I.

Introduction:

BIOLOGY: (“bios” (life)+’logos” (study)

- a Science of life or branch of knowledge which deals with living organisms.

BIOLOGY as a Science:

SCIENCE – comes from the Latin word “scientia” which means knowledge.
- Is both an organized body of knowledge and a process of inquiry that tries to answer
the natural world or find a solution to a problem.

Two Divisions of Science:

1. Natural Science – deals with the composition, properties, and behaviour of matter in the universe.

- Physical Science (non-living things)

Ex. Astronomy – study of stars and their environment
Meteorology – study of weather and climate
Seismology – study of earthquake
Chemistry - science that deals with the nature of substances and the ways in which
they act on or combine with each other.
Physics - study of natural phenomena such as; heat, light, sound, electricity,
magnetism, and others.

- Biological Science (living things)

Ex. Ecology, Biology Anatomy, Botany, Zoology

1. BOTANY – the science of plant organism

2. ZOOLOGY – the science of animal organism
3. MICROBIOLOGY – the science of micro-organic organism
4. ANATOMY – the science of the structure of organisms, as of the human body, and of the
interrelations of their parts.
5. ECOLOGY – the study of human populations & of their relations in terms physical
environment & cultural distribution.

2. Social Science

 Specialized Branches of Biology:

1. Morphology – (gr. Morphie, form) study of organic form and total structure of plants and
animals
a. Cytology – (gr. Kytos, hollow vessels) study of the minute parts of tissue
b. Histology – (gr. Histos, tissue) study of the microscopic structures of tissue.
c. Anatomy - (gr. Na, up to tome, cutting) study of the structure of plant and animal organs

2. Physiology – (gr. Physis, nature) study of the functions of plants and animals.

3. Ecology – (gr. Oikos, house) study of the environmental relation and distribution of plants and
animals.

4. Embryology – (gr. Embryon, embryo) study of the formation and early development of the
organism.
 5. Taxonomy – (gr. Taxis, organization and norms law) study of manning, grouping and
classifying of plants and animals

6. Genetics – (gr. Genesis, origin) study of the laws of inheritance

7. Pathology – (gr. Pathos, suffering) study of the nature of diseases, cause and symptoms.

8. Paleonthology – (gr. Palaois, ancient; onta, existing things) study of the past life as revealed
by fossils.

9. Geography – (gr. Ge, earth; graphien, to write) study of the principles of plants and animal
distribution.

10. Biotechnology – deals with the use of microorganism for converting new materials into food,
energy, chemicals, animal feeds, medicine and other products.
- alternative sources of energy to minimized pollution.
- it detects and prevention of diseases; means of producing medicines
- application of agriculture, food production, energy production and industry
that benefits to mankind.

 Some World famous Biologist:

1. Alexander Flemming – discovered penicillin

2. Gregor Mendel – formulated laws of heredity; Father of Gentics

3. William Harvey – discovered the mechanics of human circulation

4. Robert Koch – discovered bacterial that causes anthrax, TB and cholera.

5. Louis Pasteur – introduced pasteurization of rabies vaccine.

 Some Filipino famous Biologist:

1. Angel C. Alcala – contributed in marine ecology through conservation of coral reef and
captive breeding of Philippine crocodile.

2. William G. Padolina – multi-awarded in his excellent pioneering researches in Biotechnology

and Chemistry og natural products.

3. Eduardo A. Quisumbing – Father of Philippine Orchidology

4. Carmen C. Velasquez – National Scientist research on parasitic worms.

SCIENCE and SCIENTIFIC METHOD:

- In order to conduct science, one must know the rules of the game. The Scientific Method is to be
used as a guide that can be modified.

What is a Scientific Method?

- It is a way to ask and answer scientific questions by making observations and doing
experiments.
Steps of the Scientific Method:

 Observation/Research: Defining the problem you wish to explain.

- The observation is done first so that you know how you want to go about your research.

 Hypothesis: (Educated guess) a possible solution to a problem, based on knowledge and

research. It is a simple statement that defines what you think the outcome of your experiment will
be.

 Experiment. This is the most important part of the scientific method. It’s tests your hypothesis.
An experiment is a tool that you design to find out if your ideas about your topic are right or
wrong.

 Conclusion. The final step in the scientific method. This is a summary of the experiment’s
results, and how those results match up to your hypothesis.

- You have two options for your conclusions: based on your results, either
1. you CAN REJECT the hypothesis, or
2. you CAN NOT REJECT hypothesis.

- was the hypothesis supported or not? After this step the hypothesis is either modified or
rejected, which causes a repeat of the steps above.

This is an important point. You can PROVE the hypothesis with a single experiment, because there is a
chance that you made an error somewhere along the way. What you can say is that your results,
SUPPORT the original hypothesis.

If your original hypothesis didn’t match up with the final results of your experiment, don’t change the
hypothesis. Instead, try to explain what might have been wrong with your original hypothesis. What
information did you not have originally that caused you to be wrong in your prediction? What are the
reasons that the hypothesis and experimental results didn’t match up?

Origin of LIFE

Life is everywhere

Biology is the science that studies Life.

What is Life?

Defining life is complicated. Biology is often referred to as the science of life. Several theories
had been formulated about the beginning of life.
Theory – assumption based on certain evidence or certain observations but lacking scientific
proof.

1. The Divine Creation Theory. This theory states that life was created by some supreme
supernatural being. (God)

2. Interplanetary Theory/Cosmozoic Theory. Refers to planet. The question now is “Does

life exist in other planets?” Some speculations that some living forms exist in other planets
which may not be like human beings but are intelligent creatures that could rival man in his
creative accomplishments.

3. Spontaneous Generation Theory or Abiogenesis. From ancient times until a century

ago, most people had a little knowledge of how animals and plants grow and develop.

4. Marine Theory. According this theory, the first forms of life were formed under the sea
and mostly dependent on sulphur-based food chain.

5. Physico-Chemical Theory of Life/Naturalistic Theory. This theory estimated that the

earth was formed from a rapidly rotating ball of gas about five (5) billion years ago.

Characteristics of Living Organisms

An individual living creature is called organism. There are many characteristics that living
creatures share.

 Respond to environmental changes

 Grow and develop
 Can produce and have offspring
 Use energy and have a complex chemistry (metabolism)
 Maintain themselves in a stable state (homeostasis
 Evolve biologically.

Respond to environmental changes

- Living organisms are capable of responding to stimuli.

Grow and develop

 - Growth refers to the process by which the organism increases in size and the
number of cells increases.

- Development is a change in specific structures.

Can reproduce and have offspring

Living things make more organisms like themselves. They reproduce sexually or asexually.
Whether the organism is a rabbit, or a tree, or a bacterium, life will make more life.

Use energy and have a complex chemistry (metabolism)

- Metabolism is the sum of the chemical reactions in a cell.

Maintain themselves in a stable state (homeostasis)

- Homeostasis means living organisms keep themselves in a stable state.

