Mechanical Sensors and Actuators

Chapter 6

1
 Force sensors
 A class of sensors in which the basic function is force, based on Newton’s law (see however
optical fiber gysroscopes which do not involve force)
 Includes a fairly large number of different sensors
 Based on many principles, some measure force and its effects directly, some indirectly
 Will discuss four types of general sensors
 force sensors
 accelerometers
 pressure sensors
 gyroscopes
 cover most principles involved in sensing of mechanical quantities - directly and indirectly.
 Some of these sensors are used for applications which initially do not seem to relate to
mechanical quantities.
 Example: measure temperature through expansion of gases in a volume (pneumatic temperature sensor
discussed in chapter 3).

2
 Definitions and Units
 Strain: the change in length per unit length [m/m] of a sample in
response to force. Denoted as ε (not to be confused with permittivity!)
 Often measured in %
 Sometimes given as a fraction (i.e. 0.001)
 Microstrain: 1 µm/m
 Stress: pressure [N/m2] in a medium. Denoted as σ (not to be confused
with conductivity!)
 Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus): Ratio of stress to strain [N/m2].
Denoted as E.
 Gas constant (also called Ideal Gas Constant): Energy per temperature
increment per mole of substance [J/mol/K]. Denoted as R
 Specific gas constant: The gas constant divided by the molecular mass
of the substance. Denoter as Rs and equals 287.05 J/kg/K.
 Pressure: Force per unit area [N/m2]. The SI derived unit is the pascal
[Pa]:
1 pascal [Pa] = 1 newton per square meter [N/m2]

3
 Units
 Force: the basic unit is force and, from it pressure. The SI unit is the
newton [N] but units of kilogram-force [kgf] and gram-force [gj] are
common as are nonmetric units (such as pound-force [lbf]) and others.
 Pressure: the basic unit is the pascal [Pa] but units of atmosphere [atm]
and bar are commonly used. In the US, the pound per square inch [psi]
is used.
 Pressure is also measured in mm water per square cm [mmH2O] (used,
for example, in measurement of gas pressure by utilities)
 The mm mercury [mmHg] (the pressure exerted by a 1 mm column of
mercury at 0ºC) is used in measurement of blood pressure
 Table 6.1 summarizes the primary units of pressure

4
 Force sensors - Strain Gauges
 Strain gauge - The main tool in sensing force.
 Strain gauges, measure strain
 Strain can be related to stress, force, torque and a host of other stimuli
including displacement, acceleration or position.
 At the heart of all strain gauges is the change in resistance of materials due
to change in their length due to strain.
 Definition: consider a length of metallic wire L, of conductivity σ, and cross-
sectional area A.
 The resistance of the wire is:

Taking the log on both sides:

Taking the differential on both sides:

Change in resistance is due to two terms:

Due to change in conductivity
Due to the deformation of the conductor.
For small deformations (linear deformation), both terms on the right hand side are
linear functions of strain, ε.
5
 Force sensors - Strain Gauges
 Bundling both effects together (that is, the change in
conductivity and deformation) we can write:

g is the sensitivity of the strain gauge

Also known as the gauge factor

 For any given strain gauge the gauge factor is a constant

 Ranges between 2 to 6 for most metallic strain gauges
 Ranges from 40-200 for semiconductor strain gauges.
 The strain gauge relation gives a simple linear relation between the
change in resistance of the sensor and the strain applied to it.
 The change in resistance due to strain is:

R0 is the no strain resistance of the strain gauge

6
 Strain and Stress
 Given a conductor of length L and applying a force along its axis,
the stress is :

σ = stress [N/m2] (not to be confused with conductivity, which is also designated as σ)

ε = dL/L = strain (not to be confused with permittivity, also designated as ε)

 Strain is a normalized linear deformation of the material

 Stress is a measure of elasticity of the material.
 Strain (and hence stress) are temperature dependent:

Strain and temperature effects are multiplicative – they cannot be distinguished.

