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Temperature
measurement
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What is Temperature?
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 "Temperature is a measure of the tendency of an object to spontaneously give up energy

to its surroundings. When two objects are in thermal contact, the one that tends to
spontaneously lose energy is at the higher temperature.“

 (Schroeder, Daniel V. An Introduction to Thermal Physics, 1st Edition (Ch, 1). Addison-Wesley.)
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Scales

 Celsius C

 Fahrenheit: F= (1.8*C) +32

 Kelvin K= C+273.16

 Rankine: R’ =F + 459.7

 Reaumur R
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Classification Of Temperature Sensors

1. Mechanical:

a) Solid Expansion thermometers: Bimetallic

b) Liquid-in-glass thermometers: Hg, Pentane, Alcohol, toluene

c) Filled System: Vapor Pressure Thermometer

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2. Electrical Sensors:

a) Thermo-resistive type: Resistance temperature Detectors

(metal), Thermistors (non-metallic, semiconductor)

b) Thermo-electric type: Thermocouples

c) Solid state Temperature Sensors

d) Quartz thermometers
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 3. Radiation sensors ( Pyrometers)

 A) Total radiation pyrometer

 B) Optical pyrometer (Selective radiation)

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Bimetallic thermometers
 These thermometers use the following two principles:

 All metals change in dimension, which expand or contract when there is a

change in temperature.

 The speed at which this expansion or contraction occurs depends on the

coefficient of expansion temperature of the metal and this coefficient of
expansion temperature is different for different metals.

 Therefore, the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce

deflections that are proportional to changes in temperature.
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 The bimetallic thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip.

 A bimetal strip is made of two thin metal strips that have different
coefficients of expansion. The two metal strips are joined by brazing, so
that the relative movement between them is stopped.

 The bimetal strip has the shape of a cantilevered beam. An increase in

temperature will result in deflection of the free end of the strip

 This deviation is linear and may be related to changes in temperature.

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 Different common forms of bimetallic sensors are listed.

 Helix type.

 Spiral type.

 Cantilever type.

 Double helix type.

 U-shaped

Metals used: Low expansion metal: Invar (64 Fe+36 Ni)

High expansion: Brass, Nickel, Ni-Mo

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disadvantages
 The bimetallic strip is used in control devices.

 The spiral strip is used in air conditioning thermostats.

 The helix strip is used for process application such as refineries, oil burners, tyre vulcanisers etc.,

 Advantages

 They are simple, robust and inexpensive.

 Their accuracy is between +or- 2% to 5% of the scale.

 They can with stand 50% over range intemperaures.

 They can be used wherever a mercury –in-glass thermometer is used.

 Limitations They are not recommended for temperature above 400’C.

 When regularly used, the bimetallic may permanently deform, which inturn will introduce errors.
(Creeping)
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Glass Tube Thermometers

 Some highly precise measurements are still done with glass thermometers.

 Since the properties of fluids, and in particular, mercury are well known, the only
limitation to accuracy and resolution come in the form of how well you can
manufacture a glass tube with a precision bore.

 Many of today’s thermometers use fluids other than mercury due to the hazards of
spilled mercury.

 These newer devices use other fluids that have been engineered to have specific
rates of expansion. The draw back to these fluids is that they typically do not have
the high temperature capabilities that mercury does.
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 Principle: Volumetric expansion

 Construction: Capillary, bulb

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 Freezing Point of Hg: -39 C

 Boiling Point: 358 C

BPE using N2
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Filled systems

 Filled-system temperature measurement methods depend upon three well-known

physical phenomena:

 A liquid will expand or contract in proportion to its temperature and in accordance to

the liquid’s coefficient of thermal/volumetric expansion.

 An enclosed liquid will create a definite vapor pressure in proportion to its

temperature if the liquid only partially occupies the enclosed space.

 The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature in accordance with

the basic principle of the universal/perfect gas law

 Temperature range: -87 to 371 C

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Description

 All filled-system temperature measurement instruments consists of a bulb,

connecting tubing known as “capillary,” and a pressure sensing element,
usually a bourdon tube.