Are built of structures called cells

- Cell is the smallest structure of all living things

If you look closely at any organism you can see that it is made of structures called cells.
Organisms that are very different such as ferns, and fish, and elephants all look very similar at
the level of the cell. All living organisms are made of one more cells.

Evolve biologically

Biological evolution refers to the change of inherited characteristics within a population over
generations. Organisms often adapt to their environment which causes, in the long run, their
characteristics to evolve.
 UNIT II.

CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

(PROTOPLASM)

 The word protoplasm comes from the Greek word “protos” – for first, and “plasma” –
for thing formed.
 All the living substances inside the cell (enclosed within the cell) is called protoplasm.

Life requires about 25 chemical elements

 A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by
ordinary chemical means
NATURALLY OCCURING ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY
SYMBOL ELEMENT Wet weight Percentage
O Oxygen 65.0
C Carbon 18.5
H Hydrogen 9.5
 N Nitrogen 3.3
Ca Calcium 1.5
P Phosphorus 1.0
K Potassium 0.4
S Sulfur 0.3
Na Sodium 0.2
Cl Chlorine 0.2
Mg Magnesium 0.1

I. Physical Properties of Protoplasm

 Neither a true solid nor a true liquid but composed of both solid and liquid components
 Undergoes a sol-gel reversibility (if the protoplasm is more liquid it is termed a sol. If
more gelatinous, a gel)
 Slightly gelatinous white of a fresh egg to that of semi-solidified gelatine of jelly.

II. Chemical Properties of Protoplasm

 Occur as chemical compounds either inorganic or organic forms

A. Inorganic Compounds

1. Water
 Makes up about 75 to 85% of the weight of an active cell
 Exists in free or in bound form
 With 4 unique properties from which cell depends on them
 Cohesion – maintaining the biological molecules
 Specific heat – the amount of heat energy required of 1g before rises to
1degrees centigrade
 Heat of vaporization – the amount of energy that 1g of a substance that
converted into gas
 Heat of fusion – the ability of water to resist changing from liquid to ice
when heat is lost at its freezing point.
o Water – is important in digestion

2. Mineral and mineral salts

 Essential to life
 Exist in the form of hard bulk deposits like bone, teeth or shell
 Made-up of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate
 Act as buffers in the blood

3. Gases
 Oxygen (98.5% as oxyhemoglobin; 1.5 dissolved in plasma)
o Oxyhemoglobin – haemoglobin combined with oxygen
o Hemoglobin – presents the Red Blood Cells (RBC)
  CO2 – source of carbon and oxygen.
o Carbon dioxide – final metabolic product of carbon compounds present
in food.

4. Inorganic Acids and bases

 Play important roles in living systems.
o Potential hydrogen or (PH)
o Neutral = 7.0
o Examples of Potential Hydrogen or (PH)
Alkaline
Acidic
Neutral

B. Organic Compounds
 Supply energy for its functioning
 Regulate metabolism within the cell
1. Carbohydrates
 Simplest organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Simple Carbohydrates are known as sugars, which are the basic

source of energy for cellular activities within the cell.

Classification of Carbohydrates:
a. Monosaccharides – are the simplest carbohydrates and contain 6-Carbon atoms
 Are the fuels for cellular work
 Examples: glucose, fructose and galactose

Glucose – is the most important monosaccharide and is often

referred to as blood sugar.
Fructose and Galactose are first converted to glucose before they
can be absorbed or used by cells.

b. Disaccharides – Monosaccharides can join to form disaccharides, such as sucrose

(table sugar) and maltose (brewing sugar)
Example: sucrose, lactose, maltose
- Sucrose – the common table sugar which is used to sweeten coffee or tea
- Lactose – sugar formed in milk which is broken down in digestive tract into
monosaccharides
- Maltose – mostly found in fruit juices

c. Polysaccharides – contain large amounts of monosaccharide units like: glycogen –

an animal starch; and cellulose – a plant polysaccharide.
- Starch – is the form in which plants store glucose
- Cellulose – a tough fibrous material which holds together plant structure.
 2. Proteins – organic substances that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
 Are essential to the structures and activities of life
 They are the building blocks from which the cells are formed
 They regulate the chemical activities inside the cell
 They are responsible for the contraction of muscles

Classification: non-essential and essential

- Amino acid, non essential: An amino acid that can be made by

humans and so is not essential to the human diet.
- An essential amino acid is an amino acid which an organism needs to
ingest because it is necessary for nutrition and can be synthesized in the
body.
3. Lipids – these compounds are composed largely of carbon and hydrogen
 Greasy in texture but oily consistency
 It may take form of fats, phospholipids and steroids

Classification:

- Fats - a natural oily or greasy substance occurring in animal bodies, especially

when deposited as a layer under the skin or around certain organs.

- Phospholipids - Phospholipids are important molecules that provide structure and

protection to cells - the very basic units of life.
 it contain phosphorus and nitrogen

- Steroids – consist of interconnected carbon rings

e.g. testosterone, the human male hormone, estrogen, the human female hormone.
- Estrogen - a hormone produced by female
e.g. breast development, menstruation, change figure
- Testosterone – a hormone produced by male
e.g. development of muscles (masculine), changing of voice, produce
sperm cell (from testes---vans deferens (sperm duct)---ejaculation)

4. Nucleic acid
 They ultimately control the life of a cell

5. Vitamins – organic compounds usually of plant origin needed by man and animals
for normal growth and development.
 13 vitamins available but the body produces only 3 which are not even
sufficient to meet the needs of the body.
 Must be supplied in person’s daily diet
1. Vit. A
2. Vit. B complex
B1 – thiamine
B2- riboflavin
 B6 – pyridoxine
B12 – cobalamine
Folic acid
Panthothenic acid
Niacin
3. Vit. C – ascorbic acid
4. Vit. D
5. Vit. E – anti-sterility/anti-aging
6. Vit. K

 Classification: Fat soluble and water soluble

1. 1. Fat soluble vitamins include Vitamins A, D, E, K

 Vitamin A – found in green leafy vegetables & yellow fruits

- Called “anti-nightblindness”
- Needed for the growth of bones, teeth & epithelial tissues
Deficiency: - nightblindness
-causes dryness & roughness of the skin
-less sweat gland activity

 Vitamin D - two forms: Vitamin D-2 & D-3 – both are anti-rickets
 Required for normal growth & absorption of calcium &
phosphorus by the intestine
- Needed for the utilization of calcium & phosphorus which
are required for bone & teeth development.

Deficiency: disease called rickets- which are characterized

by soft & fragile bones

NOTE: Most children with rickets are bow legged

 Vitamin E – needed for normal growth & development

- Utilizes sex hormones to prevent premature aging
- Found in green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils, unmilled
cereals, corn, nuts, eggs especially the egg yolk

 Vitamin K – known as the anti-hemorrhagic

-found in liver, spinach, cauliflower, cabbage

2. 2 Water soluble vitamins include Vitamins B & C

 Vitamin B-complex – present in liver, kidney, lean meat, eggs,

yeasts, cereals & milk products
- Vitamin B-1 called thiamine
 -failure called “ber-beri” that is accompanied by anorexia
or loss of appetite, loss of weight

- Vitamin B-2 called riboflavin

-necessary for the metabolism of all food types

Deficiency: lead to glossitis – inflammation of

tongue, can be acute, painful or chronic, due to infection or
avitaminosis (B complex group)
cheilosis - red lips, with
fissured angles of mouth commonly due to riboflavin
deficiency

seborrhea (seborrheic
dermatitis) – a functional disease of sebaceous glands
marked by increased secretion of altered quality sebum.
Commonly affects scalp (dandruff), face & trunk.

