Thermoelectric sensors

 Among the oldest sensors (over 150 years)

 Some of the most useful and most common
 Passive sensors: they generate emfs (voltages) directly
 Measure the voltage directly.
 Very small voltages - difficult to measure
 Often must be amplified before interfacing
 Can be influenced by noise
 Simple, rugged and inexpensive
 Can operate from near absolute zero to about 2700°C.
 No other sensor technology can match this range.
 Can be produced by anyone with minimum skill
 Can be made at the sensing site if necessary
 Only one fundamental device: the thermocouple
 There are variations in construction/materials
 Metal thermocouples
 Thermopiles - multiple thermocouples in series
 Semiconductor thermocouples and thermopiles
 Peltier cells - special semiconductor thermopiles used as actuators
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 Thermoelectric effect
 The Peltier effect: heat generated or absorbed at the
junction of two dissimilar materials when an emf
exists across the junction due to the current produced
by this emf in the junction.
 By connecting an external emf across the junction
 By the emf generated by the junction itself.
 A current must flow through the junction.
 Applications in cooling and heating
 Discovered in 1834 by Charles Athanase Peltier
 The Thomson effect (1892): a current carrying wire if
unevenly heated along its length will either absorb or
radiate heat depending on the direction of current in
the wire (from hot to cold or from cold to hot).
 Discovered in 1892 by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).

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 Thermoelectric effect (cont.)
 The Seebeck effect: an emf produced across the junction of
two dissimilar conducting materials.
 It is the sum of the Peltier and the Thomson effects
 The first of the effects to be discovered and used (1821) by
Thomas Johann Seebeck
 The basis of all thermoelectric sensors
 The Peltier effect is used in Thermoelectric Generators (TEG)
devices
 If both ends of the two conductors  If the circuit is opened an emf will
are connected and a temperature appear across the open circuit
difference is maintained between (sensing mode). It is this emf that is
the two junctions, a thermoelectric measured in a thermocouple
current will flow through the closed
circuit (generation mode) sensor.

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 Themocouple - analysis
 Conductors A, B, (marked a, b in the figure) are
assumed homogeneous
 Junctions at temperatures: T2 and T1
 On junctions 1 and 2:
 Total emf:
 αA and αB are the absolute Seebeck coefficients given
in µV/°C and are properties of the materials A, B
 αAB=αA−αB is the relative Seebeck coefficient of the
material combination a and b, given in µV/°C
 The relative Seebeck coefficients are normally used.

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Absolute and Relative Seebeck
Coefficients

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Thermocouples - standard types

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 Seebeck coefficients - notes:
 Seebeck coefficients are rather small –
 From a few microvolts to a few millivolts per degree Centigrade.
 Output can be measured directly
 Output is often amplified before interfacing to processors
 Induced emfs due to external sources cause noise
 Thermocouples can be used as thermometers
 More often however the signal will be used to take some action (turn
on or off a furnace, detect pilot flame before turning on the gas, etc.)

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 Thermoelectric laws:
 Three laws govern operation of thermocouples:
 Law 1. A thermoelectric current cannot be established in a
homogeneous circuit by heat alone.
 This law establishes the need for junctions of dissimilar materials since a single
conductor is not sufficient.
 Law 2. The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric forces in a circuit
composed of any number and combination of dissimilar materials
is zero if all junctions are at uniform temperatures.
 Additional materials may be connected in the thermoelectric circuit without affecting the
output of the circuit as long as any junctions added to the circuit are kept at the same
temperature.
 voltages are additive so that multiple junctions may be connected in series to increase
the output.
 Law 3. If two junctions at temperatures T1 and T2 produce
Seebeck voltageV2 and temperatures T2 and T3 produce voltage
V1, then temperatures T1 and T3 produce a voltage V3=V1+V2.
 This law establishes methods of calibration of thermocouples.

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 Thermocouples: connection
 Based on the thermoelectric laws:
 Usually connected in pairs
 One junction for sensing
 One junction for reference
 Reference temperature can be lower or higher than sensing temperature
 Any connection in the circuit between dissimilar materials adds an
emf due to that junction.
 Any pair of junctions at identical temperatures may be added without
changing the output.
 Junctions 3 and 4 are identical (one between material b and c and one between
material c and b and their temperature is the same. No net emf due to this pair
 Junctions (5) and (6) also produce zero emf

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 Thermocouples (cont.)
• Each connection adds two junctions.
• The strategy in sensing is:
 For any junction that is not sensed or is not a reference
junction:
• Either each pair of junctions between dissimilar materials are held at the same
temperature (any temperature) or:
• Junctions must be between identical materials.
• Also: use unbroken wires leading from the sensor to the reference junction or to the
measuring instrument.
• If splicing is necessary to extend the length, identical wires must be used to avoid
additional emfs.
• Pairs of junctions can be placed in a constant temperature zone to eliminate their
effect on the output

