of K, or k for water is
known. For example, when compared to water ( = 9.8 x 103 N/m3, absolute viscosity at 20 C equal to 1
x 10-3 Pasec), the coefficient of permeability (hydraulic conductivity) for a gasoline (Gg = 0.72 and
whose absolute viscosity is 0.337 x 10-3 Pasec)
kg ( ratio of wet of permeability of gasoline
.
and water
ratio : kg /Kw
Kw

.lk/W.9i-oD
}
"" "
K "
naawikla.1×10.3
to/103Mm7 = K (9.8×106)
pa.ge ,
419.8×107
ÑmD=k(
>

kg.sk
89
=k( 0.72×9.8×10 v0.9 ✗ )
10
Nadlg) 0.337×10 -3Pa -
see
=
2.13165
 Lecture
Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
5.3.
Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of
soil— the constant-head test and the falling-head test. A brief description of each
follow.

5.3.1. Constant-Head Test

A typical arrangement of the constant-head permeability test is shown in Figure
5.9. In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a
way that the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant
during the test period. After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a
graduated flask for a known duration. The total volume of water collected may be
expressed as

Q = Avt = A(ki)t
 Where:
Q = volume of water collected
v = discharge velocity
A = area of cross section of the soil specimen
t = duration of water collection
0
me
Q : Art =
Alki)t
I
i.
F-
rearranging
,Aht
Q : Ak ←

k= ¥!At Figure 5.9. Constant Head Permeability Test

 ¥
5.3.2. Falling-Head Test
A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability
test is shown in Figure 5.10. Water from a standpipe flows
through the soil. The initial head difference h1 at time t = 0 is
recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the soil
specimen such that the final head difference at time t = t2 is
h2.

The rate of flow of the water through the specimen at any

time t can be given by,

Where:
0
q = flow rate
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
fat :[¥1 :-) section of standpipe
0
h, a =
cross -

A : cross -

section of soil specimen

t :

a¥ loose hn÷

K : 2. 303.9h 10910¥
At
Example 5.2. In a laboratory, a constant-head permeability test is performed on a sample of
granular soil. The test setup is as indicated in Fig. 5.9. The length of the soil is 15 cm, and the cross-
sectional area is 10 cm2. If a 24 ml (or 24 cm3) volume of water passes through the soil sample in a
3-minute period, when h is 30 cm, compute the coefficient of permeability.

Given : QL }
24cm ( 15cm) 0-4 CM /min
k , =

NomYl3oomX 13min)
±
}
Q : 24cm AAH
L 15am

/ ion (!%¥)
:

10mm
A : 10cm
'
K= 0.40m€
mix
3min
t
:

Ah : 30cm
K = = 0.066667 MM
/ see
Example 5.3. Refer to the constant-head permeability test arrangement shown in Figure 5.9.
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec if a test gives these values:

L = 30 cm
i :&
A = 177 cm2
• h = 50 cm h : it
Water collected in a period of 5 minutes = 350 cm3

K : QL 3501303 =
0.23728cm / min
177650) (s)
=

Aht

( Longino )
0.237280M =
0.0039546660m /see
µ :

mlin
 / 1000118D) 10910 ( Fff )
(200)
to
K : 2.303

Example 5.4. For a falling-head permeability test, K : 0.022707 /

mm see

the following values are given:

Km
(fifmmm)
Length of specimen = 200 mm µ : 0.022707
Area of soil specimen = 1000 mm2 see
Area of standpipe = 40 mm2
he Head difference at time t = 0 = 500 mm
10-3 /see
1

Head difference at time t = 180 sec = 300 mm om

2.2707 ×
K
" =

Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in

cm/sec.

K =
2.303
9µF log no
h2
 Example 5.5. A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer, as shown in the figure.
With k = 5.3 x 10-5 m/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage through it in m3/hr/m
width if H = 3m and a = 8°.
'S

g-
. Kitt K = 5.3×10

A = bit ←

☒ tan °o° tan " sin 8

'

1-
=

9¥
••

i ¥,
= =

%
-
-
- -
1h
1h
• . •

1- : ✗ tanti
"
3m • -

-
-
-

I
- ,

I 1
Ésoi
;.____y-%s__=-,.
.
✗
 9.
=
KIA .
Hsin 8) (3ws8m)
÷
" "">
a;s*é%in•X
2. 1913169 5m31sec
-

9.
=
✗ 10

ffmin- ftp.r-min)
's

2.1913169×10 m3
g.
=

set

of = 0.078889 m%r
 Lecture
Directional Variation of Permeability
5.4.

l
5.4.1. Laminar Flow 11
– indicates that adjacent paths of water particles are
parallel, even when changing direction, and the
paths never cross.
'
b /
1
𝑖𝑛 𝐻 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑘𝐻 𝑒𝑞 =෍ 𝑘1 𝐻1 + 𝑘2 𝐻2 +. . . 𝑘𝑛 𝐻𝑛
𝐻X
3 O
𝐻
𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑘𝑉 𝑒𝑞 =෍ n
=
NO Of
𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻 ,

+ +. . . 𝑛 strata
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
0
o
o
5.4.2.2. Non-homogeneous Unconfined Aquifer

Figure 5.13. Non-homogeneous Unconfined Aquifer

 Example 5.6. Confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer shown in the figure. Given the
following: D1 = 59m, D2 = 41m, H1 = 45m, H2 = 33m, K1 = 35m/day, K2 = 27m/day and L = im
2m.
a. Calculate the coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction 2km
b. Calculate the hydraulic gradient
c. Calculate the flow of water from one stream to another per meter width

a. Keqfnj :{ ¥ / KH , tkzltzt . . .. .
knltn)

))
"

too (35/45)+27/33
= 31.6154m /day A. 78m

D" gq 41
:D
-

b. i
-
'

211000 )
=

I =
0.009
 D
;D ID
' '

Kitt a
=

9
=
c.

31.6154/0.0097/592+41 (D)
14.2269ms /day
q
:

/ 19¥21 !¥m*) / )
norms India
9=14 -

60sec
otay

1.6466 ✗ to
-

4m31sec
of
=
 Example 5.7. A layered soil is shown in the figure has the
properties of:

H1 = 1.5 m k1 = 10-4 cm/sec

H2 = 3 m k2 = 3.2 x 10-2 cm/sec
H3 = 2 m k3 = 4.1 x 10-5 cm/sec
* o.sn
Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity, kh /
kv.
:{ k Hi t Kz Ha t kz Hz)
¥(
9. kµ ,

kit Is ((10-4)/1.5) 13.2×10 2) (3) (4.1×10-5) (D)

-

= t
+

Kit :
0.014804923 cm/see
?⃝
 H
b. Ku =

Hi

i.
+ +
÷ .

Kv
6.5in
=

2mL
t.sn/t3m/-1+4.1×10-5
"
10 3.2×10

Kv = 1.0176×10-4 cm /see

c. Kit 0.014804923
0176×10-4
=

1-
Kv

ratio =
145.4886
Example 5.8. A confined aquifer has a source of recharge as shown in the figure. The hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifer is 40 m/day and its porosity is 0.25. The piezometric head in two wells
1000m apart is 65m and 60m respectively. The average thickness of the aquifer is 25m and its
average width is 4km.
a. Compute the rate of flow through the aquifer in m3/day.
b. Compute the seepage velocity.
c. Compute the time of travel from the head of aquifer to a point 3 km from the downstream in days.
Given :

K :
Tom /day
65m
H ,
=

n
:
0.25
Az : 60m

L
= 1000m

µ% A- bh .

A
=

=
(4×1000)/25
100,000 m2
25m
g. q=kiA= to
(65,00-060)/100,0007 c. time travel for ,
D= 3km

9=20,000 m3 /day V :

F- ; t =

F-
W' °O°
(3×1000) ml
b. V=
F- =

100,000
f.
0.80 Hairy
✓ =
0.2M / day
b- = 3.750 days
0.2
Vs :# =

0 .
25

Vs : 0.8m /day
 Example 5.9. Figure below shows three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm
x 100 mm in cross section. Water is supplied to maintain a constant-head
difference of 300 mm cross the sample. The hydraulic conductivities of the
soils in the direction of flow through them are as follows: em 1hr
>

Soil k (cm/sec)
A 10-2
B 3 x 10-3

#
C 4.9 x 10-4

Kv
450mm
:
H =

i =

¥ ?¥- = = 0.66667

10,000 MMZ
IT mm

bh
=
A- 100 100
= '
×
'
H=
it
Cms /hr
+
+1¥ ,

450
kV =

15-0+15-0 ,

10
"
3×10-3 4.9×10-4

Kv = 1. 2125×10-3 cm /see

q=kiA
9=1.2125×10-3 (0-66667)/10,000 MMX /
(6,0%41) ( 6,011¥)= cmYhr
>

g--0.08083374cm 291.001464
say
Lecture
Effects of Soil Type and Empirical Relationship
5.5.

5.5.1. Effects of Soil Type

– coarser soils have greater values of k than fine-grained soils
– the variation in flow is caused by the friction developed at the conduit wall and
the viscous friction developed in the moving fluid
– for fine-grained soils: lines of flow are physically close to the "wall of the
conduit" and therefore only low velocity flows occur
– for clays: flow is further hampered because some of the water in the voids is
held, or adsorbed, to the clay particles, reducing the flow area and further
restricting flow

8888m
 5.5.2. Empirical Relationships
5.5.2.1. for uniform sands in relatively loose condition 5.5.2.3. for sands where Cu  10

k = (D102)(105) k = (1.5 to 3)(3.5) (D15)2

k - permeability rate in mm/sec k - permeability rate in mm/sec

D10 - 10 percent particle size in mm D15 - 15 percent particle size in mm

5.5.2.2. for dense or compacted sands 5.5.2.4. for loose sands where Cu  10

k = 3.5 (D15)2 k = (5 to 15) (3.5) (D15)2

k - permeability rate in mm/sec k - permeability rate in mm/sec

D15 - 15 percent particle size in mm D15 - 15 percent particle size in mm
 Lecture
Drainage
5.6.

5.6.1. Drainage
Benefits:
– the action or method of removing
a. During construction:
subsurface water by means of channels,
• better working conditions for workers and equipment
pipes or geosynthetics to render the area
• proper construction can be achieved
or structure useful.
a. After construction:
Purposes:
• protection of structure from erosive effects of flowing
a. To handle subsurface water encountered
groundwater like rendering foundation unstable
during construction sequence.
• maintaining usability of interior portions of structure
b. To handle subsurface water after
located below groundwater elevation.
construction so that the completed facility is
not damaged nor its usefulness
impaired.
5.6.2. Drainage During Construction
– it is understood that excavations extend below water
table thus dewatering procedures will be required to
keep the work area dry.

Dewatering – the procedure used to remove water from

construction area, such as pumping from an excavation or
location where water covers the planned working surface;
the procedure used to lower the groundwater table to
obtain a “dry” area in the vicinity of an excavation that
would otherwise extend below water.

a. Dewatering Shallow Excavations

Type of soil: coarse
Method: open drainage or interceptor ditches
b. Dewatering Intermediate Depths
Type of soil: coarse grained to silty
Depth: more than 1 meter or a few feet below
groundwater level

Methods employed:
b.1. Well points – the perforated end section of a
well pipe that permits the groundwater to be drawn
into the pipe for pumping. but
Depth: 9 meters i f

I'm
Installation: in drilled holes or by jetting
b.2. Vacuum dewatering – the application
of vacuum to the piping system to
satisfactorily dewater silty soils because
capillary forces tend to hold the pore water.
Type of soil: silt
Height of lift: 5 – 6 meters

but
b.3. Electro – Osmosis
Type of soil: fine silts, clay, or coarse-grained-fine-grained
mixtures 25% (+ 0.002 mm)

Basic principle:
A well or well point is made the cathode, pore water will
then migrate toward the negative electrode (cathode).
Collected water drained from the soil can be removed by
pumping as with the conventional well-point system.

Explanation:
Groundwater has cations (positive ions) which are the
dissolved minerals. The cations concentrate around the
negatively charged surface of clay particles to satisfy the
electrical charge in the particle. These cations, in turn,
attract the negative “end” of dipole water molecules. As
the cations are drawn to the cathode, water molecules
held to the cation follow.
c. Deep Drainage
- are conditions where excavations extend deep below
groundwater table or penetrate through a deep permeable
stratum

Solution: Deep wells or deep well pumps are used

1. Deep wells are frequently large diameter (600 mm)
drilled holes with perforated protective casing installed
2. Deep well pumps are installed inside the casing near
the bottom.
3. Coarse filter material is placed between the outside of
the casing near the bottom.

0
It 600mm
 beotextio)

d. Consolidation Drainage
– a subsurface drainage of fine-grained soils
achieved by imposing a surface load onto an area
oomts
±¥É
resulting to decrease in water content followed by
increase in shear strength.

Consolidation – refers to the process by which

✓
compression of newly stressed clay soil occurs
simultaneously with the expulsion of water present in
the soil void spaces.

