X Cathodic protection

The excellent resistance of 5000 and 6000 series aluminium-

magnesium alloys to corrosion in marine environments in general
and immersion in seawater in particular requires no added
protection.
Whatever a vessel’s system of propulsion however, e.g.
conventional screw or hydrojet, cathodic protection is needed to
neutralize the bimetallic couple between the submerged
aluminium alloy structure and propulsion components such as
stainless steel prop shafts, bronze screws or steel hydrojets.

1 The principle of cathodic protection

of aluminium
The cathodic protection of aluminium is achieved by means of
sacrificial anodes whose weight and distribution over the hull is
determined individually for each boat in studies carried out by
contractors who are specialists in cathodic protection.
The purpose of the anodes is to reduce the electric potential of
the bronze, stainless steel and other metals to more negative
levels approaching those of aluminium.
At the working point of the ternary system which is formed by:
• the aluminium hull,
• the screw and shaft (bronze and/or stainless steel) or steel
hydro jet,
• the consumable anodes,
the anodes release a current such that the potential Ec of the
metals (bronze, SS etc ) falls, as does the potential Ea of
aluminium, with the result that the potentials of all the metals
present in the vessel find a common level Epc, thereby eliminating

99
all risk of bimetallic corrosion to the aluminium alloy hull (or other
structure).
Electric current flows, and so the anodes are consumed. The life
of the anodes depends on a number of factors: the propulsion
system, the surface to be protected, the surface condition,
temperature of seawater etc., and so it is essential to check the
condition of the anodes when careening the boat and to replace
them as often as necessary.

2 Choice of anodes
The electric potential of aluminium must not be reduced by more
than 250 to 300 millivolts from its starting potential. The extreme
limit tolerated by the potential of aluminium with cathodic
protection is -1 200 mV ECS (1). Beyond this there is a risk of
“cathodic corrosion” (2) which will cause the paint first to blister
and then to flake off, and will finally attack the metal.
This is why magnesium anodes should not be used because they
reduce the potential of the aluminium excessively.
Anodes made from the following materials are suitable:
• special aluminium alloys: "Hydral" or “Mercatal”
• zinc.

Notes:
For the cathodic protection of the submerged aluminium alloy structure to work properly,
it is essential that:
• the boat's propulsion system is equipotentially bonded with the hull (3),
• the anodes are not painted and anode and hull are in perfect contact (4).
Finally, a system of cathodic protection by applied current is not advisable for aluminium
craft as it is difficult to handle and poses too many risks for the aluminium hull unless it is
perfectly set up.

3 Quayside protection
At the quayside, boats may well be moored close to or in contact
with a quay made of steel or reinforced concrete and with other
craft made from steel, and any sufficiently conductive contact
between them can cause bimetallic corrosion of the aluminium
hull.
To prevent this risk, some companies supply mobile or pendant
anodes designed to be fitted over the winter. These systems are
ideal for pleasure craft that are tied up at the same place for long
periods of time.

100
Note:
Everything which has been said about the cathodic protection of a boat applies only to
fixed structures immersed in seawater that require this type of protection. It goes without
saying that cathodic protection only works for the submerged part of the vessel.

Notes
(1) mV ecs = millivolts measured against
the standard calomel electrode.
(2) If the electric potential of aluminium
falls too far the H+ ions in the water will
decrease, resulting in a local excess of
OH; i.e. a very strong alkalinization of
the hull s immediate environment, with a
serious risk of corrosion as aluminium is
not resistant to the alkaline medium. This
“cathadic corrosion” has a specific
appearance that makes it easy to
identify. If the metal is painted, the paint
may blister. The corollary is not true
however, i.e. paint blisters are not
necessarily a sign of “cathodic corrosion”.
(3) cf chapter 11.
(4) The fitting instructions supplied by
the makers of cathodic protection and
anodes must be followed carefully.

101
XI Electrical systems

There is no reason to treat the electrical system of a boat with an

aluminium hull any differently from that of a craft with a steel
hull. So far as the safety of personnel and equipment is
concerned, it is essential to comply with the appropriate
standards and regulations and the requirements of classification
societies such as the Bureau Veritas, DNV, Lloyds, ABS etc.
This is all the more important given the ongoing growth in the use
of aluminium vessels for passenger transport, fishing etc. and the
demand for ever greater d.c. and a.c. power ratings, particularly
in a.c. ratings of 110, 240 and even 440 Volts.
The recommendations made in this chapter contain a number of
elementary rules that, if carefully applied, will avoid risks of
corrosion to an aluminium hull, especially with d.c. systems on
board.