Hence, it is critical that strain gauges be temperature compensated.

7
 Strain gauges
 Strain gauges come in many forms and types.
 Any material, combination of materials or physical configuration that
changes its resistance due to strain constitutes a strain gauge.
 Will restrict our discussion to two types that account for most of the
strain gauges in use today:
 wire (or metal) strain gauges - resistive
 semiconductor strain gauges.

8
 Metallic strain gauge
 In its simplest form:
 A length of wire, held between two posts
 When a tension (force) is applied, will deform the wire causing a
change in the wire’s resistance.
 This method was used in the past and is valid
 It is not very practical (construction, attachment to system, change
in resistance is very small).
 Sometimes, multiple lengths of wire were used.

9
 Metallic strain gauge, common form
 A more practical strain gauge - resistive
 Built out of a thin layer of conducting material
 Deposited on an insulating substrate (plastic, ceramic, etc.)
 Etched to form a long, meandering wire (figure)
 Constantan (60% copper, 40% nickel) is most common material
 negligible temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR – see Table 3.1)).
 Other materials are commonly used (table)

10
Metallic strain gauges, common forms
 Strain gauges may also be used to measure multiple axis strains by
simply using more than one gauge or by producing them in standard
configurations.
 Some available configurations are shown next:

a. two-axis, b. 120º rosette, c. 45º rosette, d. 45º stacked rosette, e.

membrane rosette. 11
 Example
The strain gauge: A metal strain gauge is shown in Fig. 6.8. The gauge is made of constantan with
the dimensions shown. The metal strip is 5 µm thick and its TCR is 10x10-6 /ºC (Table 6.2).
a. Calculate the resistance of the gauge at 25ºC
b. The resistance of the sensor if a longitudinal strain of 0.001 is applied
c. Estimate the gauge factor from the calculations above

a. The total length and cross-sectional area are:

The resistance at 20ºC:

The resistance at 25ºC is calculated using Eq. (3.4) as:

The resistance is virtually unchanged because of the small coefficient (the reason for use of Constantan)
b. The strain by definition is the change in length over length:

The cross-sectional area must reduce because of the change in length:

The resistance due to these changes becomes:

The resistance changes by 0.258 Ω. This is small but typical of strain gauges
c. The gauge factor can be estimated from the change in resistance Fig. 6.8
and the strain using Eq. (6.4):

Fig. 6.8
12
 Semiconductor strain gauges
 Operate like resistive strain gauges
 Construction and properties are different.
 The gauge factor for semiconductors is much higher than for metals.
 The change in conductivity due to strain is much larger than in metals.
 Are typically smaller than metal types
 Often more sensitive to temperature variations (require temperature
compensation).
 All semiconductor materials exhibit changes in resistance due to strain
 The most common material is silicon because of its inert properties and
ease of production.
 The base material is doped, by diffusion of doping materials (usually
boron or arsenide for p or n type) to obtain a base resistance as
needed.
 The substrate provides the means of straining the silicon chip and
connections are provided by deposition of metal at the ends of the
device.
 Maximum strain is lower than for metal gauges.

13
 Semiconductor strain gauges
 Important differences with respect to metal strain gauges:
 Higher sensitivities (40 to 200 or more)
 Lower temperature ranges (below 150ºC)
 They can be PTC or NTC
 The strain and hence sensitivity is more nonlinear.
 Typical behavior is:

g1 and g2 are coefficients, typical for the material used

(a) Shows the basic construction of a semiconductor strain gauge. The other
figures show some of the available configurations of strain gauges

14
 PTC and NTC operation
 p and n type semiconductor strain gauges behave differently
 p type are PTC (positive temperature coefficient) strain gauges
 Their resistance increases with temperature Fig. (a))
 Inherently “safe” in that as temperature increases, the resistance
increases and the current through them decreases limiting the possibility
of temperature run-off and damage
 n type semiconductor strain gauges are NTC (negative
temperature coefficient) (Fig. (b))
 Much more common than PTC
 Similar sensitivities

