INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Measurement Systems
1. Temperature Measurement
By
Engr. Adil Usman
Lect. ENCD UET Taxila
 Principles of Temperature Sensors
Following are the classes of temperature sensors based on the different
principles:
 Thermoelectric effect
 Resistance change
 Sensitivity of semiconductor device
 Radiative heat emission
 Thermography
 Thermal expansion
 Resonant frequency change
 Sensitivity of fiber-optic devices
 Color change
 Change of state of material
1. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
They can be broadly classified in the following groups:

1. Liquid and gas thermometer

2. Bimetallic strip
3. Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors)
4. Thermocouple
5. Junction semiconductor sensor
6. Radiation pyrometer
7. Infrared Temperature Sensor
3. RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
It is well known that :
 Resistance of metallic conductors increases with temperature
 Resistance of semiconductors generally decreases with temperature
i. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD): Resistance
thermometers employing metallic conductors for temperature
measurement are called Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
ii. Thermistors : Resistance thermometers employing
semiconductors are termed as Thermistors
i. Resistance Temperature Detector
 RTDs are more rugged
 Have more or less linear characteristics over a wide temperature
range
 The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally
modeled in the form:

And α, β, etc. are constants that depends on the metal

 For a small range of temperature, the expression can be
approximated as:
 The range of temperature measurement is decided by the region,
where the resistance-temperature characteristics are approximately
linear

Resistance-temperature characteristics of metals

RTD Construction
The salient features of construction of an industrial RTD are as follows:
a) The resistance wire is often put in a stainless steel well for
protection against mechanical hazards
b) Heat conducting but electrical insulating materials like mica is
placed in between the well and the resistance material
c) The resistance wire should be
carefully wound over mica sheet
so that no strain is developed due
to length expansion of the wire
RTD Signal Conditioning
 The resistance variation of the RTD can be measured by a bridge
 But the major constraint is the contribution of the lead wires in the
overall resistance measured
 Length of the lead wire may vary, this may give a false reading in the
temperature to be measured
 can be achieved by using either a three wire RTD, or a four wire
RTD

one additional dummy wire

Similar to four terminal resistance

Three wire RTD

Four wire RTD
i. Thermistor
 Thermistors are semiconductor type resistance thermometers
 They have very high sensitivity but highly nonlinear characteristics
 Useful range of themistors is normally -100 to +300oC
 Thermistors can be of two types:
(a) Negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) thermistors
 they are made from oxides of iron, manganese, magnesium etc
 Their characteristics can be expressed as:

β is a constant, its value is decided by the characteristics of the material, the

nominal value is taken as 4000
Resistance temperature co-efficient can be obtained as:

(b) Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors

 The Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor have limited
use
 they are particularly used for protection of motor and transformer
windings
4. THERMOCOUPLES
 Thomas Johan Seeback discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can
produce electric current
Principle: When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are
connected forming two common junctions and the two junctions are
exposed to two different temperatures, a net thermal emf is
produced
 Value is dependent on the materials used and the temperature
difference between hot and cold junctions
 The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the
relationship:

Where, T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in K. C1 and

C2 are constants depending upon the materials
For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C1=62.1 and C2=0.045
4. THERMOCOUPLES

The e.M.F.–Temperature characteristics for some of these standard thermocouples

Simple TC Model “EMF-Temperature Sketch”
 Two materials
 Material A (+) 1
 Material B (-)
 Plus and minus refers
to how the emf changes
with temperature. 3 2
Number junctions around circuit and draw
3

B
Measured 2
emf

Emf
A

1
T meter T junction
Temperature
Laws of Thermocouple
 There are three laws of thermocouples: i). law of homogeneous circuit,
ii). law of intermediate metals, iii). law of intermediate temperatures
i). law of homogeneous circuit: The net thermo-emf generated is
dependent on the materials and the temperatures of two junctions
only, not on any intermediate temperature

ii). law of intermediate metals: a third material is introduced at any

point (thus forming two additional junctions) it will not have any
effect, if these two additional junctions remain at the same
temperatures
ii. Law of Intermediate Metals
2) Insertion of an intermediate metal
into a thermocouple circuit will not
affect the emf voltage output so long
as the two junctions are at the same
temperature and the material is
homogeneous.
 Permits soldered and welded joints.
 A Demonstration of the Law of Intermediate
Metals
6