1 General rules
Three basic rules must be observed:

1.1 Rule one: the hull is the earth

When the supply exceeds 55 Volts it is important to earth the

entire structure to ensure safety and the correct operation of the
electrical and electronic system. This earth is provided by the hull
which is itself in contact with the seawater and so becomes the
reference potential of the system (the “ground”). It is advisable to
have just one earthing point.

102
Each earthing circuit:
• of the d.c. system,
• of the a.c. system,
• of the “electronic” system,
is connected to a single terminal sited in a junction box. From
here the connection to the hull is made using a flexible aluminium
cable welded to a point on the hull outside the wet zone. Earthing
systems must be in shielded cable.
If the earthing system is made with copper cable it is essential to
use a bimetallic aluminium-copper lug at the junction box and
weld it to the aluminium cable to provide contact at the copper
terminal.
If the aluminium cable cannot be welded to the hull there should
be a bolted connection made between the cable end and some
component of the hull (frame, stiffener).
The contact faces should be coated with a compound (suitable for
use with aluminium) to improve the electrical quality of the
contact.

1.2 Rule two: the hull must be equipotentially bonded

with all the metal parts of the electrical
equipment

There are two reasons for this:

• personnel safety, when the power supply exceeds 55 Volts d.c.
or a.c.,
• the operation of the electrical equipment.
•Equipotential bonding is achieved by connecting up the various
metal masses to the earthing circuit.
The propulsion system
Boatbuilders usually install drive motors, propeller shaft brackets
etc. on rubber mountings or elastomer bearer plates to absorb
vibration. Some also do this to prevent bimetallic corrosion of the
supports, e.g. aluminium ribs, sections etc. when these are in
contact with cast iron or steel beams, should water ever be
present.
Only the holding-down bolts will ensure electrical contact between
the motor and the hull (unless they are insulated by plastic
sleeves), and this contact is not always perfect given the
clearance between screw and thread and the presence of
substances such as oil, diesel etc.

103
While this arrangement is quite proper for protecting the
aluminium from possible bimetallic corrosion and reducing noise
and vibration, it is nevertheless essential for the drive system to
be equipotentially bonded to the hull otherwise the cathodic
protection (1) will not work (2).
The metal enclosure of the drive motor must therefore be
connected to the earth system or aluminium support by a flexible
cable.

1.3 Rule three: the hull must not be used as the

return circuit for the electrical distribution system

This means that:

• in d.c. systems there must be two shielded supply wires, one
per pole,
• in a.c. systems there must be one wire for each phase plus one
neutral (if distributed).
Given the hostility (presence of salt) and moisture of the marine
environment it is important to select equipment suitable for use
under adverse conditions. Particular care should be taken with
connections, and these should be made off the floor in plastic
impermeable enclosures (3) to prevent current leakage.
Cable runs in the bilge should be avoided in pleasure craft.
Preference should be given to drives whose auxiliary units, e.g.
starter motors etc., are bipolar (with return cable).

2 Direct current systems

2.1 Batteries

These are best accommodated in a ventilated battery box lined

with an insulation material and impermeable to acid spillage.
This precaution is indispensable to avoid stray currents in the
event of a loss of electrolyte and to prevent attack on the
surrounding metal.
It is always advisable to disconnect batteries at both poles while
pleasure craft are being wintered.

104
2.2 Earthing

If one of the battery poles has to be earthed it should be the

minus (–) pole.

2.3 Insulation testing

The insulation of the d.c. distribution system should be checked at

regular intervals, and a simple test arrangement will enable this
check to be performed (4).
During normal operation the earthing rod is closed, switch C is off
and the circuit breaker is made. Routine testing is done as
follows:
• open earthing rod,
• circuit breaker off,
• switch to position 2 – any insulation fault in the negative circuit
will cause the voltmeter to deflect,
• switch to position 1 – any insulation fault in the positive circuit
will cause the voltmeter to deflect.