- Vitamin B-6 called pyridoxine

Deficiency: can lead to depression & soreness of

the lips & tongue.

- Vitamin B-12 called cobalamine – very important in

dividing tissues that manufacture red blood cells.

Deficiency: lead to anemia

Sources: liver, kidney, milk & cheese
Why liver? Because the vitamin is stored in the
liver & it is necessary for the maturation of red blood cells
produced in the bone marrow.

 Vitamin C – which is commonly known as ascorbic acid

-lacks nitrogen
-important in increasing body resistance by maintaining
cellular protein & hemoglobin production
-essential in the production of dentin (the calcified hard part
of tooth surroundings the pulp chamber,covered by enamel in the
crown & by cementum in the root area)

Cartilage( a type of dense connective tissue capable of

withstanding high pressure & tension. It is avascular & is without
nerve supply) & bones

-facilitates iron absorption

 Deficiency: leads to scurvy – characterized by swelling of
the gums, pain & tenderness & swelling of thighs & legs
-leads to reduced
body resistance, susceptibility to infection, poor wound
healing, retardation of growth.

NOTE: This vitamin is easily lost through the urine & perspiration.

Caution: overdose of Vitamin C also destroy the structure of the DNA.

Dosage: must not exceed 500 mg/day

UNIT III

ORGANIZATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

I. Introduction:
Cells are the basic units of life. The body contains more than 100 trillion
(100,000,000,000,000) cells that work together to form a functional human being. There are
more than 200 different types of cells – including red blood cells, muscle fibers, and nerve cells
– each with their own particular role. All cells share the same basic structure.

o Red blood cells (RBC) – also known as “erythrocytes” , 99% of blood cells, with
some 5 million cells per cubic millimeter of blood.
Function: to supply oxygen to all body cells

o Muscle fibers – these are protein filaments packed in parallel.

o Nerve cells – the nervous system is made up of trillion of nerve cells, which is
divided into 2 main groups; neurons and neuroglia.

Note: Each with their own particular role. All cells share the same basic structure.

A. What is Cell?
- it is the fundamental or basic structural unit of all living organisms.

a.1. Plasma membrane:

- merely 8 nanometers (0.000008 mm) in diameter the plasma membrane forms a
boundary that separates the cell from its surroundings and selectively controls what substances
enter or leave the cell.

a.2. Cytoplasm
- the cytoplasm is the part of the cell that lies between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus. It consists of a viscous fluid, which is 90 percent water and contains dissolved amino
acids, salts , sugars and other substances, and organelles. These include microfilaments( thin
protein strands) and microtubules(hollow protein rods) that together form a cytoskeleton which
gives the cell its shape and keep other organelles in their correct positions.

B.THE CELL THEORY:

1. Lorenz Oken – he was the 1st who develop that cells are the fundamental units of life.
2. Rudolf Virchow – gave the functions of nucleus and important in production.

 2 Principles of the cell theory:

1. The cells is the basic unit of all living organism.
2. Made up of 1 or more cells and cell product.

C. CYTOLOGY: Cell Structure and Function:

 Cells are classified into two:

1. Prokaryotic – without membrane; no definite nucleus
Ex. Bacteria
 2. Eukaryotic – with nucleus; it has no membrane; well develop organelles.

 Properties of the cells (eukaryotic):

1. Cells are complex and kindly organized
2. Cells contain genetic BLUE PRINT(DNA) and machinery to use it.
o DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – a macro-molecule unique in its ability to
replicate itself.
3. Cells arise from the division of other cells.
o Prokaryotic cells – divide in binary fission
o Eukaryotic – Mitosis – (the process, used in growth and repair, by which a cell
nucleus divides to produce two identical cells).
4. Cells acquire and utilize energy – (ATP & glucose)
o ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) – is made in the mitochondria (powerhouse of the
cell).
o Glucose – referred to as blood sugar

Chemical reaction:
- Anabolism – consists of those processes, such as protein synthesis, that
manufacture substances needed by the cell to build or rub itself.
- Catabolism – consists of those processes, such as the breakdown of
glucose during aerobic respiration, that release energy to power
anabolism.
5. Cells can regulate activities.
- all cells is made up of “DNA”

 Cellular Reproduction:

Two forms:
1. Mitosis – is the simple cell division that starts from one mother cell and ends up with
two (2) daughter cells each having the same number of chromosomes.
2. Meiosis – is the reduction division wherein one mother cells divides into four (4) cells
each one having half the number of chromosomes of the original cell.

Significance of Mitosis:
1. Production of duplicate cells
2. Transmission of hereditary traits
3. Replacement of cells
4. Growth of cells

Significance of Meiosis:
1. it has 2 nuclear division
a. 1st
b. 2nd
 Both are meiotic division
1. Diploid – dual somatic number of chromosomes
2. Haploid – single or halves number of chromosomes
 Stages of mitosis and the characteristics of each:
1. Prophase – the chromatins are present like threads which are shortened and thickened
and later become the chromosomes and they are scattered.
2. Metaphase – they are the forces active within the cell. The chromosomes are aligned
at the equator.
3. Anaphase – the individual chromatid goes to the opposite poles or “split at both
ends”
4. Telophase – there is grouping of the chromosomes and spinning out of the long thin
threads of chromatins. It is also accompanied by the appearance of the nuclear membrane and the
nucleolus and the formation of the cell plate, or the appearance of “cleavage farrow”.
5.Interphase – the “resting phase”. The nucleus occupies the major of the cell volume.

C. HISTOLOGY: Tissue Level:

Tissue – are composed of several cells similar in structure and function and bound together
by intercellular materials.

 PLANT TISSUES:
1. Permanent tissues – are composed of more matured differentiated cells like surface
tissues which form the protective outer layer.
a. Epidermis - is a one- layer tissue that becomes thicker in dry places for protection
against water loss.
- in the aerial parts of the plant, the epidermal cells secrete a waxy substance called:
cuticle – protects the plant from mechanical injuries, loss of water, and invasion of
parasitic fungi.
b. Periderm - this is present in the stem and constitutes the corky outer layer or bark of
old trees. They protect the stem from too much loss of water.

2. Fundamental tissues - are composed of a single type of cell.

a. Parenchyma – these tissues occur in roots, stems, and leaves. They are loosely
packed with plenty of intercellular spaces. They are for food and water storage.
b. Collenchyma – these are simple tissues. They are elongated and are irregularly
thickened. They are composed of cells that are supportive of growing or young plants. They are
in non-woody older plants.
c. Sclerenchyma – these are specialized and supportive tissues than the
collenchymas. At functional maturity, most are dead and their uniformly thickened secondary
walls give strength to the plant body.
d. Endodermis – this occurs as a layer surrounding the vascular tissues of roots. All
the water will flow or move through the living cells of the endodermis.