1 2 4 5

3
6
4
Fe (+) C
C (-) Measured 5
Emf
emf

3
P (+)
Fe 2
Signs of the 1
materials used T ref T 2 and 4 T measured Tcandle
Temperature
Laws of Thermocouple
This law makes it possible to insert a measuring device without altering
the thermo-emf.

iii). law of intermediate temperatures: It says, if a thermocouple

produces emf e1, when its junctions are at T1and T2, and e2 when its
junctions are at T2 and T3; then it will generate emf e1+e2 when the
junction temperatures are at T1 and T3
*The third law is related to the calibration of the thermocouple
iii. Law of Intermediate Temperatures

If a thermocouple circuit develops a net emf1-2

T2 T1 for measuring junction temperatures T1 and T2,
and a net emf2-3 for temperatures T2 and T3,
then it will develop a net voltage of emf1-3 =
emf1-2 + emf2-3 when the junctions are at
T3 T2 temperatures T1 and T3.

emf1-2+ emf2-3= emf1-3

T3 T1
A Demonstration of the Law of Intermediate
Temperatures

emf1-2+ emf2-3= emf1-3

C
emf13 emf23
emf

emf12 Fe

T1 T2 T3
A Demonstration of the Law of Intermediate
Temperatures
4
5
3
1
2 Hot Zone

4
C 2
3
Measured
Emf
emf

Fe
1
T ref T measured T hot
4. THERMOCOUPLES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 A typical thermocouple, made from one Chromel wire and one
Constantan wire
 The e.m.f. generated at hot junction is
represented by a voltage source, E1
 The temperature of the hot junction is
customarily shown as Th
 The e.m.f. generated at the hot junction
is measured at cold junction end
 Extension leads up to several meters
long are normally connected b/w
the thermocouple and the measuring
instrument Equivalent Circuit
4. THERMOCOUPLES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

 The net output e.m.f. measured

(Em) is then given by:

 e.m.f. generated at hot junction

E1 as:

Equivalent Circuit

Equivalent Circuit with Measuring Instrument

4. THERMOCOUPLES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 A near-zero junction e.m.f. is achieved most easily by choosing the
extension leads to be of the same basic materials as the
thermocouple (Expensive Solution)
 Alternatively, lower specification materials (like copper) of the same
basic type as the thermocouple are sometime used
 The law of intermediate metals has to be applied to compensate for
the e.m.f. (Still very Expensive)

 Base metal extension leads that have a similar thermoelectric

behavior to the noble metal thermocouple (compensating leads)
4. THERMOCOUPLES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Example: Suppose we have an iron–constantan thermocouple
connected by copper leads to a meter

The sum of E4 and E5 can be expressed as:

Hence:

 Thus, the effect of connecting the thermocouple

extension wires to the copper leads to the meter
is canceled out
4. THERMOCOUPLES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 Eref can be calculated from Equation if the temperature of the
reference junction is known

𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑓
Thermocouple Materials
Thermocouple Tables (EMF-Temperature)

 Thermocouple tables correlate temperature to e.m.f voltage.