3 Alternating current systems

3.1 Neutral

If the neutral is not distributed and must be connected to earth

this should be done across a high impedance to limit the level of
any stray currents.

3.2 Insulation testing

This should be done by a suitable device that continuously

monitors the insulation of the a.c. distribution system.

3.3 Quayside supply

Most harbours, marinas etc. have facilities for supplying craft with
power from the onshore system which is usually earthed. The two
systems, i.e. the shore supply and the ship-board system, must
be discontinous otherwise the aluminium hull and the submerged
steel parts of the quay – sheet piling, steel re-bar etc. – will form
the two poles of a galvanic cell, and the aluminium will corrode

105
because the aluminium hull will become the anode protecting the
submerged steel parts.
This risk is easily eliminated by installing an isolating transformer
at the entry to the boat's on-board current distribution system.

Note:
This same applies if the aluminium vessel is moored to the quay with steel hawsers or if
water is supplied to it through steel piping. All links connecting the vessel to the quayside
must be made of plastic material.

Notes

(1) cf chapter 10, p. 88

(2) If the drive is not bipolar and is well
insulated from the hull, if the starter
motor short-circuits the metal fittings on
diesel or petrol lines will act as a
conductor for the short-circuit current,
and heat is all that is needed to ignite the
fuel.
(3) The “IPXX” enclosure class of these
items must be selected as recommended
in the relevant standards, e.g. CEI 529,
AFNOR NF C 20 010, DIN 40 050, B5
5490 etc.
(4) It is also possible to use conventional
arrangement with indicator lights instead of
voltmeter.

106
XII Fire safety of aluminium alloy
structures

The International Convention on the Safety of Human Life at Sea

(SOLAS1 [1] (1) explicitly permits the use of aluminium alloys in
shipbuilding:
“Steel or other equivalent material. Whenever the words
“steel or other equivalent material” occur, the term “equivalent
material” shall be taken to mean any non-combustible material
which, by itself or with insulation, possesses properties equivalent
to those of steel in regard to mechanical strength and integrity at
the end of the standard fire test (e g a suitably insulated
aluminium alloy)” (2)
The rules for protecting aluminium alloy structures are therefore
the same as for steel structures. In particular they must:
• retard the passage of smoke and flame for a maximum of 1
hour depending on the structure classification AO to A60 (3);
• be insulated by non-flammable materials such that the surface
of bulkheads not exposed to fire does not exceed 139°C within 1
hour and such that the core of the bulkhead does not rise by
more than 200°C above ambient temperature (4).
The sole restriction on the use of aluminium is that:
“the enclosures and drums of category A machine rooms must be
made of properly insulated steel and any openings must be sited
and protected in a manner that prevents the propagation of fire”.
(5)
The theory of the fire safety of structures in aluminium alloy is
governed by the same principles and methods as those used for
steel structures.
These principles and methods relate to the intrinsic properties of
the metal – its melting point (6), mechanical characteristics and

107
thermal conductivity- and this chapter discusses the changes in
these properties as a function of changes in temperature.
Experience and tests (described below) show that it is perfectly
feasible to protect aluminium alloy structures in order to prevent
them collapsing. Reliable and proven techniques exist which can
maintain the stability of aluminium alloy structures under load for
several hours.

1 Classification of aluminium alloys

Standard materials such as steels and aluminium alloys are
considered a priori to be MO (fireproof materials) and non-
combustible as defined by Resolution OMI 472 (Xll) within the
framework of SOLAS [2].
This means that, in a fire situation, these materials cannot give
rise to combustion. [3]

2 Change in the physical properties of

aluminium alloys as a function of
temperature
The values indicated below for aluminium alloys and for steel as a
comparison are based on a selection of specialist literature and
typical internal data that is currently available. They are not
guaranteed values and should not therefore be used for
calculation purposes.