3. Vascular Tissues – these tissues are mostly found in higher forms of plants and enable
to exploit the terrestrial environment.
Ex. Trees, grasses

Two vascular tissues of plants:

 1. xylem – is for water transport and is often called the wood portion of the plant.
2. phloem – functions in the transport in the transport of carbohydrates from the
leaves to all parts of the plant.

4. Meristematic tissues – these are tissues composed of undifferentiated cells capable

of cell division. It is found at the growing points of the roots and stems.

 ANIMAL TISSUES:
1. Epithelial Tissues - covers and lining the body and its parts.
- Functions: protection, absorption, excretion, secretion and lubrication.

Classification of Epithelial Tissue:

1. Squamous – flat, tile-like protective layer (“fried-egg” appearance).
2. Cuboidal – cube-shaped; found in ducts, secretory glands, renal tubules
3. Columnmar – tall, column-like.

2. Connective Tissues. Binds and supports other tissues

Types of Connective Tissue Proper:

a. Loose connective Tissues.
 Fibers not tightly woven
 Excellent binding tissue (ex. Skin to muscle)
 Fill spaces between/penetrate organs
 Found: around blood vessels, nerves, organs
 Function: lubricants and nourishes epithelial tissue; also provides
strength, elasticity, support and immune system protection.
b. Dense connective tissues.
 Located in the dermis of the skin
 With fewer cells
 Found: tendons and ligaments
 Function: provides strength to withstand the pulling of muscles in one
direction.
Tendons – connect bones with muscles
Ligaments – connect bones with bones

3. Cartilage -They can support great weights yet are flexible and elastic.

4. Bones. Weight-bearing tissue of the vertebrate skeleton.

 Supports or protects softer tissues and organs.
 Hardened with minerals
 Limb bones such as the ones in your legs interact with attached muscles to bring
about move
 Production sites for blood cells
 Osteocytes – the cells of matured bones
  Bone is made up of Harvesian system

5. Muscle Tissues.
 Give shape and form to the body; movement and locomotion
 Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary body movements
 Cardiac muscle pumps blood
 Smooth muscle moves the walls of internal organs such as the stomach
Classification:
1. Location:
a. Skeletal – attached to the bone
b. Visceral – found in the internal organs
c. Cardiac – muscles of the heart
2. Function:
a. Voluntary – controlled by the will (control by the Nervous system)
b. Involuntary – cannot be controlled by the will

6. Nerve Tissues. These tissues are composed of nerve cells which are easily
Stimulated and can transmit impulses rapidly.
- Each cell is composed of a cell body containing the nucleus and one or more
extensions called dendrite fibers.
7. Vascular Tissues. (Blood)
 Transports nutrients and oxygen molecules to cells and metabolic wastes away from
cells.
 Composed of 2 major parts: plasma and blood cells (corpuscles)
 Found: in the circulatory system
 Function: carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, ions, nutrients an wastes to and from the
cells; contains cells for immune response (WBC).

3 Types of Blood:
1. RBC – Red Blood Cell known as “Erythrocytes”
- most abundant in the blood;
- present in haemoglobin;
-responsible for carrying oxygen and other digested food to all parts of
the body.

2. WBC – White Blood Cell or the "Lymphocytes”

-are the proactive elements in the immune system that protect the
System from infections or micro-organisms.

3. Blood platelets – are the “ thrombocytes”

- are responsible for blood coagulation especially when there is hemorrhage due
to wounds or cuts.
- Normal platelets: 150 to 300
 REPRODUCTION IN SOME FORMS OF LIFE

Reproduction in organisms may be asexual or sexual. Asexual reproduction does not

involve gametes or sex cells. It occurs in many forms and is performed by many lower forms of
organisms, including plants. Sexual reproduction involves sex ells. Sexual reproduction is a
characteristic of many organisms, including plants, animals, and humans.

 Asexual or Vegetative Reproduction in Flowering Plants

2 kinds of vegetative reproductive processes:

1. Natural Vegetative Reproduction
2. Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

 Natural Vegetative Reproduction

Runners
Runners grow along the ground from the parent plant. They form
adventitious roots & shoots at the tips,. Thus giving rise to new plants. An
example of a plant that has runners is the strawberry.

Tip Layering
Certain plants reproduce by allowing their aerial stems to arch down ward
so that their tips touch the ground. Thus adventitious roots may develop & new
plant shoots can grow. Examples of this type are blackberry, raspberry.

Leaf Reproduction
Some plants develop new plants along the margins of their leaves. An
example is the katakataka plant. In this plant, tiny plantlets develop between the
 teeth in the toothed margin of the thick, fleshy leaves. As the tiny plantlets
increase in size, they drop to the ground & continue to grow.

 Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

Cutting
Cutting is a very common plant propagation method by which portions of
stems & roots are removed & transferred to loose, damp soil or sand. Woody
plants such as roses are easily propagated by stem cutting.

Layering
Layering is a vegetative propagation method that stimulates the growth of
roots & stem. A stem is buried in the ground then cut when roots are formed.

Grafting and Budding

Grafting is the splicing together of two stems, or the union of their
cambium layers-one of the stock(the rooted portion), & the other of the
scion(the cut portion that is joined to the stock). Grafts are of several types:
The whip graft (woody ornamentals), the cleft graft (apples, cherries, peas,
peaches), and the wedge graft (pomegranate).

Budding is similar to grafting except that a bud, rather t5han a branch, is

used as the scion. A healthy bud is selected & removed together with the piece
of bark & the active cambium surrounding it. The bud is then united with the
stock by slipping the piece of bark under the bark of the stock, which has been
opened with a T-shaped cut. This unites the vascular cambium, the source of
the secondary xylem & phloem, of the scion & the Stock. The stock is then
wrapped with elastic tape to secure the bud & prevent it from drying out.

 INTRODUCTION:
Plants are like animals and man. They have parts and each part has its own specific
function. Generally, a typical plant has 3 parts: roots, stems and leaves.

2 Types of Plants:
1. Vascular – trees, grasses
2. Non-vascular – algae - most love in water or in moist land.

1. The ROOT. The root is a leafless plant part which absorbs the dissolved nutrients from the
soil and water. It also serve as anchorage, storage and reproduction organs.
Ex. Sweet potato, carrots and bread fruits
 2 kinds of roots:
1. tap
2. fibrous

- Tap root – is a type which is made up of the main root. Found in dicot plants.
Ex. Raddish, carrots
 Dicot plants – two seed leaves
Ex. Santol, sampaloc, mango, rose, tomatoes & eggplants

- Fibrous type root – is made up of hair like structures of uniform sizes growing
like a brush. Plants belonging to this type are most monocot plants.
Ex. Rice, bamboo, corn and grasses
 Monocot plants – have only one seed leaf
Ex. Orchids, grasses, pineapple, banana, ginger, lilies, onions
& sugarcanes

Characteristics of roots that distinguish them from the stem:

1. Grow downward into the soil.
2. Do not produce leaves and flowers.
3. Usually crooked in shape.

2. The STEM. The stem is a part of the plant bearing the leaves and reproductive organs.
 Functions:
- support of the aerial organs,
- conduction of water and food nutrients from the roots to the leaves and to other parts of
the plant,
- reproduction
- development

Main parts:
1. apical meristem – found on the top of the stem, where embryonic leaves grow.
2. stele – the central part of the root or stem containing the tissues.
3. bark – it is generally referred to as the tissue outside the vascular cambium or wood.