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 Reference junctions
 Reference junctions must be at constant, known temperatures.
Examples:
 Water-ice bath (0°C)
 Boiling water (100°C)
 Any other temperature if measured
 A separate, non-thermocouple sensor
 The output is compensated based on this temperature from Seebeck
coefficients
 The reference junction can be replaced with an electronic circuit that
supplies the emf that the reference junction would have supplied
 Does not require a constant temperature
 Measures the temperature in the temperature zone
 The temperature sensor cannot be a thermocouple. RTDs, thermistors are
often used for this purpose
 The compensation is not exact but sufficient for most applications
 For the compensator to produce zero emf, R1 = resistance of temp. sensor

RT is the resistance of the temp. sensor at 0ºC 11

 Example
A K-type thermocouple is connected as shown to sense temperature. The temperature zone is at 27ºC
The RTD has a resistance of 100 Ω at 0ºC and a TCR coefficient of 0.00385. A 10V power supply
drives the circuit. Calculate R2 for proper compensation. What is the emf produced by the compensting
circuit?

Since R1 should be 100 Ω, we can use Eq. (3.24) directly, using an arbitrary value for T. We choose 1ºC
From Table 3.3, the Seebeck coefficient for the K-type thermocouple is 39.4 µV/ºC at 0ºC:

Using a value of 97,500 Ω for R2, the emf due to the compensation is (again using Eq. (3.24)

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 Thermocouples - practical
considerations
 Choice of materials for thermocouples.
Materials affect:
 The output emf,
 Temperature range
 Resistance of (and hence current in) the
thermocouple.
 Performance of the thermocouple
 Resistance to environmental conditions
 Selection of materials is done with the aid of
three tables:
 Thermoelectric series table
 Seebeck coefficients of standard types
 Thermoelectric reference table 13
 Thermoelectric series tables
 Each material in the table is thermoelectrically negative with
respect to all materials above it and positive with respect to all
materials below it.
 The farther from each other a pair is, the larger the emf output
that will be produced for a given temperature.
 Tables are arranged by temperature ranges

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 Seebeck coefficients tables
 Seebeck coefficients of materials with reference to Platinum 67
 Given for various thermocouple types
 The first material in each type (E, J, K, R, S and T) is positive,
the second negative. Coefficients are temperature dependent

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 Seebeck coefficients tables
 The Seebeck emf with reference to Platinum is given for the
base elements of thermocouples with respect to Platinum 67
(Table 3.5).
 Example, J type thermocouples use Iron and Constantan.
 Column JP lists the Seebeck emf for Iron with respect to Platinum
 Column JN lists the emfs for Constantan.
 Adding the two together gives the corresponding value for the J type
thermocouple in Table 3.5. JP and JN values at 0°C in table 3.5 :
17.9+32.5=50.4 µV/°C gives the entry in the J column at 0 °C in Table 3.6.

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 Thermoelectric reference table
 Lists the transfer function of each type of thermocouple as an nth order
polynomial, in a range of temperatures.

 The table provides the coefficients ci.

 Ensure accurate representation of the thermocouple’s output
 Can be used by the controller to accurately represent the temperature
sensed by the thermocouple.
 The polynomial can be written explicitly (for E-type thermocouple):
Explicit polynomial: - 270ºC to 0ºC

Explicit polynomial: 0ºC to 1000ºC

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 Thermoelectric reference table
 The reference table also provides the inverse polynomial –
calculation of temperature from emf.

 Coefficents ci are listed

for (E type thermocouple):

Explicit polynomial: - 270ºC to 0ºC

Appendix A lists the tables

and polynomials for other
types of thermocouples
Explicit polynomial: 0ºC to 1000ºC

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 Example
A properly connected K-type thermocouple with electronic
compensation is used to measure the temperature of molten
glass. Assuming proper compensation (see Example 3.8), what is
the output voltage and approximate sensitivity?

Using the polynomial for K-type thermocouples (section B.2 in Appendix B)

The exact sensitivity is calculable by differentiating E with respect to T. But we can estimate the
sensitivity by dividing the output by the temperature span (900 ºC) since the curve is only mildly
nonlinear:

This is only slightly larger than the sensitivity given in Table 3.9 at 25 ºC (40.6 µV/ºC)
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Standard thermocouples - properties

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 Some Thermocouples

Exposed junction thermocouple Thermocouple on flexible substrate

Thermocouple probes encased in

stainless steel for protection of the junction

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 Some Thermocouples

Photo of a J-type (left) and a K-type (right) thermocouple

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