2.1 Change in yield point

The characteristic curve of the yield point over temperature can

be expressed graphically or by the following conventional
equations:
Notations:
θ = temperature in °C
logn = natural logarithm
σe ( θ ) = 0.2 % yield point at θ °C
σe = 0.2 % yield point at ambient temperature

108
a) Aluminium alloy 5083-O
For 0 < θ < 240°C:
σe (θ ) θ
= 1.0 +
σe  θ 
1066 logn 
 382 

For 240°C < θ < 400°C:

 0 
176  1 – 
σ e( θ )  400 
=
σe – 120 + θ

b) Aluminium alloy 6061 T6

For 0 < θ < 240°C:
σ e( θ ) θ
= 1.0 +
σe  θ 
900 logn  
 410 

For 240°C < θ < 410°C:

 θ 
268  1 –
σ e( θ )  410 
=
σe – 14 + θ

c) Aciers courants
For 0 < θ ≤ 600°C:
σ e( θ ) θ
σe
= 1.0 +  θ 
900 logn  
 1750 

For 600°C < θ < 1000°C:

σ e( θ ) 340 – 0. 34 θ
=
σe – 240 + θ

2.2 Change in modulus of elasticity

The characteristic curve of the modulus of elasticity over

temperature can be expressed graphically or by the following
conventional equations:
Notations:
θ = temperature in °C
logn = natural logarithm

109
E ( θ ) = modulus of elasticity at θ °C
E = modulus of elasticity at ambient temperature
a) Non-alloyed aluminium “1050”
E(θ ) θ
= 1+
E  θ 
527 logn  
 7 574 

b) Non-alloyed aluminium 6061 T6

E(θ ) θ
= 1+
E  θ 
811 logn  
 1 177 

c) Standard steels
For 0 < θ < 600°C
E(θ ) θ
= 1+
E  θ 
2 000 logn  
 1 100 

For 600 < θ < 1000°C

E(θ ) 690 – 0.69 θ
=
E θ – 53.5

2.3 Change in thermal conductivity of aluminium

λ = 0,045 θ + 202
in W m–1 °C–1
θ = temperature °C

2.5 Change in specific heat

a) Aluminium alloy 5083 “0”

Cp = 0.418 θ + 900
in J kg–1°C–1
θ = temperature °C
b) Aluminium alloy 6061
Cp = 0.71 θ + 880
in J kg–1°C–1
θ = temperature °C

110
2.5 Change in thermal expansion

Aluminium alloys 5083 and 6061

α( θ ) = (0.025 θ + 21.85)10–6
α( θ ) = specific linear thermal expansion at the temperature θ in
°C.

3 Fire safety of aluminium alloy structures

The behaviour of aluminium alloys in the presence of fire is
sometimes the object of criticism – they are accused of having
only a low resistance to fire.
These criticisms are unjustified however, as it has been shown
that aluminium alloy structures, properly calculated and
protected, can afford the same level of safety as any other metal
structure.

3.1 Fire resistance of aluminium alloy structures

As was stated previously, aluminium and its alloys cannot give

rise to combustion. Like other structural materials in widespread
use, a considerable loss of elastic mechanical characteristics is
observed when temperature rises.
Thus 50 % of elastic strength is lost when the following
temperature is reached:
• 250°C for aluminium alloys,
• 500°C for structural steel.
As a result, whenever there is a requirement to guarantee long-
term mechanical integrity in a fire situation (e.g. fire-retarding
bulkheads) it will be necessary – as with other metal materials –
to make use of a protective covering.
The following coverings can provide stability for structures
depending on their nature and thickness:
• intumescent paints 15 to 45 minutes
• projection products 1 to 4 hours
• protective panels 1 to 4 hours
• special products 1 to 6 hours
The reader should consult specialist literature for further
particulars, e.g. ref. [5].

111
3.2 Fire resistance tests on aluminium alloy structures

In 1982 and 1983 tests were carried out on isostatic and

hyperstatic beams at the CTICM fire testing establishment (Centre
Technique Industriel de la Construction Métallique) at Maizières-
les-Metz [7].
The results of four tests are shown below.