3. The LEAF. The leaf is considered an important part of plant, because it is here where the
plant food is manufactured through the process of photosynthesis.
- the green coloring, chlorophyll is responsible for the transformation of sunlight or
energy from the sun into carbohydrates with the aid of water and carbondioxide.
- on the leaves, are numerous pores called the stomata which are actually responsible
for the respiration in plants.
  Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Through sexual reproduction, flowering plants bring together new combinations of

genes & encase them within seeds. Flowers are reproductive organs. Some flowers are
bred for their large, colorful blooms; others are bred to produce fruits.

 A flower
is specialized branch where several spirals of petals arise

Reproductive parts:
Peduncle: The stalk of a flower.
Receptacle: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached.
Sepal: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that enclose a developing bud.
Petal: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored.
Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament.
supporting the anther.
Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
Pistil: The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports a long style, topped by a
stigma. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the mature ovule is a seed.
Stigma: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates.

A typical flower has the following parts: the calyx, corolla, stamen and pistil.

The calyx is a collection of sepals- the green, leaf-like structures that cover and protect
the rest of the flower in the bud stage. They also support the other parts when the bud opens.

Inside the calyx is the corolla. It usually consists of one or more rows of petals. These
are often, but not always, bright colored. The calyx & the corolla frequently attract insects. They
may also help to protect the inner parts of the flowers. In certain flowers, like the tulip, both the
calyx & the corolla are the same color.

The two reproductive parts of a flower are the stamen (male) and the pistil (female).
They are located at the center of the flower. Each stamen consists of a slender stalk, or filament,
supporting a knoblike sac called the anther. The anther produces various colored grains called
pollen. Pollen contains sperm nuclei, which are essential in reproduction.

The pistil is usually a flask-shaped organ that often consists of a sticky called a stigma; a
selnder stalk, or style, which supports the stigma; and a swollen base, or ovary. The ovary is
joined to the receptacle of the flower stalk. Inside the ovary are the ovules, which later become
seeds. Ovules may number from one to several hundred.

 Pollination – is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma.

 In some plants, pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant. This process is called self-
pollination. If pollination involves flowers of two separate plants, the process is called cross-
pollination. Both processes require outside agents, among which are insects, wind, and water.
Chief among the insect pollinators are bees. Others are moths, butterflies, and other insects that
visit flowers regularly.

Pollens – are actually minute grains which are either powdery or sticky. They are so
light that they can float in the air and travel and suspended for a long time.

 Fertilization
How does plant fertilization occur?
In order for fertilization to occur, sperm cells must be able to reach eggs. The sperm cells of
a flowering plant are contained in pollen grains. Pollination occurs when pollen grains are transported
from anthers to stigmas. After the pollen lands on the stigma, the pollen tube lengthens as it grows
through the soft tissue of the style until it reaches the minute opening of the ovule or the micropyle.
After passing through the micropyle, the pollen tube penetrates the thin wall of the embryo
sac. The tip of the tube ruptures, and the two sperm nuclei enter the embryo sac. The tube nucleus then
degenerates.
Within the embryo sac, one of the two sperm nuclei fertilizes the egg, forming the zygote
(the beginning of a new organism). Double fertilization occurs as the second sperm nucleus unites with
two polar nuclei to produce an endosperm nucleus.
After this double fertilization, rapid cell division & tissue growth begin within the ovule. The
zygote from one sperm nucleus and an egg cell will develop into the embryo plant. Meanwhile, the
endosperm nucleus gives rise to a mass of tissue called endosperm of the seed.

Kinds of Flowers
1. Complete flower – has all the parts – petals, sepal, stamen & pistil
Examples: Gumamela flower, rose, lily
2. Incomplete flower – may lack sepals or petals
Examples: ilang-ilang, santan, bougainvillea, poinsettia.

 Development of Fruits and Seeds

 The Seed
A seed may be defined as a mature ovule. Seeds may be dispersed by natural
means, such as when pods open or fruits fall to the ground or by such dispersing
media as animals, wind, water, or people.

A seed has the following parts: the embryo, stored food, and the seed coat.

1. The embryo – like a very small plant that is contained inside a seed. It has the
potential to form all parts of a mature plant, including stem, root structure,
and leaves. It is protected by the seed coat, which prevents water from
entering the seed before conditions are right for germination.
 2. Stored food – The stored food nourishes the young plant as it emerges from
the seed. In some seeds, foods is stored in a cotyledon, which supplies food
reserves until the first leaves develop.
3. The testa is the outer seed coat – protects the seed. It is smooth and comes in
different colors. The hypocotyl is a fingerlike projection that fits into a
protective pocket. At one end is the radicle (embryonic root) and at the other
end are the epicotyls (two tiny leaves folded over each other). Between the
leaves of the epicotyl is the bud that will later form the plant’s terminal part as
a shoot.

 Seed Germination
Germination – means begin to grow or sprout

Germination happens once the seeds reach new ground, and a new plant begins
to grow. The ability of seeds to germinate is called viability.

Conditions favourable for germination include:

1. A suitable temperature (between 16 degrees centigrade & 27 degrees
centigrade)
2. Plenty of moisture
3. Amount of light available
4. Presence of fertile soil and nutrients

The seed absorbs large quantities of water, and the embryo swells until the seed
coat bursts & the tip of the root of the new plant emerges.

The young plant that develops out of a plant embryo from a seed is called a
seedling.
A seedling consists of the main parts:
1. The radicle (root)
2. Hypocotyl (shoot)
3. Cotyledons (seed leaves)

The young plant begins to grow and eventually mature before entering a new
cycle of reproduction.

Differences Between Monocot and Dicot Plants

Characteristics Monocot Dicot
Cotyledons One Two
Leaves Parallel Netted
Primary Vascular Bundles Scattered in two or more rings Arranged in a ring
Floral Parts Sets of 3’s Set of 5’s or 4’s
Root System Adventitious Primary & Adventitious
Habit About 10% are woody About 50% are woody
The Seed is Dispersed

o Seeds can be dispersed in a variety of ways. They can be blown away by the wind
or carried on water currents. Some plants actually eject their seeds, causing them
to burst away from the parent plant. Some plants depend on animals to disperse
their seed. When birds or other animals eat fruit, they also are carrying away its
seeds, which will pass through their digestive system at another location. Other
 seeds have barbs which attach themselves to passing animals, so that when they
are eventually brushed off, they may land in a place where conditions are right for
growth.