 Need to keep in mind that the thermocouple tables provide a voltage
value with respect to a reference temperature.
 Usually the reference temperature is 0°C. (Using ICE BATH)
 If your reference junction is not at 0°C, a correction must be
applied using the law of intermediate temperatures.
 Reference Temperature Systems and Zone
Boxes

 Ice Baths
 Accurate and inexpensive
 Electronically Controlled
References
 Require periodic calibration
and are generally not as
stable as ice baths, but are
more convenient.
Zone boxes

 A zone of uniform temperature that insures all connections made

within the zone are at the same temperature.
 Nonzero Reference Junction Temperature
 If the environmental temperature around the measurement system is
relatively hot (not zero), thermocouple tables cannot be applied
directly
 To maintain the reference junction at a nonzero temperature by
putting it into a controlled environment maintained by an electrical
heating element
 Correction using a second thermoelectric law known as the law of
intermediate temperatures

Where,
 E(Th , T0) is the e.m.f. with junctions at temperatures Th and T0
 E(Th , Tr) is the e.m.f. with junctions at temperatures Th and Tr
 E(Tr , T0) is the e.m.f. with junctions at temperatures Tr and T0
Thermocouple Tables (e.m.f-temperature)
SINGLE AND MULTIPLEXING
 What thermocouple materials should be used?
 Depends on requirements:
 Temperature range?
 Required accuracy
 Chemical resistance issues
 Abrasion or vibration resistance
 Installation requirements (size of wire)
 Thermal conduction requirements
 THERMOCOUPLE TYPES
1. Chromel-constantan thermocouples (Type E):
 Highest measurement sensitivity of 68 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.5%
 range of -200𝐶 0 up to 900𝐶 0 .
 can operate satisfactorily in oxidizing environments when unprotected
 performance and life are seriously affected by reducing atmospheres
 2. Iron-constantan thermocouples (type J)
 Measurement sensitivity of 55 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.75%
 General-purpose range of -40𝐶 0 up to +750𝐶 0 .
 Their performance is little affected by either oxidizing or reducing
atmospheres
 3. Copper-constantan thermocouples (type T)
 Measurement sensitivity of 43 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.75%
 Application in measuring subzero temperatures down to −200𝐶 0 .
 They can also be used in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres to
measure temperatures up to 350𝐶 0
 4. Chromelalumel thermocouples (type K)
 Widely used, general-purpose devices
 Measurement sensitivity of 41 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.75%
 Their output characteristic is particularly linear over the
temperature range b/w +700𝐶 0 to +1200𝐶 0 .
 Full range is -200𝐶 0 to +1300𝐶 0 .
 5. Nicrosilnisil thermocouples (type N)
 Improved lifetime and stability (3 times better)
 Widely used, general-purpose devices
 Measurement sensitivity of 39 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.75%
 Used up to +1300𝐶 0 .
 6. Nickel/molybdenum–nickel–cobalt thermocouples (type M)
 Measurement sensitivity of 39 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.75%
 They can measure at temperatures up to 1400𝐶 0
 Unfortunately, they are damaged in both oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres
 7. Platinum thermocouples (type B)
 One wire made from a platinum–rhodium alloy with 30% rhodium
and the other wire made from a platinum–rhodium alloy with 6%
rhodium
 Measurement sensitivity of 10 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.75%
 They can measure at temperatures +50 to +1800𝐶 0
 8. Platinum thermocouples (type R)
 One wire made from pure platinum and the other wire made from a
platinum–rhodium alloy with 13% rhodium
 Measurement sensitivity of 10 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.5%
 They can measure at temperatures +0 to +1700𝐶 0
 9. Platinum thermocouples (type S)
 One wire made from pure platinum and the other wire made from a
platinum–rhodium alloy with 10% rhodium
 Almost similar to R type
 Measurement sensitivity of 10 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.5%
 They can measure at temperatures +0 to +1750𝐶 0
 10. Tungsten thermocouples (type C)
 One wire made from pure tungsten and the other wire made from a
tungsten/rhenium alloy
 Measurement sensitivity of 20 µV/𝐶 0
 Inaccuracy of ±0.5%
 They can measure at temperatures up to +2300𝐶 0
 Unfortunately, they are damaged in both oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres
 Used in vacuum furnaces
11. Chromel-gold/iron thermocouples
 One wire made from chromel and the other wire made from a
gold/iron alloy
 Rare, special-purpose thermocouples
 Designed for cryogenic (very low temperature) applications
 Measurement sensitivity of 15 µV/𝐾 0
 The lowest temperature measureable is 1.2𝐾 0
 Unfortunately, they are damaged in both oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres
4. THERMOCOUPLES FEATURES
(i) They are rugged and readings are consistent
(ii) They can measure over a wide range of temperature
(iii) Their characteristics are almost linear with an accuracy of about
0.05%
Shortcoming: low sensitivity