a) Results of first test on isostatic beam

The beam consisting of an l of 200 x 200 x 12 thick in 6005-A T5
is subjected to two loads of 2830 daN.
It is protected by a box made with panels of PROMABEST "Y" [6]
20 mm thick (7).
0.2 % yield point of 6005-A T5 = 235 MPa
Bending stress at ambient σf = 69 MPa
RESULT:
FIRE STABILITY 1 HOUR
b) Results of second test on isostatic beam
The beam consisting of an I of 200 x 200 x 12 thick in 6005-A T5
is subjected to two loads of 1115 daN.
It is protected by a box made with panels of PROMABEST “Y” [6]
2 x 15 mm thick.
0.2 % yield point of 6005-A T5 = 35 Mpa
Bend stress at ambient σf = 27 Mpa
σf = 27 Mpa
RESULT:
FIRE STABILITY 1 HOUR

c) Results of first test on hyperstatic beam

The beam consisting of an I of 200 x 200 x 12 thick in 6005-A T5
is subjected to two loads of 3600 kg.
It is protected by a box made with panels of PROMABEST “Y” [6]
20 mm thick.
0.2 % yield point of 6005-A T5 = 235 MPa
Bending stress at ambient σf = 68 Mpa

112
 RESULT:
FIRE STABILITY 1 HOUR
d) Results of second test on hyperstatic beam
The beam consisting of an I of 200 x 200 x 12 thick in 6005-A T5
is subjected to four loads of 7300 daN.
It is protected by a box made with panels of PROMABEST "Y" [6]
2 x 16 mm thick.
0.2 % yield point of 6005-A T5 = 235 MPa
Bending stress at ambient σf = 138 MPa
RESULT:
FIRE STABILITY
1 HOUR 30 MINUTES

Notes
(1) Figures in [ ] refer to the bibliography
at the end of the chapter.
(2) International Convention on the
Safety of Human life at Sea, section 7 of
Rule N°3 in chapter II.2.
{3) Idem, section 3 of Rule N°3 of
chapter 11.2.
(4) Idem, section 3 of Rule N°3 of
chapter 11.2.
(5) Idem, section 3 of Rule N°23 of
chapter 11.2.
(6) The melting point of commercial-
purity aluminium is 660°C.
(7) This is a product based on mineral
binders and synthetic fibres, classified
fireproof Mo, supplied by PROMAT, B P 3
78540 Vemouillet, France.

113
Bibliography
[1] INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE SAFETY OF HUMAN LIFE AT SEA
Summary of text of the SOLAS Convention of 1974, the SOLAS protocol of 1978
and SOLAS amendments 1981 and 1983. OMI

[2] METHODS OF FIRE TESTING

OMI London 1984

[3] REFERENCE CSTB

{Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment), letter dated 27/12/79

[4] EUROPEAN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FIRE SAFETY OF STEEL

STRUCTURES
European Convention on Metal Structures

[5] FIRE STABILITY OF METAL FRAMES – PROTECRON MATERIALS

C. Aimone-Cat, J. Kruppa, G. Lamboley
Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Métallique, Domaine de Saint
Paul B.P. 1, 78740 Saint-Rémy-les-Chevreuse, France

[6] METHOD OF PREDICTION BY CALCULATION OF THE FIRE SAFETY OF STEEL

STRUCTURES
Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Métallique, Review: Construction
Métallique n°3, September 1982

[7] FIRE RETARDANCE

CLASSIFICARON REPORTS:
n° 82 U47/T47dated 17/11/82 / n° 82 U48/T48 dated 19/11/82 / n° 83 G3/T3
dated 1/7/83 / n° 83 G2/T2 dated 24/6/83
Issued by CTICM

114
XIII. Appendix
1. CLASSIFICATION AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING
SOCIETIES Two World Trade Center
106th Floor New York, N.Y. 10048
U.S.A.
Tél. (1) 2128395000
LLOYD'S REGISTER OF SHIPPING
Fax (1) 2128395214
IACS/IMO DEPT
71 Fenchurch Street London EC3M
NIPPON KAIJI KYOKAI
4BS United Kingdom
4-7 Kioi-Cho Chiyoda-Ku
Tél. (44) 71 709966 Fax (44) 71
Tokyo 102
4884796
Japan
Tél. (81) 3 32301201
BUREAU VÉRITAS
Fax (81) 3 32303524
92077 Paris-la-Défense Cedex 44
France
KOREAN REGISTER OF SHIPPING
Tél. (33) 42.91.52.91 Fax
1465-10,
(33)42.91.52.93
Seocho-Dong,
Seoul Republic of South Korea
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Tél. 802 582 6001
P O. Box 300
Fax 822 584 8813
N - 1322 Hoevik
Norway
CHINA CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY
Tél. (47) 2 47 99 00 Fax (47) 2 47
40, Dong Huang Cheng Gen
99 11
Nan Jie,
Beijing 100006
GERMANISCHER-LLOYD
China
P.O. Box 11 16 06
Tél. (86) 42 13 131 / 572
D- 2000 Hamburg 11
Fax (86) 15130188
Germany
Tél. (49) 40 361490
Fax (49)40 36149200