15
 Strain gauges - applications
 Strain gauge must be made to react to a force.
 The strain gauge is attached to the member in which strain is sensed, usually by bonding. Cannot be re-used!
 Special bonding agents exist for different applications and types of materials
 Usually supplied by the manufacturers of strain gauges or specialized producers.
 Strain gauges are often used for:
 bending strain,
 twisting (torsional and shear strain)
 longitudinal tensioning/deformation (axial strain) of structures (engine shafts, bridge loading, truck weighing and
many, many others)
 weighing (from bathroom scales to trucks, elevators, etc.)
 Sensing of pressure and acceleration
 Any other quantity that affects stress and strain

16
 Strain gauges - properties
 The properties of strain gauges vary by application
 Most metal gauges have a nominal resistance between 100 and
1000 Ω, (lower and higher resistances are available)
 Gauge factor between 2 and 5
 Dimensions from less than 3x3 mm to lengths in excess of 150
mm (almost any size may be fabricated if necessary).
 Rosettes (multiple axis strain gauges) are available with 45, 90
and 120° axes as well as diaphragm and other specialized
configurations.
 typical sensitivities are 5mΩ/Ω
 deformation is of the order of 2 to 3µm/m.
 much higher strains can be measured with specialized gauges.
 Semiconductor strain gauges
 usually smaller than most resistive strain gauges
 can be made with higher resistances.
 their use is limited to low temperatures
 can be much less expensive than metal strain gauges.
 often part of another device or integrated in devices
17
 Strain gauges - errors
 Strain gauges are subject to a variety of errors.
 Due to temperatures - resistance, especially in semiconductors, is affected by
temperature in the same way as by strain.
 In metal gauges, this is usually small (materials with low temperature
coefficients of resistance).
 In semiconductors, temperature compensation is sometimes provided on chip
or a separate sensor may be used for this purpose.
 A third source of error is due to the strain itself, which, over time, tends, to
permanently deform the gauge.
 can be eliminated by periodic re-calibration
 can be reduced by ensuring that the maximum deformation allowed is small and
below the recommended maximum for the device.
 Additional errors
 Due the bonding process
 Thinning of materials due to cycling.
 Most strain gauges are rated for:
 given number of cycles (i.e. 106 or 107 cycles),
 maximum strain (3% is typical for conducting strain gauges, 1% for semiconductor
strain gauges)
 temperature characteristics specified for use with a particular material (aluminum,
stainless steel, carbon steel) for optimal performance when bonded
 Typical accuracies are of the order of 0.2-0.5%. 18
Typical resistive strain gauges

19
 Other Strain Gauges
 Other strain gauges - for specialized applications.
 Optical fiber strain gauges.
 The change in length of the fiber due to strain changes the phase of the light through the fiber.
 Measuring the light phase, either directly or with an interferrometric method can produce readings
of minute strain that cannot be obtained in other strain gauges.
 The device and the electronics necessary is far more complicated than standard gauges.
 There are also liquid strain gauges which rely on the resistance of an electrolytic liquid in a
flexible container which can be deformed.
 Another type of strain gauge that is used on a limited basis is the plastic strain gauge.
 These are made as ribbons or threads based on graphite or carbon in a resin as a substrate and used in a way
similar to other strain gauges.
 Very high gauge factors (up to about 300), they are otherwise difficult to use and inaccurate as well as unstable
mechanically, severely limiting their practical use.

20
 Force and tactile sensors
 Forces can be measured in many ways
 The simplest - use a strain gauge
 Calibrate the output in units of force.
 Other methods include
 measuring acceleration of a mass (F=ma),
 measuring the displacement of a spring under action of force (x=kF, k is
the spring constant),
 measuring the pressure produced by force and some variations of these
basic methods.
 None of these is a direct measure of force
 most are more complicated than use of a strain gauge.