 The standard classifies filled-system thermometers by the type of fill fluid

used (liquid, vapor, gas) and further subdivided by the type of temperature
compensation.
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 Bulb Design

 The bulb volume varies over a range of 100 to 1 depending on the fill fluid, the
temperature span, and the capillary length.

 Long bulbs give an average temperature and are sometimes used in stretched-
out form for gas ducts.

 When used with a Thermowell, standard material such as copper, bronze, or

stainless steel can be used.

 In case atmospheric corrosion, Stainless steel is preferred.

 Capillary Tubing & Armoring

 Capillary tubing is small-diameter tubing, usually of stainless steel. However in

a corrosive atmosphere, the armor should be plastic coated.
 Temperature Compensation
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 Since the thermal sensing fluid extends from the bulb to the pressure element, it is
affected by the temperatures existing everywhere in the system – bulb, capillary, and
pressure element.

 Vapor-pressure systems, Class 2, are not subject to errors from this cause because
the system pressure depends only on the temperature of the liquid/vapor interface,
which is in the bulb; the volume of the bulb chamber is temperature-sensitive but to a
negligible extent.

 For Class 1, 3, and 5 systems, errors of varying extent can be caused by ambient
temperature. The need for compensation is a function of ratio of bulb volume to total
system volume, length of capillary, ambient temperature, measuring range, and need
for accuracy.

 Full compensation corrects for variations of the temperature of the capillary and case.
Case compensation is usually achieved by installing a bimetallic strip into the
instrument case and attaching it to the pressure sensing element. Full compensation is
accomplished by installing an auxiliary capillary without bulb parallel to the
primary/main capillary and connecting it to the measuring mechanism.
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Electrical Temperature Sensors

 Thermo-resistive types:

 Resistance Temperature Detectors RTD

 Principle
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Working Principle of Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD)
 A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) functions on the resistance and
temperature relationship in metals. It works on the principle of measurement which
states that “The resistance of a material changes with temperature”.

 When the metal’s temperature increases, the resistance to the electron’s flow also
increases. Similarly, as and when the temperature of element used in the Resistance
Temperature Detector increases, the resistance increases too.

 The resistance of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) changes constantly with

respect to the applied temperature and so the temperature is quite predictable by
measurement of its resistance. It is this property which allows Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD) to measure temperature more accurately and consistently.

 RTD’s resistance and the temperature can be determined by applying a constant

current and evaluating the occurrence of voltage drop through the resistor.
 The RTD specification that is most commonly used is 100 ohms. This means that
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a Resistance Temperature Detector element should have a resistance of 100
Ohms at 0° Celsius.

 The most common metal which is used as Resistance Temperature Detector

element is Platinum.

 Has stable resistance-temperature relationship over a large temperature range.

 Nickel, Copper and Balco is also used as RTD element.

 Platinum is the most common choice because of following properties:

 Its inertness to foreign chemicals.

 Its Linear resistance change with temperature.

 Its high Temperature coefficient of resistance. This avoids any sudden spike in
resistance with respect to applied temperature.
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Components of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

 The components of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) are:

 Resistance Element

 Outside Diameter

 Tubing Material

 Process Connection

 Wire Configuration

 Cold End Termination

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Applications
 In Automotive Industry – As audio amplifiers and engine oil temperature
sensors.

 In Communication and Instrumentation – As temperature sensors and

amplifiers.

 In Consumer Electronics – For small appliance controls and Fire Detectors.

 In Industrial Electronics – For gas flow indicators and Plastic laminating

equipment.

 In Medical Electronics – For blood dialysis equipment and Infant incubators.

 Range: -200 to 850 C

 The most common type (PT100) has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0 °C and
138.4 ohms at 100 °C.
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Thermistor
 Semi-conductor:

 A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of

resistor whose electrical resistance varies with changes in temperature.
Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate slightly with temperature, a
thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.