REGISTER OF SHIPPING
2. ORGANISMES DE
8 Dvortsovaya Naberezhnaya NORMALISATION
191065 Saint-Petersburg
Russia BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
Tél. (7) 812 312 8878 2 Park Street
Fax (7) 812 314 1087 W1A 2BS London
United Kingdom
REGISTRO ITALIANO NAVALE Tél. (44) 71 629 90 00
DIREZIONE GENERALE Fax (44) 71 355 10 34
C.P. 1195
I-16128 Genova
Italie
Tél. (39) 10 53851
Fax (39) 10 591877

115
AFNOR
Tour Europe
92080 Paris-la-Défense
Cedex 7
France Tél. (33/1) 42 91 55 55
Fax (33/1) 42 91 56 56
ASTM
1916 Race Street
19103 Philadelphia PA.
U.S.A. Tél. (215) 299 5400
Fax (215) 977 96 79
DEUTSCHES INSTITUT FÜR
NORMUNG
P.O. Box 1107
Burggrafenstrasse 6
D - 1000 Berlin 30
Germany
Tél. (49) 221 30 26 011
Fax (49) 221 57 13 414
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION
FOR STANDARDIZATION
Case Postale 56
1 rue de Varembé
CH - 1211 Geneva 20
Switzerland
Tél. (41) 22 749 01 11
Fax (41) 22 733 34 30
3. OTHER BODIES
THE ALUMINIUM ASSOCIATION
900 19th street
NW Washington DC 20006
U.S.A.
Tél. (202) 862 51 00
Fax (202) 862 51 64
CENTRE SCIENTIFIQUE ET
TECHNIQUE DU BÂTIMENT (CSTB)
84, avenue Jean Jaurès
77420 Champ-sur-Marne
France
Tél. (33/1) 64 68 82 82
Fax (33/1) 60 05 70 37
CETIM
52, avenue Félix Carat
60300 Senlis
France
Tél. (33) 44 58 32 66
Fax (33) 44 58 34 00
CENTRE TECHNIQUE INDUSTRIEL DE
LA CONSTRUCTION MÉTALLIQUE
Domaine de St-Paul
B.P. 1
78470 St. Rémy-les-Chevreuse
France
Tél. (33/1) 30 85 20 00
Fax (33/1) 30 52 75 38
4. SPECIALISTS
DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF
STRUCTURES
Serge BOMPARD
Pechiney - Centre de recherches de
Voreppe
BP. 27
38340 Voreppe
France
Tél. (33) 76 57 80 00
Fax (33) 76 56 89 70
WELDING - FABRICATION
Pechiney - Centre de recherches de
Voreppe
BP. 27
38340 Voreppe
France
Tél. (33) 76 57 80 00
Fax (33) 76 56 89 70
ALUMINIUM BONDING
Jean-Pierre JEANDRAU
CETIM
10, rue Barrouin
42029 Saint-Etienne Cedex 1
France
Tél. (33) 77 43 39 76
Fax (33) 77 43 39 99
116
Myriam BOUET GRIFFON NAVAL HYDRODYNAMICS
Pechiney - Centre de recherches de M. Jean-Michel KOBUS
Voreppe Ecole Centrale de Nantes
BP. 27 1, rue de la Noë
38340 Voreppe 44072 Nantes Cedex
France France
Tél. (33) 76 57 80 00 Tél. (33) 40 37 16 82
Fax (33) 76 56 89 70 Fax (33) 40 74 74 06

MARINE CORROSION
Christian VARGEL

FIRE SAFETY OF METALLIC

MATERIALS
M. Joël KRUPPA
CTICM
Domaine de Saint-Paul
BP.1 78470
St. Rémy-les-Chevreuse
France
Tél. (33/1) 30 85 20 00
Fax (33/1) 30 52 75 38

117