The Seed Finds the Right Conditions

 In order to grow, seed requires a place with right temperature, and water and oxygen.
Some seeds must be exposed to the sun, though not every kind of seed requires sunlight
in order to germinate.

The Seed Takes Up Water

 When conditions are right, the seed starts to takes up water through the seed coat. This
triggers the embryo to use the seed's stored energy. Most seeds have their store of food in
the endosperm, which can contain proteins, carbohydrates or fat.

The Seed Opens

 As the seed continues to absorb water, pressure builds until the seed bursts open. The
radicle, which is the first plant part to emerge from the seed, develops into a root which
grows downward in its attempt to get more water and minerals.

A Shoot Emerges

 A shoot, called a plumule, starts to grow up towards the light and the air. A structure in
the embryo called the cotyledon emerges above the ground to form the first true leaves of
the plant called the seed leaves.

The Cycle Continues

 Growing towards the sun allows the plant's leaves to capture energy through
photosynthesis. If the plant's needs for sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide are met, it will
grow and thrive until it matures and produces seeds of its own.

EMBRYO

 What is an embryo?
- The word embryo, comes from a Greek word that can be translated: something
that grows in a body. In botany, the plant embryo looks like a very small plant that
is contained inside a seed.
 Significance

- The plant's fertilized egg is also called a zygote or embryo, which remains in and
grows to fill the embryo sac. The cells that developed as a result of double
fertilization become the end of sperm. As the embryo grows, the endosperm
surrounds it. The endosperm provides the stored nutrients to feed the plant from
the time that it is planted until it sprouts.

GERMINATION

 Germination – means begin to grow or sprout

- Germination happens once the seeds reach new ground, and a new plant begins to
grow. Seeds only sprout if the location and timing are suitable. Suitability includes
the correct temperature, quantity of moisture, the amount of light available and the
presence of fertile soil and nutrients. The seed absorbs large quantities of water,
and the embryo swells until the seed coat bursts and the tip of the root of the new
plant emerges. This root anchors the seed in place and enables the embryo to
absorb nutrients and water from the soil. The plant begins to grow and eventually
mature, before entering a new cycle of reproduction.

INFLORESCENCE

 What is Inflorescence?
- Is the arrangement of the group of flowers on plants.

Flowers are borne singly at the end of branches or at their axis, others are occurring in
inflorescence containing three or four or in a hundred flowers.
 REPRODUCTION in ANIMALS
Reproduction – is the process by which plants and animals give rise to offsprings.

 How animals reproduce?

- In sexual reproduction , two parents donate genes to their young, resulting in
offspring with a mix of inherited genes (a basic unit of heredity lying in
chromosomes).
- Two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place:
1. External fertilization – the eggs are fertilized outside of the body.
- it occurs mostly in wet environments and requires both the male and the female
to release their gametes into their surroundings (usually water). An advantage of
external fertilization is that results in the production of a large number of offspring.
One disadvantage is that environmental hazards such as predators greatly reduce
the chance of surviving into adulthood.
- ex. Amphibians and fish (a creature that spends part of its life in land and
part in water. (frogs & crabs)

2. Internal fertilization – the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive
tract.
- animals that use internal fertilization specialize in the protection of the
developing egg.
- ex. Reptiles & birds – secrete eggs that are covered by a protective shell
that is resistant to water loss and damage.
Mammals – allowing the embryo to develop within the mother. Most
mammalian mothers continue to care for their young for several years at birth.

 Fertilization - the action or process of fertilizing an egg, female animal or plant,

involving the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote. (fertilized ovum)
- It can either be external or internal.

 The manner in which the eggs are produced may either be:
1. oviparous – are those animals producing eggs.
Ex. Birds, aquatic invertebrates like shrimps & insects like ants.

2. ovoviviparous – are those producing eggs with much yolk that develop within the
oviducts or uterus of the females.
 Ex. Lizards & snake

3. viviparous – are those producing microscopic eggs that are retained in the body or
uterus of the females like in human species.
 Digestive System
– process of breaking and digesting foods.

Two main groups:

1. Digestive tract – a muscular and mucous membrane-lined tube where food is digested and
absorbed. The mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus
comprise the alimentary canal.

2. Accessory organs – secrete digestive enzymes that aid in digestion. These include the
pancreas, liver, and gall bladder.

Two main functions:

1. To break down food into molecules (digestion)
2. To carry nutrients through the blood vessels for distribution all throughout the body (absorption).

o Digestion has two phases – mechanical and chemical.

1. Mechanical digestion – involves the tearing, grinding, and chewing of food into smaller
pieces.
2. Chemical digestion – involves the conversion of food particles into molecules that the body
can use.

o The process of chemical digestion takes place with the help of enzymes. Enzymes are biological
substances which act as catalysts – they speed up chemical reactions. Enzymes break down or put
together molecules.

How the Digestive System Works:

Once food enters the mouth, mechanical digestion and chemical digestion take place. Food is cut,
torn, and crushed by your teeth. Inside the mouth, food is moistened with the help of the tongue which
mixes the food with saliva, until it forms a mass of chewed food called bolus. Saliva is a liquid substance
that contains mucus and salivary amylase or ptyalin, a digestive enzyme which breaks down starches to
maltose (a simple sugar).
The tongue masticates the food and then pushes it down at the back of the mouth for swallowing.
When the food is swallowed, it passes through the pharynx, a passageway of both air and food. At the
same time, the epiglottis (a flap muscle) closes the entry to the trachea to prevent the bolus from going
into the air passage. From the pharynx, food goes through the esophagus, a muscular tube that leads to
the stomach. As you swallow, a strong contraction pushes down the food from the pharynx to the
esophagus, forming a wavelike motion called peristalsis.
From the esophagus, the food goes through the stomach, the J-shaped organ located at the upper
left side of your body. The stomach has two sphincters on its both ends. The esophageal sphincter is
located at the end of the esophagus connected to the stomach. It prevents the food from reentering the
esophagus. Located at the other end of the stomach is the pyloric sphincter which prevents the food from
going out of the stomach.
 The inner walls of the stomach contain gastric glands. The secretory cells in each gland release
enzyme. The secretions make up the gastric juices.
Gastric juices have various functions that contribute to the digestion in the stomach.
Food stays in the stomach for around 2-6 hours. During that time, the stomach continues to
digest food. The food that leaves the stomach appears in a form of a thick, semifluid mass called chime.
The chyme goes into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter. The small intestine performs
chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients.
The small intestine has three sections: duodenum, which is directly attached to the stomach
where chime is mixed with pancreatic juice and bile; jejunum, the middle part where the chemical
breakdown of chime is completed; and ileum, the longest part where digested food is absorbed into the
bloodstream.
The complete digestion in the small intestine happens because of the presence of various
enzymes it produces - peptidase which breaks peptides into amino acids, sucrose which acts on sucrose,
maltase which acts on maltose, and lactase which acts on lactose - and additional enzymes produced by
the accessory organs (pancreas and liver) of the digestive system. The pancreatic juice (from the
pancreas) and bile (from the liver) and brought into the small intestine through the pancreatic and bile
ducts, respectively.
After the complete digestion of carbohydrates into monosaccharides, proteins into amino acids,
and fats into fatty acids, these nutrients are now small enough to be absorbed by the cells of the small
intestine through the tiny, fingerlike projections lining the small intestine called villi. Each villus is
covered with many microvilli (microscopic projections smaller than villi). The villi and microvilli
projections increase the internal surface area of the small intestine which enables easy absorption of
nutrients. The villi are also connected to the blood vessels which transport the nutrients to the different
parts of the body through the blood.
Before blood containing nutrients is distributed throughout the body, it passes through the blood
vessels called hepatic portal veins which are connected to the liver, the largest gland in the body. The
liver filters and breaks down drugs and other harmful substances in the blood. When the liver has broken
down these harmful substances, its by-products are excreted into the bile or blood. Bile by-products go
into the large intestine where they are eventually excreted in the form of feces, while blood by-products
are filtered out by the kidneys and leave the body in the form of urine. The liver also stores vitamins
(vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12) and minerals from the blood and helps regulate the cholesterol and
glucose level in the blood.
The undigested materials from the small intestine go into the large intestine. The large intestine
is part of the digestive tract which extends from the ileum to the anus. It is the site of the last phase of
digestion. The colon is the part of the large intestine that reabsorbs vitamins and minerals which were not
absorbed in the small intestine. The large intestine also reabsorbs water. The rest of the materials go to the
rectum which stores feces until they are defecated through the anus.