 Thermistors act as a passive component in a circuit.

 They are an accurate, cheap, and robust way to measure temperature.

 While they do not work well in extremely hot or cold temperatures, they are
the sensor of choice for many different applications. They are ideal when a
precise temperature reading is required.
 Some of the most common uses of thermistors include:
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 Digital thermometers (thermostats)

 Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars & trucks)

 Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)

 Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)

 Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)

 To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical material

 Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino starter
kit)

 Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects

caused by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)

 Used in wheatstone bridge circuits

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 There are two types of thermistors:

 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor

 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor

 NTC Thermistor (Most Common)

 When the temperature increases, resistance decreases. And when temperature

decreases, resistance increases.

 The relationship between resistance and temperature in an NTC thermistor is

governed by the following expression:
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 RT is the resistance at temperature T (K)

 R0 is the resistance at temperature T 0 (K)

 T0 is the reference temperature (normally 25oC)

 β is a constant, its value is dependant on the characteristics of

the material. The nominal value is taken as 4000.
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 If the value of β is high, then the resistor–temperature relationship will be very

good.

 A higher value of β means a higher variation in resistance for the same rise in
temperature – hence you have increased the sensitivity (and hence accuracy)
of the thermistor.

 the resistance temperature co-efficient is the expression for the sensitivity of

the thermistor.
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 If β = 4000 K and T = 298 K, then the αT = –0.0045/oK.

 This is much higher than the sensitivity of platinum RTD.

 This would be able to measure the very small changes in the

temperature
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PTC Thermistor
 When temperature increases, the resistance increases. And when temperature
decreases, resistance decreases. Hence in a PTC thermistor temperature and
resistance are inversely proportional.

 Although PTC thermistors are not as common as NTC thermistors, they are
frequently used as a form of circuit protection.

 Similar to the function of fuses, PTC thermistors can act as current-limiting device.

 When current passes through a device it will cause a small amount of resistive
heating.

 If the current is large enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its
surroundings then the device heats up. In a PTC thermistor, this heating up will
also cause its resistance will increase. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that
drives the resistance upwards, therefore limiting the current.
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Thermistor Construction
 To make a thermistor, two or more semiconductor powders made of metallic
oxides are mixed with a binder to form a slurry.

 Small drops of this slurry are formed over the lead wires.

 For drying purpose, we have to put it into a sintering furnace.

 During this process, that slurry will shrink onto the lead wires to make an electrical
connection.

 This processed metallic oxide is sealed by putting a glass coating on it.

 This glass coating gives a waterproof property to the thermistors – helping to

improve their stability.
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 Thermistors are available in different models: bead type, rod type, disc type, etc.

 The major advantages of thermistors are their small size and relatively low cost.

 This size advantage means that the time constant of thermistors operated in
sheaths is small, although the size reduction also decreases its heat dissipation
capability and so makes the self-heating effect greater.

 This effect can permanently damage the thermistor.

 To prevent this, thermistors have to be operated at low levels of electric current

compared to resistance thermometer – resulting in lower measurement sensitivity.
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 Thermistor vs RTD

 Both RTDs and thermistors have varying resistance dependent on the temperature.

 The main difference between the two is the type of material that they are made of.

 Thermistors are commonly made with ceramic or polymer materials while RTDs are
made of pure metals. In terms of performance, thermistors win in almost all aspects.

 Thermistors are more accurate, cheaper, and have faster response times than
RTDs.

 The only real disadvantage of a thermistor vs an RTD is when it comes to

temperature range. RTDs can measure temperature over a wider range than a
thermistor.

 Aside from this, there is no reason to use a thermistor over an RTD.

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Thermoelectric Temperature
Measurement
 A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring temperature consists of two dissimilar
metal wires, joined at one end, and connected to a thermocouple thermometer or
other thermocouple-capable device at the other end.

 When properly configured, thermocouples can provide temperature measurements

over wide range of temperatures.

