F. Measurement of Process Value.P4

Marine Control & Automation
DEA 2223
Marine Automatic Control System

DAE1213
Lecturer: Md Nor Azam Bin Md Yunos (MNA)

E-mail: mdnorazam.mdyunos@alam.edu.my
H/P: 013 333 6776
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Specific Learning Objective

Understand Method of Measurement for:
1. Temperature
a. Mechanical
• Temperature range for mercury
• Fluid for temperature measurement
• Thermometer principle
-mercury in steel
-vapor-pressure
-gas filled
b. Electrical
• Wheatstone bridge
• Thermocouple
• Pyrometer
Measuring instrument for temperature:
<500 ֯C (thermometer)
>500 ֯C (pyrometer)
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Temperature Measurement
• Temperature measuring devices have been in existence for centuries.
• The age-old mercury in glass thermometer is still used today. The principle of operation is ageless as the device
itself.
• Its operation was based on the temperature expansion of fluids (mercury or alcohol). As the temperature
increased the fluid in a small reservoir or bulb expanded and a small column of the fluid was forced up a tube.
• The same theory is used in many modern thermostats today.

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Liquid in Glass Thermometers
The liquid in glass thermometer involves a liquid expanding up a capillary tube.
The height to which the liquid expands is a measure of the temperature.
With mercury as the liquid, the range possible is -35 ⁰C to +600 ⁰C,
Such thermometers are direct reading, fragile, capable of reasonable accuracy under standardized conditions,
fairly slow reacting to temperature changes, and cheap.
Liquid in glass thermometers are fragile and for industrial use, the thermometer is mounted in a protective housing
and the scale is engraved on a separate plate that is part of the protective case.
Liquids used in glass thermometers

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Disadvantages
Advantages i. Inappropriate for applications involving extremely high or low
temperatures.
i. They are comparatively cheaper than ii. Not be applied in regions where highly accurate results are desirable.
other temperature measurement iii. As compared to electrical thermometers, they are very weak and
devices. delicate. Therefore, they must be handled with extra care because
ii. They are handy and convenient to use. they are likely to break.
iii. Unlike electrical thermometers, they do iv. Only manual reading is adequate.
not necessitate power supply or v. “Temperature readings should be noted immediately after removal
batteries for charging. because a glass thermometer can be affected by the environmental
iv. They can be frequently applied in areas temperature, heat produced by the hand holding it, cleaning, etc. This
where there is problem of electricity. temperature should be recorded because a glass thermometer does
v. They provide very good repeatability not offer a recall of the measured temperature.”
and their calibration remains vi. Liquid element contained in a glass thermometer may be perilous or
unaffected. risky to health owing to their potential chemical spills.
vii. These thermometers display temperature either in Celsius or
Fahrenheit scales. Thus, temperature conversion would be needed if
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the temperature reading is wanted in some other scale. Page 7
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Gas Thermometers
The operational principle of the gas thermometer is based on a basic law of gases. In particular,
if a gas is kept in a container at constant volume and the pressure and temperature
vary, the ratio of gas pressure and temperature is a constant:
In gas filled temperature gauges (also called gas thermometers or gas-in-metal thermometers), a gas is used as the
thermometric fluid instead of an liquid as it is in liquid-in-metal thermometers. However, the operating principle is the same
in both cases: It is not the expansion of the fluid that is measured, but the increase in pressure at a constant volume which
is associated by an increase in temperature. For an ideal gas, the gas pressure at a constant volume is determined only by
the temperature (isochoric process).
These thermometers work on the principle that pressure varies as a function of temperature, according to the gas law. The
measuring system of gas thermometers consists of a capillary tube and a tubular coil. A temperature variation acting on the
sensor proportionately alters the pressure of the gas contained within it. The expansion of the gas unwinds the coil. The
angle of displacement of the coil is transmitted by means of an amplifying movement to a pointer, so enabling the
temperature to be read.
Gas thermometers are more expensive than liquid-in-metal thermometers due to their more complex design. Depending on
the thermometric gas, temperatures down to -200 °C or up to over +700 °C can be measured with a gas thermometer. The
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measurable temperature range is therefore somewhat larger than with liquid-in-metal thermometers.
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Gas filled thermometer
Figure: Gas filled

thermometer - Rigid Type Figure: Gas filled thermometer
(gas-in-metal thermometer) with flexible capillary tube