Keeping the Digestive System Healthy:

“The key to a healthy digestive system is proper nutrition – a balanced diet of carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats, plus essential minerals and vitamins.

Carbohydrates:
- Are the most abundant group of organic compounds.
- Are the body’s primary source of energy.
- They provide energy needed for muscle contraction.
- Are digested into simple sugars which are then directly absorbed and utilized by the body.

Two major types of carbohydrates in foods:

1. Simple carbohydrates
- made up of single sugar compounds-glucose, fructose, and lactose.
- found naturally in foods such as fruits, vegetables, honey, milk, and dairy products. They also include
refined sugar or table sugar.

2. Complex carbohydrates
- starch is a complex carbohydrate. Plants store glucose as starch. Starch in plants is converted by the
body into glucose during digestion. Beans, bread, peas, potatoes, and cereal grains are good sources of
starch.
- Fiber is also a complex carbohydrates. Fibers cannot be digested by the body because it does not have
enzymes to break them down for absorption by the cells. Fibers can be soluble and insoluble. Soluble
fibers dissolve in water, while insoluble fibers do not. Soluble fibers combine with fatty acids in the small
intestine and are released out of the body as wastes. These fibers also lower the cholesterol level absorbed
into the bloodstream. On the other hand, insoluble fibers add bulk to the fecal material. They also aid
fecal movement in the large intestine, resulting in a normal bowel movement. Vegetables, fruits, nd nuts
are good sources of fiber.

Lipids:
- Are organic compounds that do not dissolve in water.
- Examples of lipids inclide oils and fats. If a lipid is liquid at romm temperature, it is
generally referred to as oil, and if it is solid, it generally referred to as fat.
- Lipids act as an energy reserve. It provide essential fatty acids (EFA’s) that the body
cannot make itself.
- Salmon, sardines, tuna, plant oils (e.g. canola oil and olive oil), and seeds (e.g. walnuts,
and almonds) can supply the body with fatty acids. However, these foods contain saturated
fats. Saturated fats are fat that cause high low-density lipoproteins levels or LDL levels
(“bad cholesterol”).
- Too much consumption of foods that are rich in saturated fats causes the level of
cholesterol in your blood to build up over time. Raised cholesterol increases a person’s
risk of heart disease.
- Cholesterol is a lipid produced by the body. It is important in making bile and vitamin D.
EFA’s such as omega-3 are essential fatty acids which are important in reducing
inflammation and in lessening a person’s susceptibility to chronic diseases such as heart
disease and cancer. Cheese, egg yolk, and shellfish (like lobsters and shrimps) are some of
the foods that are rich in cholesterol.
- Fats are important in our diet. They provide protection and structural support to help
prevent injury to vital organs such as the heart, liver and kidneys. They insulate the body
from heat loss and extreme temperature changes. Fats also help absorb vitamins A,D,E,K
through the blood stream and maintain the health of skin and hair.
- Although they are essential to our body, excessive intake of fats can lead to health
problems including obesity, cardiovascular disease, and some forms of cancer. Hence, it is
always advised to eat fat-rich foods in moderation.
Proteins:
- Proteins are organic substances which are the building blocks of the body.
- Are made up of several small molecules called amino acids.
- The digestive system breaks down proteins into amino acids that the body needs to
produce cellular proteins.
- All cells in our body contain proteins.
- Are important for the growth of cells and tissue repair. Lack of proteins in the body
hinders growth, especially in children.
 - There are 20 different amino acids and 9 of these are considered as essential because they
cannot be produced by the body; they can only be obtained through diet.
- Animal sources of protein such as fish, meat, eggs, milk and other dairy and poultry
products are good sources of complete proteins. This means that the proteins found in an
animal product contains each of the nine essential amino acids.
- Foods derived from plants are sources of incomplete proteins; they generally do not
contain as much protein as those derived from animals. Examples include legumes such as
nuts, soybeans, and soy-based products like tofu and soymilk.

Minerals:
- Are needed by the body to maintain normal physiological functions.
- There are 20 minerals needed by the body.
- Plants absorb mineral from the soil which are dissolved in water. Animals obtain minerals
by eating plants or other organisms. In humans, the majority of minerals are absorbed by
the small intestine.
Classification:
1. Major minerals – are minerals needed by the body greater than 100 milligrams (mg) a day.
2. Trace minerals – are needed by the body in very small amounts (less than 100 mg a day).
- Too little or too much intake of minerals may cause bad health conditions. Lack of iron can
result in insufficient red blood cells causing a run-down feeling. This condition is called anemia and is
normally experienced by women during menstruation. Older people are advised to take calcium
supplements to prevent osteoporosis, a degenerative bone disease in which calcium in bone is lost,
making the bone more porous and les dense.