 Commonly used on a wide range of applications - from an industrial usage

thermocouple to a regular thermocouple found on utilities and regular appliances.

 Junctions: Hot=Measuring, Cold= reference

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Working Principle of Thermocouple

 The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.

 Seeback Effect – The See back effect occurs between two different metals.

 When the heat provides to any one of the metal, the electrons start flowing from
hot metal to cold metal. Thus, direct current induces in the circuit.

 It is a phenomenon in which the temperature difference between the two

different metals induces the potential differences between them.

 The Seebeck effect produces small voltages for per Kelvin of temperature.
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 Peltier Effect –inverse of the Seebeck effect.

 The Peltier effect state that the temperature difference can be created
between any two different conductors by applying the potential
difference between them.

 Thompson Effect –

 The Thompson effect state that when two dissimilar metals join together
and if they create two junctions then the voltage induces the entire
length of the conductor because of the temperature gradient.

 The temperature gradient is a physical term which shows the direction and
rate of change of temperature at a particular location.
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Construction of Thermocouple

 The thermocouple consists two dissimilar metals. These metals are welded
together at the junction point. This junction considers as the measuring point. The
junction point categorises into three types.

 Ungrounded Junction – In ungrounded junction, the conductors are entirely

isolated from the protective sheath. It is used for high-pressure application
works. The major advantage of using such type of junction is that it reduces the
effect of the stray magnetic field.
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 Grounded Junction – In such type of junction the metals and protective

sheath are welded together. The grounded junction use for measuring the
temperature in the corrosive environment. This junction provides resistance to the
noise.

 Exposed Junction – Such type of junction uses in the places where fast
response requires. The exposed junction is used for measuring the temperature
of the gas.
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Thermocouple
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 Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The T1 and
T2 arethe temperatures at the junctions. As the temperature of the junctions is
different from each other, the EMF generates in the circuit.

 If the temperature at the junction becomes equal, the equal and opposite EMF
generates in the circuit, and the zero current flows through it.

 If the temperatures of the junction become unequal, the potential difference

induces in the circuit.

 The magnitude of the EMF induces in the circuit depends on the types of
material used for making the thermocouple. The total current flowing through the
circuit is measured through the measuring devices.
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 Advantages
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 The thermocouple is cheaper than the other temperature measuring devices.

 The thermocouple has the fast response time.

 It has a wide temperature range.

 Disadvantages of the Thermocouples

 The thermocouple has low accuracy.

 The recalibration of the thermocouple is difficult.

 Nickel-alloy, platinum/rhodium alloy, Tungsten/rhenium-alloy, chromel-gold, iron-

alloy are the name of the alloys used for making the thermocouple.
 The ASTM and IEC have recognized the following types of thermocouples. Typical uses for these
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thermocouple types are set out below.

1. Type J Thermocouple (Most Common): This thermocouple consists of an Iron and a Constantan
leg

 The bare Type J thermocouple may be used in vacuum, reducing, oxidizing and inert
atmospheres. Heavier gauge is wire recommended for use above 1000 deg. F since the iron leg of
this thermocouple oxidizes rapidly at high temperatures.

2. Type K Thermocouple (Most Common Real Hot): This thermocouple consists of a Chromel and
an Alumel leg. This thermocouple is recommended for oxidizing or inert atmospheres up to 2300
deg. F.

 Cycling above and below 1800 deg. F is not recommended due to EMF alteration from hysteresis.
This thermocouple is fairly accurate and stable at high temperatures.

3. Type N Thermocouple (A Newer, Better Type K): This thermocouple consists of a Nicrosil and a
Nisil leg. It has better resistance to degradation due to temperature cycling, green rot and
hysteresis than the Type K and is typically very cost competitive with the Type K.
 z T Thermocouple (Most Common Real Cold): This thermocouple consists of a Copper
4. Type
and a Constantan leg. It may be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing and inert atmospheres. It
maintains good resistance to corrosion in most atmospheres and high stability at sub-zero
temperatures.