A typical thermocouple
INFRARED SENSORS

 Intercepts portion of infrared energy radiated by object (

 = 8 - 14 microns).
 Waves focused through lens on infrared detector,
converting to an electric output signal
Heat Source Non-Contact Temp. Sensor
Temp. Indicator
Optics

Infrared Detector
EMISSIVITY
 Def: The ability of a material to radiate or absorb electromagnetic
waves. Higher = Better!
 Ex: Given values below & emissivity varies by 0.05, what is
measuring error?
Ans: IR Sensor A 5.5% (0.05/0.9)
IR Sensor B 10% (0.05/0.5)

IR Sensor A IR Sensor B

e = 0.9 e = 0.5
FIELD OF VIEW

 All infrared radiation in this field of view will be detected by

the sensor
4.5 in
2.5 in (114 mm)
1.4 in (64 mm)
1.0 in (36 mm)
0.75 in (25 mm)
0.60 in (19 mm)
(15 mm)

Infrared
Sensor

25 mm

76 mm

152 mm
GOOD VS. BAD RADIATION

 Position 1, IR sensor sees both target object & background objects

 Position 2, IR sensor only sees target object. True target temperature
can now be measured.
 RULE: target size should be at least 1.5 to 2 times the “spot size.”

Infrared 2 1
Sensor

Correct Incorrect
Target Target
Placement Placement
Background
“Noise”
SCENARIOS TO AVOID

 Figure 1: Thin film materials & background radiation enter sensor

 Figure 2: Polished metals will not function well with infrared sensing
due to the reflecting radiation.

Infrared Infrared
Sensor Sensor

Figure 1 Figure 2
SENSOR TO TARGET DISTANCE

 To reduce reflected radiant energy, set IR sensor at right angle with

respect to target
 If space limitation, mount IR up to a maximum of 45O

Sensor

<45o

Product
 OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

 Smoke, dust vapors absorb or reflect infrared radiation before getting

to sensor lens.
 Causes controller to maintain target at wrong temperature

Target
Infrared
Sensor

Smoke or Vapors
So which one is better? Advantages
Simple, rugged
High temp. operation
Low Cost
Thermocouple No resistance lead wire problems
Point temp. sensing
Fastest response to temperature changes
Most stable over time
Most accurate
RTD Most repeatable temp. measurement
Very resistant to contamination/corrosion of the
RTD element
High sensitivity to small temperature changes
Temperature measurements become more
Thermistor stable with use
Copper or nickel extension wires can be used

No contact with the product required

Response times as fast or faster than
thermocouples
Infrared No corrosion or oxidation to affect sensor
accuracy
High repeatability
So which one is better? Disadvantages
Least stable, least repeatable
Low sensitivity to small temperature
changes
Extension wire must be of the same
Thermocouple thermocouple type
Wire may pick up radiated electrical noise
of not shielded
Lowest accuracy
High Cost
Slowest response time
Low sensitivity to small temperature
changes
RTD Sensitive to vibration
Decalibration if used beyond sensor’s
temperature ratings
Somewhat fragile
So which one is better? Disadvantages
Limited temperature range
Fragile
Some initial accuracy “drift”
Thermistor Decalibration if used beyond the sensor’s
temperature rating
Lack of standards for replacement

High initial cost

More complex – support electronics
required
Emissivity variations affect temperature
Infrared measurement accuracy
Field of view and spot size may restrict
sensor application
Measuring accuracy affected by dust,
smoke, background radiation etc.
Temperature Measurement Errors
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
 Response Time
 Noise
 Grounding issues and shorts, especially on metal surfaces