Three conditions that take place simultaneously:

1. reduction in volume
2. expulsion of water in the void spaces
3. transfer of load from water to soil particles
5.6.3. Drainage After Construction

Purposes:
1. to obtain proper use of the structure
2. to protect the structure from damage

Disadvantages for maintaining the dewatering methods during construction:

1. the equipment or methods may interfere with the usefulness of the
finished project
2. too expensive for the long-term use
3. impractical

Desirable feature of subaqueous structures:

Seams and joints should be provided with water stops and/or to have the
structure built with no seams or joints whenever possible.
Drainage structures after construction:
a. Foundation Drains
- conventionally placed around the building
exterior at footing level and adjacent to the
footing
- it may also be necessary to place on the
interior side if there is concern over the ability
of the exterior drain to handle the expected
groundwater.
- it may also be necessary to place interceptor
drains at some short distance from the
building at an elevation higher than the
footings so that the water table is lowered in
stags if you have high water table.
b. Blanket Drains
- a blanket or layer of filter material placed
beneath the floor slab to provide a highly
permeable drainage path for removal of
groundwater acting against the bottom of the
slab

Purpose:
To reduce uplift pressure and the possibility
for seepage to occur through the floor.
 c. Interceptor Drains
- are interceptor trench drains located parallel to the
shoulder of paved highways and airfield runway.

Purposes:
1. To lower the groundwater table beneath the pavement
to permit easy lateral drainage for water finding its way
into the coarse base material.
2. To keep the base and subgrade soils dry so that they
will maintain high strength and stability
3. To prevent excess pore water pressures from building
up in the subgrade soils.
4. To provide a means for disposal of surface and near-
surface water as well as underground flow that enters
the roadway from the side areas.
 Lecture
Flow Nets
5.7.

5.7.1 Flow nets

µ
– are a pictorial method of studying the path
that moving water flows.
hh
– are composed of flow lines and
equipotential lines drawn together that
form mesh strands

Flow lines – lines representing the path the

water flows
Equipotential lines – lines connecting points in
the flow lines that are of equal total energy
head.
:*
- Flow line
line
-
Equipotential
Conditions requiring flow nets:
a. where the zones of flow or directions of flow are irregular
b. where water enters and escapes from a permeable zone of soil by traveling a short
distance
c. where the flow boundaries are not well defined (a boundary being the separation
between where flow does and does not occur)
– In seepage analysis, flow nets can be drawn with as many flow lines as desired.
The number of equipotential lines will be determined by the number of flow lines
selected
– It is recommended to use fewest flow lines that still permit reasonable depiction of
the flow path along the boundaries and within the soil mass.
 Nf
q = khw 
 Nd

i
(width)


k – coefficient of permeability appropriate to the soil

mass
hw – elevation difference between energy head at
upstream and downstream limits of the flow net
Nf – number of flow lines for the flow net, a channel
being the zone between adjacent flow lines
Nd – number of equipotential drops for the flow net, a
drop being the zone between adjacent equipotential
lines
width – width of the structure or soil zone involved, a
distance perpendicular to the cross section or
perpendicular to the plane of the flow net.
5.7.2 Flow in Anisotropic Soil
𝑁𝑓
𝑞=𝐻 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧
It can be defined as difference in one 𝑁𝑑
soil physical property along different
Where:
direction. Anisotropic soil does not have the
k = coefficient of permeability
same physical properties when direction of
H = head
measurement is changed.
Nd = number of flow channels/ No. of flow lines – 1
Nf = number of equipotential lines – 1
To account for soil anisotropy with
respect to hydraulic conductivity, we must
Note that when flow nets are drawn in transformed
modify the flow net construction. The rate of
sections (in anisotropic soils), the flow lines and the
seepage per unit length can be calculated by
equipotential lines are orthogonal. However, when they
modifying
are redrawn in a true section, these lines are not at right
angles to each other.
 Example 5.10. The section of sheet pile is shown in the figure. The coefficient of permeability of the soil s
k = 4.2 x 10^-3 m/s. Determine the seepage into the downstream side per meter length of sheet pile.

khw # lwidth) width im -_

9 -_ ;

Np=4 ; Np : 8
5m
7. 2
:

hw =

:(4.1×10-31 )fsm)(÷)( ) 1m

,
q
i. .
.
70
0.0105 m%ee
q= 4 5
y
?⃝
 Thanks!
For questions and concerns, e-mail me
at vcaustria@psu.palawan.edu.ph or
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Classroom.