5. Type E Thermocouple (Most Common Power Application): This thermocouple consists of one
Chromel leg and one Constantan leg. This thermocouple is not subject to corrosion in most
atmospheres. The Type E also has the highest EMF per degree of any standard thermocouple
type. However, this thermocouple must be protected from sulfurous atmospheres.

 6. Type B, R & S Thermocouples (Most Common Real, Real Hot): Platinum & Rhodium
Thermocouples. Recommended for use in oxidizing or inert atmospheres. Reducing
atmospheres may cause excessive grain growth and drift in calibration of these thermocouples.
Types R & S may be used up to 1480 C. Type B may be used up to 1700 C.

7. Type C Thermocouple (For the Hottest of Environments): Tungsten and Rhenium

thermocouple. Recommended for use in vacuum, high purity hydrogen or pure inert
atmospheres. May be used at extremely high temperatures (2316 C). This thermocouple,
however, is inherently brittle.
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 Some of the applications of thermocouple include the following.

 These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes, offices
& businesses.

 These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron,

aluminum, and metal.

 These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature
applications. Thermocouples are used as a heat pump for performing thermoelectric
cooling.

 These are used to test temperature in the chemical plants, petroleum plants.

 These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.
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 Thermistors:

 A more narrow range of sensing (55 to +150oC – although this varies depending on the
brand)

 Sensing parameter = Resistance

 Nonlinear relationship between the sensing parameter (resistance) and temperature

 NTC thermistors have a roughly exponential decrease in resistance with increasing

temperature

 Good for sensing small changes in temperature (it’s hard to use a thermistor accurately
and with high resolution over more than a 50oC range).

 The sensing circuit is simple and doesn’t need amplification & is very simple

 Accuracy is usually hard to get better than 1oC without calibration

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 Thermocouples:

 Have a wide range of temperature sensing (Type T = -200-350oC; Type J = 95-

760°C; Type K = 95-1260°C; other types go to even higher temperatures)

 Can be very accurate

 Sensing parameter = voltage generated by junctions at different temperatures

 Thermocouple voltage is relatively low

 Linear relationship between the sensing parameter (voltage) and temperature

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Pyrometers

 Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Radiation

thermometer or non-contact thermometer used to detect the temperature of
an object’s surface temperature, which depends on the radiation (infrared or
visible) emitted from the object.

 Pyrometers act as photodetector because of the property of absorbing

energy and measuring of EM wave intensity at any wavelength
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 These are used to measure high-temperature furnaces.

 These devices can measure the temperature very accurately, precisely,

pure visually and quickly.

 Pyrometers are available in different spectral ranges (since metals – short

wave ranges and non-metals-long wave ranges)
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 You can feel a fire some distance away because it gives off heat radiation in all
directions.

 In theory, if the fire behaves exactly according to the laws of physics, the
radiation it produces is related to its temperature in a very predictable way.

 So if you can measure the wavelength of the radiation, you can precisely
measure the temperature even if you're standing some way off.

 That's the theory behind a pyrometer: a very accurate kind of thermometer that
measures something's temperature from the heat radiation it gives out at a
safe distance (in some pyrometers) of up to 30m (100ft).
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 There are two basic kinds of pyrometers: optical pyrometers, where you look
at a heat source through a mini-telescope and make a manual measurement,
and electronic, digital pyrometers (also called infrared thermometers) that
measure completely automatically.
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 Pyrometers are really useful for measuring the temperature of

an object at a distance. Here, a member of the US Navy is using
one common type of pyrometer (an infrared thermometer) to
measure the sea temperature from the deck of a ship.

 This military-issue device can measure temperatures from

−18°C to 870°C. Photo by Brian M. Brooks courtesy of US Navy.
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Principle of operation:
 A pyrometer has an optical system and detector.

 The optical system focuses the terminal radiation onto the detector.

