MODULE 7: PERMEABILITY

INTRODUCTION
Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which water can flow
from points of high energy to points of low energy. The study of the flow of water through
permeable soil media is important in soil mechanics. It is necessary for estimating the quantity of
underground seepage under various hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems involving the
pumping of water for underground construction, and for making stability analyses of earth dams
and earth-retaining structures that are subject to seepage forces.

One of the major physical parameters of a soil that controls the rate of seepage through it is
hydraulic conductivity, otherwise known as the coefficient of permeability.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Figure 7.1 shows the relationship among pressure, elevation, and total heads for the flow of water
through soil. Open standpipes called piezometers are installed at points A and B. The levels to
which water rises in the piezometer tubes situated at points A and B are known as the piezometric
levels of points A and B, respectively. The pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical
column of water in the piezometer installed at that point.

The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be given by

𝑢𝐴 𝑢𝐵
∆ℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = ( + 𝑍𝐴 ) − ( + 𝑍𝐵 ) (7.1)
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

The head loss, ∆ℎ, can be expressed in a nondimensional form as

∆ℎ
𝑖= (7.2)
𝐿
where
𝑖 = hydraulic gradient
𝐿 = distance between points A and B—that is, the length of flow over which the loss of head
occurred

Figure 7.1 Pressure, elevation, and total heads for flow of water through soil

In general, the variation of the velocity v with the hydraulic gradient 𝑖 is as shown in Figure 7.2.
This figure is divided into three zones:
1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)
2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)

When the hydraulic gradient is increased gradually, the flow remains laminar in Zones I and II,
and the velocity, v, bears a linear relationship to the hydraulic gradient. At a higher hydraulic
gradient, the flow becomes turbulent (Zone III). When the hydraulic gradient is decreased, laminar
flow conditions exist only in Zone I.
 Figure 7.2 Nature of variation of 𝒗 with hydraulic gradient, 𝒊

In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces can be considered laminar; thus,
𝑣∝𝑖 (7.3)

DARCY’S LAW
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity of water through saturated
soils, which may be expressed as
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 (7.4)
where
𝑣 = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit time through a unit gross
cross-sectional area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow
𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as the coefficient of permeability)

This equation was based primarily on Darcy’s observations about the flow of water through clean
sands. Note that Eq. (7.4) is similar to Eq. (7.3); both are valid for laminar flow conditions and
applicable for a wide range of soils.

In Eq. (7.4), 𝑣 is the discharge velocity of water based on the gross cross-sectional area of the
soil. However, the actual velocity of water (that is, the seepage velocity) through the void spaces
is greater than 𝑣. A relationship between the discharge velocity and the seepage velocity can be
derived by referring to Figure 7.3, which shows a soil of length 𝐿 with a gross cross-sectional area
𝐴. If the quantity of water flowing through the soil in unit time is 𝑞, then
𝑞 = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑠 (7.5)

where
𝑣𝑠 = seepage velocity
𝐴𝑣 = area of void in the cross section of the specimen

However,
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 (7.6)

where
𝐴𝑠 = area of soil solids in the cross section of the specimen.

Combining Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6) gives

𝑞 = (𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 )𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑠
or
(𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 )𝑣 (𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 )𝑣𝐿 (𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑠 )𝑣
𝑣𝑠 = = = (7.7)
𝐴𝑣 𝐴𝑣 𝐿 𝑉𝑣

where
𝑉𝑣 = volume of voids in the specimen
𝑉𝑠 = volume of soil solids in the specimen
Equation (7.7) can be rewritten as
𝑉
1 + ( 𝑉𝑣 ) 1+𝑒 𝑣
𝑠
𝑣𝑠 = [ ]𝑣 = ( )𝑣 = (7.8)
𝑉𝑣 𝑒 𝑛
𝑉𝑠

where
𝑒 = void ratio
𝑛 = porosity

Figure 7.3 Derivation of Eq. (7.8)

Darcy’s law as defined by Eq. (7.4) implies that the discharge velocity 𝑣 bears a linear relationship
to the hydraulic gradient 𝑖 and passes through the origin as shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4 Variation of discharge velocity with hydraulic gradient in clay

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI units.

The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore-size
distribution, grain-size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles, and degree of soil
saturation. In clayey soils, structure plays an important role in hydraulic conductivity. Other major
factors that affect the permeability of clays are the ionic concentration and the thickness of layers
of water held to the clay particles.