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Bourdon tube

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Vapor-Pressure Thermometers
A vapor-pressure thermometer converts temperature information into pressure, as does the gas
thermometer, but it operates by a different process.
If a closed vessel is partially filled with liquid, then the space above the liquid will consist of evaporated
vapor of the liquid at a pressure that depends on the temperature.
If the temperature is raised, more liquid will vaporize, and the pressure will increase. A decrease in
temperature will result in condensation of some of the vapor, and the pressure will decrease. Thus,
vapor pressure depends on temperature.
Different materials have different curves of pressure versus temperature, and there is no simple
equation like that for a gas thermometer.

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Vapor-Pressure Thermometers
Figure 15 shows a curve of vapor

pressure versus temperature for methyl
chloride, which is often employed in
these sensors.
The pressure available is substantial as
the temperature rises.
As in the case of gas thermometers,

the range is not great, and response
time is slow (20 s and more)
because the liquid and the vessel must
be heated.

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Pyrometer
Pyrometer, device for measuring relatively high temperatures, such as are encountered in furnaces.
Most pyrometers work by measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to be measured.
Radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material being measured.
Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Radiation thermometer or non-contact

thermometer used to detect the temperature of an object’s surface temperature, which depends on the
radiation (infrared or visible) emitted from the object. Pyrometers act as photodetector because of the
property of absorbing energy and measuring of EM wave intensity at any wavelength.
1. Optical pyrometer
This is based on comparing the brightness of the light emitted by the hot body with that from a known
standard.
2. Total radiation pyrometer
This involves the measurement of the total amount of radiation emitted by the hot body by a resistance
element or a thermopile.
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1.Optical pyrometer
The optical pyrometer, known generally as the disappearing filament pyrometer, involves just the visible
part of the radiation emitted by a hot object. The radiation is focused onto a filament so that the radiation
and the filament can both be viewed in focus through an eyepiece (Figure 2.51).
The filament is heated by an electrical current until the filament and the hot object seem to be the same
colour, the filament image then disappearing into the background of the hot object. The filament current
is then a measure of the temperature. A red filter between the eyepiece and the filament is generally
used to make the matching of the colours of the filament and the hot object easier. Another red filter may
be introduced between the hot object and the filament with the effect of making the object seem less hot
and so extending the range of the instrument.
The disappearing filament pyrometer has a range of about 600 ⁰C to 3000 ⁰C, an accuracy of about
60.5% of the reading and involves no physical contact with the hot object. It can thus be used for moving
or distant objects.

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1.Optical pyrometer
FIGURE 2.51 Disappearing filament pyrometer

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• The total radiation pyrometer involves the radiation from the hot object being focused onto a
radiation detector.
• Figure 2.52 shows the basic form of an instrument which uses a mirror to focus the radiation onto
the detector.
• Some forms use a lens to focus the radiation. The detector is typically a thermopile with often up
to 20 or 30 thermocouple junctions, a resistance element or a thermistor. The detector is said to
be broad band since it detects radiation over a wide band of frequencies and so the output is the
summation of the power emitted at every wavelength. It is proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature (the Stefan-Boltzmann law).

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• The accuracy of broad band total radiation pyrometers is typically about 60.5% and ranges are
available within the region 0 ⁰C to 3000 ⁰C. The time constant (a measure of how fast the system
responds to a change in temperature and is the time taken to reach about 63% of the final value) for
the instrument varies from about 0.1 s when the detector is just one thermocouple or small bead
thermistor to a few seconds with a thermopile involving many thermocouples. Some instruments use
a rotating mechanical chopper to chop the radiation before it impinges on the detector.
• The aim is to obtain an alternating output from the detector, since amplification is easier with an
alternating voltage. It is thus of particular benefit when the level of radiation is low. However,
choppers can only be used with detectors which have a very small time constant and thus tend to be
mainly used with small bead thermistor detectors.

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FIGURE 2.52 Total radiation pyrometer

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2. Pyrometer
Cyclops L range is easy to use – High
quality, Through the Lens (TTL) sighting
means that you simply look through the
eyepiece and focus the lens on the
desired target. A small graticule within
the view exactly defines the area that's
being measured. Then simply pull the
trigger. Switch between four modes for
data-logging. Temperature readings are
displayed within the eyepiece and
simultaneously on a second display
panel on the instrument's side. This
allows a colleague standing next to you
to also view the readings.
https://www.ametek-land.com/products/p
ortable-non-contact-thermometers/cyclo
ps-l-handheld-portable-non-contact-pyro
meter
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Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge is the name given to a combination of four resistances connected to
give a null center value.
History
The Wheatstone bridge was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and
popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. It is used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
component.
Concept
If we consider the resistance, most of the industrial sensors like temperature, strain, humidity,
displacement, liquid level, etc. produces the change in value of the resistance for a variable
change. Therefore, there is a need for a signal conditioning for every resistance sensor.
Wheatstone bridge is used to convert a resistance change to a voltage change of a transducer.

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Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used to interface various
transducers and sensors to these amplifier/tranducer circuits.
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple series-parallel arrangements of
resistances connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage
difference between the two parallel branches when balanced. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has
two input terminals and two output terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a
diamond-like arrangement as shown. This is typical of how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn.

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Wheatstone Bridge
Voltage Divider

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Wheatstone Bridge
• When balanced, the Wheatstone bridge can be analyzed simply as two series strings in parallel.
• As the two resistors are in series, the same current ( i ) flows through both of them. Therefore the
current flowing through these two resistors in series is given as: V/RT.
I = V ÷ R = 12V ÷ (10Ω + 20Ω) = 0.4A
• The voltage at point C, which is also the voltage drop across the lower resistor, R2 is calculated
as: VR2 = I × R2 = 0.4A × 20Ω = 8 volts
• Then we can see that the source voltage VS is divided among the two series resistors in direct
proportion to their resistances as VR1 = 4V and VR2 = 8V.
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Wheatstone Bridge
• Now if we add another series resistor circuit using the same resistor values in parallel with the first
we would have the following circuit.
• As the second series circuit has the same resistive values of the first, the voltage at point D, which
is also the voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be the same at 8 volts, with respect to zero (battery
negative), as the voltage is common, and the two resistive networks are the same.
• But something else equally as important is that the voltage difference between point C and point D
will be zero volts as both points are at the same value of 8 volts as: C = D = 8 volts, then the
voltage difference is: 0 volts
• When this happens, both sides of the parallel bridge network are said to be balanced because the
voltage at point C is the same value as the voltage at point D with their difference being zero.
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Wheatstone Bridge
• Now let’s consider what would happen if we reversed the position of the two resistors, R3 and R4
in the second parallel branch with respect to R1 and R2.
• Now with VR4 having 4 volts dropped across it, the voltage difference between points C and D will
be 4 volts as: C = 8 volts and D = 4 volts. Then the difference this time is: 8 – 4 = 4 volts.
• The result of swapping the two resistors is that both sides or “arms” of the parallel network are
different as they produce different voltage drops. When this happens the parallel network is said to
be unbalanced as the voltage at point C is at a different value to the voltage at point D.
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Wheatstone Bridge
• Then we can see that the resistance ratio of these two parallel arms, ACB and ADB, results in a
voltage difference between 0 volts (balanced) and the maximum supply voltage (unbalanced), and
this is the basic principal of the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.
• So we can see that a Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to compare an unknown resistance
RX with others of a known value, for example, R1 and R2, have fixed values, and R3 could be
variable. If we connected a voltmeter, ammeter or classically a galvanometer between points C
and D, and then varied resistor, R3 until the meters read zero, would result in the two arms being
balanced and the value of RX, (substituting R4) known as shown.

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Wheatstone Bridge
The following unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge is constructed. Calculate the output voltage across
points C and D and the value of resistor R4 required to balance the bridge circuit.

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Temperature Sensor
• The expansion or contraction of solids, liquids, or gases, the change in electrical resistance of
conductors and semiconductors, thermoelectric e.m.f.s, and the change in the current across the
junction of semiconductor diodes and transistors are all examples of properties that change when
the temperature changes and can be used as basis of temperature sensors.

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1.Bimetallic Strips
• A bimetallic strip consists of two different metal strips of the same length bonded together
(Figure 2.42).
• Because the metals have different coefficients of expansion, when the temperature increases
the composite strip
• bends into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve.
• The amount by which the strip curves depends on the two metals used, the length of the
composite strip and the change in temperature.
• If one end of a bimetallic strip is fixed, the amount by which the free end moves is a measure of
the temperature.
• This movement may be used to open or close electric circuits, as in the simple thermostat
commonly used with
• domestic heating systems. Bimetallic strip devices are robust, relatively cheap, have an
accuracy of the order of 61%, and are fairly slow reacting to changes in temperature.

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1.Bimetallic Strips

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Thermocouples
• When two different metals are joined together, a potential difference occurs across the junction.
• The potential difference depends on the two metals used and the temperature of the junction.
• A thermocouple involves two such junctions, as illustrated in Figure 2.46.
• If both junctions are at the same temperature, the potential differences across the two junctions
cancel each other out and there is no net e.m.f. If, however, there is a difference in temperature
between the two junctions, there is an e.m.f. The value of this e.m.f. E depends on the two
metals concerned and the temperatures t of both junctions. Usually one junction is held at 0 ֯C
and then, to a reasonable extent, the following relationship holds:
E = at = bt2
where a and b are constants for the metals concerned.

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Thermocouples
• Figure 2.47 shows how the e.m.f. varies with temperature for a number of commonly used pairs
of metals.
• Standard tables giving the e.m.f.s at different temperatures are available for the metals usually
used for thermocouples.
• Commonly used thermocouples are listed in Table 2.1, with the temperature ranges over which
they are generally used and typical sensitivities. These commonly used thermocouples are
given reference letters.
• The base-metal thermocouples, E, J, K, and T, are relatively cheap but deteriorate with age.
• They have accuracies which are typically about ±1% to 3%.
• Noble-metal thermocouples, e.g. R, are more expensive but are more stable with longer life.
They have accuracies of the order of ±1 % or better.
• Thermocouples are generally mounted in a sheath to give them mechanical and chemical
protection. The response time of an unsheathed thermocouple is very fast. With a sheath this
may be increased to as much as a few seconds if a large sheath is used.

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Thermocouples

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Thermocouples
• A thermocouple can be used with the reference junction at a temperature other than 0 ⁰C. However, the standard
tables assume that the junction is at 0 ⁰C junction and hence a correction has to be applied before the tables can be used.
• The correction is applied using what is known as the law of intermediate temperatures, namely:
• Et,0 = Et,I + EI,0
• The e.m.f. Et,0 at temperature t when the cold junction is at 0⁰C equals the e.m.f. E t,I at the intermediate temperature
•I plus the e.m.f. EI,0 at temperature I when the cold junction is at 0 ⁰C. Consider a type E thermocouple.
• The following is data from standard tables.
• Thus, using the law of intermediate temperatures, the thermoelectric e.m.f. at 200 ⁰C with the cold junction at
20 ⁰C is:
E200,20 = E200,0 - E20,0 = 13:419-1.19 = 12:227 mV
Note that this is not the e.m.f. given by the tables for a temperature of 180 ⁰C with a cold junction at 0 ⁰C, namely 11.949 mV.

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Thermocouples
• To maintain one junction of a thermocouple at 0 ⁰C, it needs to be immersed in a mixture of ice and water.
• This, however, is often not convenient and a compensation circuit (Figure 2.48) is used to provide an e.m.f. which
varies with the temperature of the ‘cold’ junction in such a way that when it is added to the thermocouple e.m.f. it generates
a combined e.m.f. which is the same as would have been generated if the cold junction had been at 0 ⁰C, e.g. the Analog
Devices AD594 (Figure 2.49).
• This, when used with a +5 V supply and a constantan –iron thermocouple, gives an output of 10 mV/ ⁰C.
• When a thermocouple is connected to a measuring circuit, other metals are involved (Figure 2.50). Thus we can have as the
‘hot’ junction that between metals A and B and the ‘cold’ junction effectively extended by the introduction of copper leads and
the measurement instrument.
• Provided the junctions with the intermediate materials are at the same temperature, there is no extra e.m.f. involved and we
still have the e.m.f. as due to the junction between metals A and B.
FIGURE 2.50 The junctions with a measurement instrument.

FIGURE 2.48 Cold junction compensation. FIGURE 2.49 AD594.
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Thermocouples

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
• A resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor that is based on the principles that
is, metal resistance increasing with temperature.
• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are simple resistive elements in
• the form of coils of metal wire, e.g. platinum, nickel, or copper alloys. Platinum detectors have high
linearity, good repeatability, high long-term stability, can give an accuracy of ±0.5% or better, a range
of about -200 ⁰C to +850 ⁰C, can be used in a wide range of environments without deterioration, but
are more expensive than the other metals. They are, however, very widely used.
• Nickel and copper alloys are cheaper but have less stability, are more prone to interaction with the
environment, and cannot be used over such large temperature ranges.
• A commercially available platinum resistance thermometer includes the following in its specification:
Range -200 ⁰C to +800 ⁰C
Accuracy ±0.01 ⁰C
Sensitivity 0.4 Ω/ ⁰C for 100 Ω

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

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Thermistors
• Thermistors are semiconductor temperature sensors made from mixtures of metal oxides, such as those of chromium, cobalt,
iron, manganese, and nickel.
• The resistance of thermistors decreases in a very non-linear manner with an increase in temperature, Figure 2.44 illustrating
this.
• The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is considerably larger than that which occurs with metals.
For example, a thermistor might have a resistance of 29 kΩ at 220 ⁰C, 9.8 kΩ at 0 ⁰C, 3.75 kΩ at 20 ⁰C, 1.6 kΩ at 40 ⁰C, 0.75kΩ
at 60 ⁰C.
• The material is formed into various forms of element, such as beads, discs, and rods as Figure 2.45.
• Thermistors are rugged and can be very small, so enabling temperatures to be monitored at virtually a point. Because of their
small size they have small thermal capacity and so respond very rapidly to changes in temperature.
• The temperature range over which they can be used will depend on the thermistor concerned, ranges within about -100 ⁰C to
+300 ⁰C being possible.
• They give very large changes in resistance per degree change in temperature and so are capable, over a small range, of being
calibrated to give an accuracy of the order of 0.1 ⁰C or better.
• However, their characteristics tend to drift with time. Their main disadvantage is their non-linearity.
• Thermistors are commonly used to monitor the coolant temperatures and the outside and internal air temperatures in
automobiles.

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Thermistors
FIGURE 2.44 Variation of resistance.
FIGURE 2.45 Thermistors:

(A) rod with temperature for
thermistors (B) disc, (C) bead.

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http://www.thermometricsc
orp.com/Thermocouple_Co
lor_Codes.html

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References
• Reeds_Vol_10__Instrumentation and control system
• Notes on Instrumentation and Control –GJ Roy
• Bolton, William - Instrumentation and Control Systems, Second Edition-Newnes (2015)
• Curtis D. Johnson - Process Control Instrumentation Technology-Pearson Education Limited (2013)
• BASIC INSTRUMENTATION MEASURING DEVICES AND BASIC PID CONTROL - Science and Reactor
Fundamentals . Instrumentation & Control CNSC Technical Training Group
• SENSORS AND ACTUATORS-Control Systems Instrumentation _ CLARENCE W. de SILVA_CRC Press
• https://www.britannica.com/technology/pyrometer
• https://www.tec-science.com/thermodynamics/temperature/how-does-a-gas-filled-thermometer-gas-in-metal-work/
• https://rueger.com/en/products/temperature/gas-pressure-thermometers
• http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/?s=thermometer
• Stefan-Boltzmann law http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/stefan.html
THANK YOU

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Marine Control & Automation

Lecturer: Md Nor Azam Bin Md Yunos (MNA)

Specific Learning Objective

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Liquids used in glass thermometers

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Figure: Gas filled

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Figure 15 shows a curve of vapor

As in the case of gas thermometers,

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Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Radiation thermometer or non-contact

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FIGURE 2.51 Disappearing filament pyrometer

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FIGURE 2.52 Total radiation pyrometer

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FIGURE 2.50 The junctions with a measurement instrument.

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FIGURE 2.44 Variation of resistance.

FIGURE 2.45 Thermistors:

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