 The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the thermal

radiation or irradiance j of the target object through the Stefan- Boltzmann law, the
constant proportionality

 The output is used to infer the object’s temperature. Thus, there is no need for
direct contact between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple
and Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD).
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Components of pyrometer
 z parts of a pyrometer are the lens, aperture, filter detector, and the signal
The basic
processing unit.

 The infrared radiation coming in from the object to be measured is gathered by the
lens.

 The aperture blocks unwanted rays at the edges.

 The filter permits only the desired spectral range to enter.

 The rays then pass through to the detector which transforms the infrared radiation
into electric signals.

 These signals are then linearised in the signal processing unit and changed into a
standard output signal which can then be read in the display, and be used for
process control.
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Pyrometer Types
Based on the principle of operation, IR detectors fall into one of two categories:

 Thermal detectors and

 Optical pyrometer (photodiodes).

 Thermal IR detectors

 The thermopile is made by connecting several thermocouples in series and

placing their hot junctions in contact with a black body that absorbs the incident
infrared energy and heats the hot junctions.

 The cold junctions are placed in the detector area with a suitable heat sink.
These detectors have fast response, broadband, wide dynamic range and are
frequently used in general purpose, automotive, air conditioning and human
body thermometers.
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 Bolometers use a slab of material that changes its resistance in response to a

change in temperature.

 The circuit converts the resistance change into a voltage change, which is
processed by the instrument.

 Bolometers are often used to measure low-level IR energy, often as an accessory

to a telescope.

 Pyroelectric devices are electrically charged when the temperature of your body
changes. To produce a usable signal, the incident IR energy has to “pulse”.
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Optical pyrometer:

 The photodetectors are built on a silicon substrate with an IR-sensitive area that
releases free electrons when they are impacted by photons.

 The flow of electrons produces electrical signals proportional to the incident energy.

 These detectors are often used as matrices in thermal imaging systems.

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 Optical pyrometers work on the basic principle of using the human eye to match
the brightness of the hot object to the brightness of a calibrated lamp filament
inside the instrument.

 The optical system contains a filter that restricts the wavelength-sensitivity of the
device to a narrow wavelength band around 0.65 to 0.66 microns.
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Advantages of pyrometer:

 Used to measure very high temperature

 High output signal and moderate cost

 No need to have contact with measuring system

 Fast response

 Disadvantages of pyrometer:

 Non-linear scale

 Error will occur

 Emmissivity of target material affects the measurement

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Applications
 Pyrometers are used in different applications such as,

 To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater

distance.

 In metallurgy industries

 In smelting industries

 Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the ballon

 Steam boilers to measure steam temperature

 To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials.

 To measure furnace temperature.

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How infrared thermometers work

 Infrared thermometers typically work by sampling two different wavelengths from a

hot object and comparing them.

 In one common design, radiation from a sample passes through a lens on the front
of a pyrometer and an optical chopper (a rotating disc with alternating sections
containing different optical filters, driven by an electric motor).

 This interrupts the beam dozens of times each second so the detector is alternately
receiving two different wavelengths (that is, colors) of light from the same sample.

 An electronic circuit attached to the detector can accurately deduce the

temperature of the object you're trying to measure using Planck's law
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 Other thermometer compare the heat radiation from the object whose
temperature you're trying to measure with the radiation produced by an internal
heat source (whose temperature is precisely known) or the background level of
infrared inside the pyrometer's casing.
1. You press in the trigger to put the detector into "reference" mode.
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2. An internal heat source, whose temperature is known, fires out infrared
radiation.

3. A mirror picks up the infrared.

4. A detector picks up the reflected infrared from the mirror.

5. A microchip notes the reading of the internal reference source.

6. Now you release the trigger to put it in operating mode.

7. The mirror swings back to face the front of the detector.

8. The hot sample you're interested in gives off its own pattern of infrared
radiation.

9. The infrared fires in through the front and bounces off the mirror into the
detector.

10. The chip compares the infrared wavelengths from the reference source and
the sample and figures out the sample's temperature.