21
 Force and tactile sensors
 The basic method is shown in Figure 6.9.
 One measures the tensile force by measuring the strain in the strain
gauge.
 The sensor is usually provided with attachment holes
 may also be used in compressive mode by pre-stressing the strain gauge.
 This type of sensor is often used to measure forces in locations such
as machine tools, engine mounts and the like.
 Often it is called a load cell, especially when large forces are
measured. Load cells use strain gauges to sense load (forces)
Fig. 6.11

Structure of load cells. a. Bending beam load cell. b. Basic force sensor Fig 6.9
“ring” load cell. c. The connection of the strain
gauges in a bridge (to be discussed in Chapter 11). Fig. 6.10

“button” type load cell. The strain

gauges are bonded on the central
cylinder (button) 22
 Example
Truck scale: A truck scale is made of a platform and four compression force sensors, one at
each corner of the platform. The sensor itself is a short steel cylinder, 20 mm in diameter. A single stain
gauge is pre-stressed to 2% strain and bonded on the outer surface of the cylinder. The strain gauges
have a nominal resistance (before pre-stressing) of 350 Ω and a gauge factor of 6.9. The steel used for
the cylinders has a modulus of elasticity of 30 GPa. Calculate:
a. The maximum truck weight that the scale can measure.
b. The change in resistance of the sensors for maximum weight.
c. The sensitivity of the scale assuming the response of the strain gauges is linear

a. The relation between pressure and force:

The maximum force that can be applied is:
That is, the scale can weigh up to 753,982/9.81=76,858 Kg force or 76.86 ton

b. The force is now related to the resistance of the strain gauges, using Eq. (6.4):
Since the gauge is pre-stressed its resistance is:
where R0 = 35Ω W is the nominal (un-stressed) resistance. As the sensor is compressed the resistance
goes down until at maximum allowable strain its resistance is R0. Thus the change in resistance is –
48.3 Ω

c. The sensitivity is the output (resistance) divided by input (force).

For any of the sensors the force is 76.86/4 = 19.215 ton and the change in resistance is – 48.3 Ω:

23
 Tactile sensors
 Tactile sensors are force sensors but:
 Definition of “tactile” action is broader, the sensors are also more diverse.
 One view is that tactile action is simply sensing the presence of force. Then:
 A simple switch is a tactile sensor

 This approach is commonly used in keyboards

 Membrane or resistive pads are used

 The force is applied against the membrane or a silicon rubber layer.

 In many tactile sensing applications it is often important to sense a force distribution over a
specified area (such as the “hand” of a robot).
 Either an array of force sensors or
 A distributed sensor may be used.
 These are usually made from piezoelectric films which respond with an electrical signal in
response to deformation (passive sensors).

24
 Example of a tactile sensor
 An example is shown in Figure 6.12. Operation:
 The polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film is sensitive to deformation.
 The lower film is driven with an ac signal
 It contracts and expands mechanically and periodically.
 When the upper film is deformed, its signal changes from normal and
the amplitude and or phase of the output signal is now a measure of
deformation (force).

Fig. 6.12

 Another example is shown in Figure 6.13

 Used to sense body motion due to breathing.

Fig. 6.13

25
 Tactile sensors
 The simplest tactile sensors are made of conductive polymers or elastomers or with
semiconductive polymers
 Called piezoresistive sensors or force sensitive resistive (FSR) sensors.
 In these devices, the resistance of the material is pressure dependent and is shown
schematically in Figure 6.14.
 The resistance of FSR sensors is a nonlinear function of force
 The change in resistance is high (large dynamic range)
 The sensor is quite immune to noise and easily interfaced with microprocessors.
 Either DC or AC sources may be used and the device may be as large or as small as
necessary.
 An array of sensors may be built by using one large electrode on one side of the film and
multiple electrodes on the other side (Fig. 6.14b).

Fig. 6.14
26