The value of hydraulic conductivity (𝑘) varies widely for different soils. Some typical values for
saturated soils are given in Table 7.1. The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and
increases rapidly with the degree of saturation.

The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the properties of the fluid flowing through it
by the equation
𝛾𝑤
𝑘= ̅
𝐾 (7.9)
𝜂

where
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
𝜂 = viscosity of water
̅ = absolute permeability
𝐾
 Soil type 𝒌 (cm/s)
Clean gravel 100-1.0
Coarse sand 1.0-0.01
Fine sand 0.01-0.001
Silty clay 0.001-0.00001
Clay < 0.000001
Table 7.1 Typical Values of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soils

The absolute permeability is expressed in units of 𝐿2 (that is, 𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑓𝑡 2 , and so forth).

LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil—the
constant-head test and the falling-head test. A brief description of each follows.

Constant-Head Test
A typical arrangement of the constant-head permeability test is shown in Figure 7.5. In this type
of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of
head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period. After a constant
flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a known duration.

The total volume of water collected may be expressed as

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑘𝑖)𝑡 (7.10)

where
𝑄 = volume of water collected
𝐴 = area of cross section of the soil specimen
𝑡 = duration of water collection

And because
ℎ
𝑖= (7.11)
𝐿
where 𝐿 = length of the specimen, Eq. (7.11) can be substituted into Eq. (7.10) to yield
ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐴 (𝑘 ) 𝑡 (7.12)
𝐿
or
𝐿𝑄
𝑘= (7.13)
ℎ𝐴𝑡

Figure 7.5 Constant-head permeability test

Figure 7.6 shows a photograph of a constant-head test arrangement in the laboratory for a test
on a granular soil.
 Figure 7.6 Constant-head hydraulic conductivity test arrangement for a granular
soil in the laboratory (Courtesy of Khaled Sobhan, Florida Atlantic University, Boca
Raton, Florida)

Falling-head Test
A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in Figure 7.7. Water from a
standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head difference ℎ1 at time 𝑡 = 0 is recorded, and water
is allowed to flow through the soil specimen such that the final head difference at time 𝑡 = 𝑡2 is
ℎ2 .

The rate of flow of the water through the specimen at any time 𝑡 can be given by
ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑞 = 𝑘 𝐴 = −𝑎 (7.14)
𝐿 𝑑𝑡

where
𝑞 = flow rate
𝑎 = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen

Rearrangement of Eq. (7.14) gives

𝑎𝐿 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = (− ) (7.15)
𝐴𝑘 ℎ
Integration of the left side of Eq. (7.15) with limits of time from 0 to 𝑡 and the right side with limits
of head difference from ℎ1 to ℎ2 gives
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑡= ln ( )
𝐴𝑘 ℎ2
or
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln ( ) (7.16)
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2

Figure 7.8 shows a falling-head laboratory test arrangement for test on a granular soil.

Figure 7.7 Falling-head permeability test

Figure 7.8 Falling-head hydraulic conductivity test arrangement for a granular

soil in the laboratory (Courtesy of Khaled Sobhan, Florida Atlantic University, Boca
Raton, Florida)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Refer to the constant-head permeability test arrangement shown in Figure 7.5. A test gives these
values:
• 𝐿 = 30 𝑐𝑚
• 𝐴 = area of the specimen = 177 𝑐𝑚2
• Constant-head difference, ℎ = 50 𝑐𝑚
• Water collected in a period of 5 minutes = 350 cm3
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/s.

Solution:
From Eq. (7.13),
𝐿𝑄
𝑘=
ℎ𝐴𝑡
(30 𝑐𝑚)(350 𝑐𝑚3 )
𝑘=
60 𝑠
(50 𝑐𝑚)(177 𝑐𝑚2 )(5 𝑚𝑖𝑛) ( )
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝒌 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
For a falling-head permeability test, the following values are given:
• Length of specimen = 200 mm
• Area of soil specimen = 1,000 mm2
• Area of standpipe = 40 mm2
• Head difference at time 𝑡 = 0: 500 mm
• Head difference at time 𝑡 = 180 𝑠: 300 mm
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/s.

Solution:
From Eq. (7.16),
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln ( )
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
(40 𝑚𝑚2 )(200 𝑚𝑚) 500 𝑚𝑚
𝑘= 2
ln ( )
(1000 𝑚𝑚 )(180 𝑠) 300 𝑚𝑚
𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟕 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
The hydraulic conductivity of a clayey soil is 4×10-7 cm/sec. The viscosity of water at 25°C is
0.0911×10-4 g⋅s/cm2. Calculate the absolute permeability of the soil.
Solution:
From Eq. (7.9),
𝛾𝑤
𝑘= ̅
𝐾
𝜂
1 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3
4 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠 = ( ̅
)𝐾
0.0911 × 10−4 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚2
̅ = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝑲
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer, as shown in Figure 7.9a. With 𝑘 =
5.3 × 10−5 𝑚⁄𝑠 for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage through it in 𝑚3 ⁄ℎ𝑟⁄𝑚 width
if 𝐻 = 3 𝑚 and 𝛼 = 8°.

Figure 7.9

From Figure 7.9b,

head loss 𝑆 tan 𝛼
𝑖= = = sin 𝛼
length 𝑆
( )
cos 𝛼
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = (𝑘)(sin 𝛼)(3 cos 𝛼)(1)
3600 𝑠
𝑘 = (5.3 × 10−5 𝑚⁄𝑠)(sin 8°)(3 cos 8° 𝑚)(1 𝑚) ( )
1 ℎ𝑟
𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟖𝟗 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒉𝒓⁄𝒎

EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL

Figure 7.10 Equivalent hydraulic conductivity determination—horizontal flow in stratified

soil
 1
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = (𝑘 𝐻 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛 )
𝐻 𝐻1 1 (7.17)
∑ 𝑘𝐻
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) =
∑𝐻

Figure 7.11 Equivalent hydraulic conductivity determination—vertical flow in stratified

soil

𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
( 1) + ( 2) + ( 3) + ⋯+ ( 𝑛)
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛
(7.18)
∑𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻
∑( )
𝑘

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A layered soil is shown in Figure 7.12. Given:
• 𝐻1 = 1.5 𝑚, 𝑘1 = 10−4 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠
• 𝐻2 = 3 𝑚, 𝑘2 = 3.2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠
• 𝐻1 = 2 𝑚, 𝑘3 = 4.1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠
Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity,
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞)

Figure 7.12
Solution:
From Eq. (7.17),
1
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = (𝑘 𝐻 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 )
𝐻 𝐻1 1
1
= [(10−4 )(1.5) + (3.2 × 10−2 )(3) + (4.1 × 10−5 )(2)]
(1.5 + 3 + 2)
= 14.805 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠

From Eq. (7.18),

𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
( 1) + ( 2) + ( 3)
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3
1.5 + 3 + 2
=
1.5 3 2
( −4 ) + ( )+( )
10 3.2 × 10−2 4.1 × 10−5
−4
= 1.018 × 10 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠
Hence,
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 14.805 × 10−3
=
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) 1.018 × 10−4
= 𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟒𝟖𝟓

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Figure 7.13 shows three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm × 100 mm in cross section. Water
is supplied to maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm across the sample. The hydraulic
conductivities of the soils in the direction of flow through them are as follows:
Soil 𝒌 (cm/s)
A 10−2
B 3 × 10−3
C 4.9 × 10−4
Find the rate of water supply in cm3/hr.

Figure 7.13 Three layers of soil in a tube 100 mm × 100 mm in cross section

Solution:
From Eq. (7.18),
𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
( 1) + ( 2) + ( 3)
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3
450
=
150 150 150
( −2 ) + ( )+( )
10 3 × 10−3 4.9 × 10−4
−3
= 1.2125 × 10 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠
Then,
300 𝑚𝑚
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) 𝑖𝐴 = (1.2125 × 10−3 ) ( ) (10 𝑐𝑚)2
450 𝑚𝑚
= 0.0808 𝑐𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 = 𝟐𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒉𝒓
Determine the height of water in piezometers A and B.
Solution:
For ℎ𝐴 :
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑖𝐴 𝐴
300 − ℎ𝐴
0.0808 𝑐𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 = (10−2 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠) ( ) (10 𝑐𝑚)2
150
𝒉𝑨 = 𝟐𝟖𝟕. 𝟖𝟕 𝒎𝒎

For ℎ𝐵 :
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑣(𝑒𝑞)𝐴𝐵 𝑖𝐵 𝐴
300 300 − ℎ𝐵
0.0808 𝑐𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 = ( ) (10 𝑐𝑚)2
150 150 300
( −2 ) + ( )
10 3 × 10−3
𝒉𝑩 = 𝟐𝟒𝟕. 𝟒𝟔 𝒎𝒎