Vitamins:
- Are organic compounds that regulate various metabolic activities of the body.
- Are needed by the body to grow and function normally.
- Are important in maintaining the overall health of the body.
- Vitamins A, C, and E are believed to help the body fight aginst free radicals (atoms or
molecules with unpaired electrons that can cause damage once they interact with the
cellular components of the body such as DNA).
- Vitamins C and D are important in keeping the teeth healthy.
- Vitamin B complex helps in the efficient functioning of the digestive system.
- Vitamin B1 plays an important role in keeping a person’s appetite. It also ensures that the
nerves function well, so the digestive system can send signals to the brain when it is full or
hungry, or if the food tastes good or bad.
- Vitamin B3 functions by keeping the digestive tract healthy.
- There are 13 vitamins needed by the body.
- The best way to get all the daily vitamins you need is to eat a balanced diet that contains a
wide variety of fruits, vegetables, fortified dairy foods, and whole grains.
- It is recommended by the World Health Organization that a person takes at least 400
grams or 2-3 cups of fruits and vegetables a day.
  Digestive System

Ways to Take Care of the Digestive System:

 Eat in moderation, especially foods which are high in refined sugar and saturated fat. This will
also prevent you from contracting diabetes or cardiovascular disease.
 Drink enough water every day. Your body needs water to metabolize the food you eat.
 Chew your food slowly and make sure that you are relaxed while eating. Doing so will facilitate
easier and proper digestion of food.
 Exercise regularly. Exercising can help in proper metabolism. Regular exercise helps reduce the
accumulation of fat from oily foods. Reduced fat volume helps in improving blood circulation
and distribution of nutrients throughout the body.
 Observe proper posture. This can help in the proper digestion of food. Incorrect posture can slow
down digestion.
Disorders of the Digestive System:
A disorder is a disturbance of the regular or normal functioning of the body.
 Diarrhea – characterized by loose bowel which is sometimes accompanied by vomiting. It is
usually caused by eating contaminated foods which infect the digestive tract. Whwn experiencing
diarrhea, you must drink plenty of water and take oral rehydration salts to prevent dehydration
and loss of vital minerals such as potassium.
 Constipation – characterized by a hard, dry stool, and bowel movements that are infrequent or
hard to pass. Constipation can be prevented by drinking plenty of water, eating fiber-rich foods,
and having regular exercise.
 Irritable bowel syndrome – a disorder in which a person alternately experiences diarrhea and
constipation. It is caused by stress, allergies, and insufficient intake of dietary fiber. Change in
lifestyle, drinking enough water, and eating fiber-rich foods can help prevent having such
disorder.
 Obesity – an abnormal accumulation of fat in the body. It is a metabolic disorder which occurs
when a person takes in more calories than the amount he or she uses. Too much consumption of
food causes the body to store fat and lack of physical activity prevents the fat from being
metabolized by the body. Obesity can increase a person’s chances of having diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. This can be prevented by exercising regularly, having a
healthy diet, and monitoring weight regularly.
 Lactose intolerance – the inability of the body to absorb sugar. It is caused by a deficiency in the
enzyme lactase which breaks down sugar. Consumption of foods containing lactose such as milk
and dairy products may lead to diarrhea, bloating, and excess gas. The treatment of this disorder
includes taking lactase supplements before eating foods containing lactose.

Diseases of the Digestive System:

A disease is an important of the normal functioning of the parts of the body manifested by
particular signs and symptoms as a response to environmental conditions, infective agents, genetic
conditions, or a combination of these factors.
 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) – a disease in which the ingested food leaks back
from the stomach into the esophagus. It happens when the esophageal sphincter does not close
well, resulting in severe heartburn (a burning sensation in the chest), dysphagia (difficulty in
swallowing), and reflux (regurgitation). The stomach acid that flows back can irritate and inflame
the lining of the esophagus. Some foods and drinks (chocolate, fatty foods, spicy or acid-
containing foods, alcoholic drinks, and peppermint) should be avoided. Doctors also recommend
patients to take an antacid an hour after meals to neutralize the acidity in the stomach.
 Esophagitis – the inflammation of the esophagus commonly caused by infection.
Symptoms: difficulty in swallowing and acid regurgitation.
Treatment: medication and change of eating habits such as avoiding spicy or acidic/sour foods.
 Peptic ulcer – a painful lesion of the stomach or small intestine.
Symptoms : pain or burning sensation in the stomach immediately after eating, in between
meals, or at night when the stomach is empty.
Treatment: medication, and in rare instances, surgery to tie off an artery from a bleeding ulcer.
 Gastritis – a disease that causes the inflammation of the lining of the stomach.
Causes: alcohol abuse, cigarette smoking, excessive consumption of coffee and acidic beverages,
and prolonged used of non steroidal inflammatory drugs like aspirin and ibuprofen.
Symptoms: nausea, feeling of fullness or burning, abdominal pain, belching, and indigestion.
 Treatment: depends on the cause – If the causes are alcohol and drugs, and excessive
consumption of acidic beverages or cigarette, the treatment is simply to stop consuming or using
them. If it is caused by an infection, take prescribed antibiotics.
Prevention: changing lifestyle habits and doing regular exercises such as yoga.
 Colon cancer – the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the large intestine.
Symptoms: stomach cramping and bloating, bloody unusually thin stool, vomiting, feeling very
tired, and unexplained weight loss.
Treatment: surgery, use of high energy x-rays called radiotherapy, and use of very strong drugs
that kill or stop abnormal cells from dividing called chemotherapy.
Prevention: having a balanced diet, losing excess fat, and exercising.

 Respiratory System

Diseases of the Respiratory System:

 Lung cancer – the most common type of cancer in the world and one of the leading causes of
cancer-related deaths in the Philippines. Cancer occurs when cells grow and divide
uncontrollably, affecting the surrounding parts of the body.
Symptoms: incessant cough, coughing of blood, swelling of the neck and face, fatigue, shortness
of breath, and chest pain.
Treatment: depends on the stage of the disease but it includes chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and
surgery to destroy or remove cancer cells.

 Bronchial asthma – a disease caused by the narrowing of the bronchial airways of the lungs
which can lead to cough, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. Bronchial asthma is caused by
allergens pr4esent in the surroundings, reactions to medicines such as aspirin, infections, and air
pollution.
Treatment: use of inhalers called bronchodilators, which contain medicine that causes the
bronchi airways to dilate.

 Bronchitis – an inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes caused by the infection of
viruses and bacteria. The disease is acquired through cigarette smoking and exposure to polluted
air.
Symptoms: coughing, difficulty in breathing, and excessive mucus secretion.
Treatment: antibiotics and increased fluid intake to minimize the discomfort from the symptoms.

 Emphysema – an inflammation and damage to the air sacs of the lungs. Emphysema is caused by
smoking and sometimes comes as an individual ages.
 Symptoms: breathlessness and severe difficulty in breathing. There is no cure for the disease
since damage in the lungs is irreversible.
Treatment: use of antibiotics and bronchodilators, and cessation from smoking.

 Tuberculosis – an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Myobacterium tuberculosis. People

suffering from this disease experience fever, night sweats, weight loss, and blood-stained sputum.
The disease can be cured by taking antibiotics.

 Circulatory System

Diseases of the Circulatory System:

 Myocardial Infarction or heart attack – happens when the coronary arteries, or one of their
smaller branches leading to a part of the muscle is blocked, usually caused by a blood cot.
Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, light-headedness or sudden dizziness, shortness of breath, chest
pain and discomfort, and upper body discomfort in one or both arms, left shoulder, neck, jaw or
back, or upper part of the stomach.

 Arrhythmia – an abnormality in the beating of the heart.

Symptoms: a person experience fatigue, shortness of breath, or fainting since the condition may
cause not enough blood supply to a person’s bosy.
Treatment: