4.

4 Temperature Measurement

• To most people, temperature is intuitive concept that tells us

whether a body is “hot” or “cold”.
• Since pressure, volume, electrical resistance, expansion coefficient
etc., are all related to temperature through the fundamental molecular
they change with temperature, and these changes can be used to
measure the temperature.
• The International Temperature Scale serve to define temperature
in terms of observable characteristic of materials.
 4.2.1 Temperature Scales
• Two temperature scales which are the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales
• These scales are based on a specification of the number increment
between the freezing point and a boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure.
• The Celsius scale has 100 units between these points, while
Fahrenheit scale has 180 units.
• The absolute Celsius scale is called the Kelvin scale, while the
absolute Fahrenheit scale is termed the Rankine scale.
• Both absolute scales are defined that they will correspond as
closely as possible with the absolute thermodynamic temperature
scale.
• The zero point of both absolute scales represent the same physical
state, and the ratio of two values is the same, regardless of the
absolute scale used; i.e.:

(T2/T1)Rankine= (T2/T1)Kelvin

• The boiling point of water at atm is arbitrarily taken as 100o

on Celsius scale and 212o on the Fahrenheit scale.
• The relationship between the scales is as follows:

o
F = 32 + 9/5oC
o
F = 9/5oK
 4.4.2 Method of Temperature Measurement
There are two common methods of temperature measurement
1) Temperature measurement by mechanical effects
2) Temperature measurement by electrical effects

1) Temperature measurement by mechanical effects

• Devices operating on the basis of a change in mechanical
dimension with a change in temperature.
• Several temperature-measurement devices may be classified as
mechanically operative including:
a) The liquid-in-glass thermometer
b) The bimetallic thermometer
c) Fluid-expansion thermometers
 a) Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
• One of the most common types of temperature-measurement devices.
• The construction of the device is shown in figure 4.21.
- A relatively large bulb at the lower portion of the thermometer holds
the major portion of the liquid, which expands when heated and rises
in capillary tube upon which are etched appropriate scale marking.
- At the top of the capillary tube another bulb is placed to provide a
safety feature in case the temperature range of the thermometer is
inadvertently exceeded.
- Alcohol and mercury are the most commonly used liquids. Alcohol
has advantage that it has a higher coefficient of expansion than
mercury, but it is limited a low-temperature measurement because
it tends boil away at high temperature. Mercury cannot be used
below its freezing point of –38.78oF(-37.8oC).
- The size of the capillary depends on the size of the sensing bulb,
the liquid, and the desired temperature range for the thermometer.
• Operation liquid-in-glass thermometer
- Operate when the bulb is exposed to the environment whose
temperature is to be measured.
- A rise temperature causes the liquid to expand in the bulb and
rise in the capillary, thereby indicating the temperature.
- It is important to note that the expansion registered by the
thermometer is the difference between the expansion of the liquid
and the expansion of the glass.
- The difference is a function not only of the heat transfer to bulb
from the environment, but also of the heat conducted into bulb
from the stem; the more the stem conduction relative to the heat
transfer from the environment, the larger the error.
Figure 4.21 Schematic of a mercury-in-glass thermometer
 (b) Bimetallic Thermometer
• Very widely used
• Two pieces of metal with different coefficient of thermal
expansion are bonded together to form the device shown
in figure 4.22.
• When the strip is subjected to a temperature higher than
the bonding temperature, it will bend in one direction;
when it subjected to a temperature lower than the
bonding temperature, it will in other direction.
• The thermal-expansion coefficient for some commonly
used materials are given in table 4.1.
• Bimetallic strips frequently used in simple on-off temperature
control devices (thermostats).
• Movement of the strip has sufficient force to trip control switches
for various devices.
• Advantage:
- low cost
- negligible maintenance expense
- stable operation over extended periods of time.
Figure 4.22 Bimetallic Strip
Table 4.1 Mechanical properties of some commonly
used thermal material

Material Thermal Modulus of

coefficient Elasticity
of expansion
per oC
psi GN/m2
Invar 1.7 x 10-6 21.4 x 106 147
Yellow brass 2.02 x 10-5 14.0 x 106 96.5
Monel 400 1.35 x 10-5 26.0 x 106 179
Inconel 702 1.25 x 10-5 31.5 x 106 217
Stainless-steel 1.6 x 10-5 28.0 x 106 193
type 316
 (c) Fluid-expansion Thermometer

• Represent the most economical, versatile and widely used devices

for industrial temperature-measurement applications.
• Also called pressure thermometer.
• The principle of operation is indicated in figure 4.23.
• Consist of sensitive bulb containing a liquid, gas, or vapor is
immersed in the environment.
• The bulb is connected to some type of pressure-measuring device,
such as bourdon tube, bellows or diaphragm via capillary tube.
• An increase in temperature causes the liquid or gas to expand,
thereby increasing the pressure on the gauge.
• The pressure is taken as an indication of the temperature.
• The entire system consisting of the bulb, capillary and gauge may
be calibrated directly.
• Capillary tube may be used for remote measurement.
• Temperature variation along the capillary and at the
pressure-sensing device generally require compensation,
except in the vapor-pressure type (shown in figure 4.24)
where pressure depend only the temperature liquid liquid’s
free surface located at the bulb.
4.23 Fluid-expansion Thermometer
4.24 Vapor-pressure Thermometer
 (2) Temperature by Electrical Effects

• Very convenient method because they furnish a signal that is

easily detected, amplified, or used for control purposes.
• Usually quite accurate when properly calibrated and compensated.
• Three commonly used
a) Electrical-Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD).
b) Thermistor
c) Thermocouple
 (a) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Quite accurate method of temperature measurement.
• Consists of some type of resistive element which is exposed
to the temperature to be measured.
• The temperature is indicated through a measurement of the
change in resistance of the element.
• Several types of materials may be used such as platinum, nickel,
iron(alloy), copper and tungsten.
• The relationship between temperature and resistance of
conductors can be calculated from the equation:
R =Ro(1 + T)
Where R= resistance of the conductor at temperature T (oC)
Ro= resistance at the reference temperature, usually 20oC
= temperature coefficient of resistance
= difference between the operating and the reference temperature
4.25 The construction of RTD
Figure 4.26 : RTD graph for different type conductor
 (b) Thermistor
• Semiconductor device that has a negative temperature coefficient.
of resistance, in contrast to the positive coefficient displayed by
most metals.
• Negative temperature coefficient means, the resistance decreases
as the temperature rises.
• Resistance at 25oC for typical commercial units ranges from
100 to over 100M.
• Very sensitive device and consistent performance within 0.01oC
however it is highly nonlinear behaviour.
• Since the resistance of the thermistor is very high, the error due
to lead resistance is small compared to that for RTD.
• In addition, the high resistance of the thermistor means the
smaller current required for measurement.
 (c) Thermocouple
• The most common electrical method of temperature measurement
uses the thermocouple.
• When a pair of wires made from different metals are joined together
at one end as in figure 4.27, a temperature difference between this
and the other end of the wires produces voltage between the wires.
• The magnitude of the voltage depends on the materials used for the
wires and amount of temperature difference between the joined end
and the other end.
• The junction of the two wires of the thermocouple is called sensing
junction.
• In normal use this junction is place in or on the material being tested,
and the other end of the wire are connected to the voltage-
measuring equipment.
• Since the temperature difference between this sensing junction
and the other ends is the critical factor, the other ends are either
kept at a constant reference temperature (room temperature).
• When the other ends are kept at room temperature, the
temperature is monitored and the thermocouple output voltage
readings are corrected for any changes in room temperature.
4.27 Junction of two different metal indicating thermoelectric effects
Figure 4.28
Figure 4.29 Different types of thermocouple