Temperature Measurements

Temperature Standards and Definition

Temperature can be loosely described as the property of an object that describes its hotness or
coldness, concepts that are clearly relative. Our experiences indicate that heat transfer tends to
equalize temperature, or more precisely, systems that are in thermal communication eventually
have equal temperatures.

Temperature Measurements device

1. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
2. Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
3. Electrical Thermometers
4. Non-contact infrared radiation thermometers
5. Some general features of radiation thermometry etc

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
A liquid-in-glass thermometer is the simplest and most commonly employed type of
temperature measurement device. It is one of the oldest thermometers available in the industry. It
gives fairly accurate results within the temperature range of -200 to 600°C. No special means are
needed to measure temperature via these thermometers. One can read temperature readings
easily with human eyes. They find their use in variety of applications such as medicine,
metrology and industry.

“In the LIG (Liquid-in-Glass) thermometer the thermally sensitive element is a liquid contained
in a glass envelope. The principle used to measure temperature is that of the apparent thermal
expansion of the liquid. It is the difference between the volumetric reversible thermal expansion
of the liquid and its glass container that makes it possible to measure temperature

Construction liquid-in-glass thermometer 

A liquid-in-glass thermometer measures temperature by virtue of the thermal expansion of a
liquid. The construction of a liquid-in-glass thermometer is shown in Figure. The liquid is
contained in a glass structure that consists of a bulb and a stem. The bulb serves as a reservoir
and provides sufficient fluid for the total volume change of the fluid to cause a detectable rise of
the liquid in the stem of the thermometer. The stem contains a capillary tube, and the difference
in thermal expansion between the liquid and the glass produces a detectable change in the level
of the liquid in the glass capillary.

It mainly comprises:
 A bulb which acts as a container for the functioning liquid where it can easily expand or
contract in capacity.
  A stem, “a glass tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and enlarged at the
bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with a working liquid”.
 A temperature scale which is basically preset or imprinted on the stem for displaying
temperature readings.
 A working liquid which is generally either mercury or alcohol.
 An inert gas, mainly argon or nitrogen which is filled inside the thermometer above
mercury to trim down its volatilization.

Main Features of Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer 

Key features of liquid-in-glass thermometers include:

 The extent to which these thermometers are inserted into the medium under temperature
measurement principally decides the accuracy of results. Typically, three classes of
immersion exist which are total, partial and complete immersion classified according to
the level of contact between the medium and the sensing element.

 “An error can be produced when the thermometer is not immersed to the same extent as it
was when it was originally calibrated. An 'emergent stem correction' may be necessary
when it is not possible to immerse the thermometer sufficiently deeply.”

 The response time of a liquid-in-glass thermometer varies according to the kind of

thermometer, its bulb volume, thickness and overall weight. For getting quick response,
the bulb of the thermometer should be designed in such a way that it results in small and
the bulb wall thin.

 Their sensitivity is based upon the reversible thermal expansion characteristics of the
liquid in comparison to the glass. The more the thermal expansion of the liquid, the
highly sensitive the thermometer is.
  Organic liquids which are usually employed for construction of liquid-in-glass
thermometers include toluene, ethyl alcohol and pentane. Although their thermal
expansion is high but they are non linear and their use is restricted for high temperatures.

Property of Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

 Inexpensive, simple, portable & no need for additional indicator.

 High heat capacity.
 Not suitable for distant reading.
 Not suitable for surface temperature measurement.
 Alcohol is limited to low-temperature measurements. Its high coefficient of expansion
makes it more sensitive.

Application Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

Liquid-in-glass thermometers are mainly employed in Navy and Marine Corps in different
configurations. They are also applied in meteorological and oceanographic applications.

Advantages Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

Following are the major advantages associated with the use of liquid-in-glass thermometers:
 They are comparatively cheaper than other temperature measurement devices.
 They are handy and convenient to use.
 Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not necessitate power supply or batteries for
charging.
 They can be frequently applied in areas where there is problem of electricity.
 They provide very good repeatability.

Disadvantages Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

 Limited accuracy and temperature range covered

 Requires visual reading and is not easy to automate

Limitation Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

Use of liquid-in-glass thermometers includes following limitations too:

 They are considered inappropiate for applications involving extremely high or low
temperatures.
 They cannot be applied in regions where highly accurate results are desirable.
 As compared to electrical thermometers, they are very weak. Therefore, they must be
handled with extra care because they are likely to break.
 Besides, they cannot provide digital and automated results. Hence, their use is limited to
areas where only manual reading is adequate, for example, a household thermometer.
 “Temperature readings should be noted immediately after removal because a glass
thermometer can be affected by the environmental temperature.
 Liquid element contained in a glass thermometer may be risky to health owing to their
potential chemical spills.
 These thermometers display temperature either in Celsius or Fahrenheit scales. Thus,
temperature conversion would be needed if the temperature reading is wanted in some
other scale.

Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

Every metal and alloy has its won coefficient of expansion. That means they are expanded in
their size differently for same temperature increase. If we couple two strips made of two different
metals or alloys, then due to dissimilarity in coefficient of expansion they will be expanded or
contracted differently during temperature change and consequently the whole bimetallic strip
assembly will bend or be deformed. As this deformation of shape of a specific bimetallic strip is
due to temperature rise or fall, this deformation can also be measured in the scale of temperature.
From this principle, the concept of Bimetallic Strip Thermometer came.

Bimetallic strip mainly used in industries in temperature control devices. It is assembled with
temperature controller system. When temperature reaches to a preset value, the bimetallic strip is
so bent it closes an NO contact which initiates the cooling system to decrease the temperature of
the system. Bimetallic strip thermometer is also widely used in industries because of their
simplicity and robustness.

Definition
Bimetallic stemmed thermometer Measures temperature through a metal probe with a sensor
toward the end. It measures from 0-220 degrees F.

Types of Bimetallic Strip Thermometer 

There are mainly two types of bimetallic strip thermometer are available in the market. Both
are same in working but differ in construction.

1. Spiral Strip Bimetallic Thermometer

Here the bimetallic strip used is in spiral shaped. When temperature rises, due to bimetallic
property, the spring twists more. Due to this mechanical deformation of the spring, a pointer
attached to the dial moves and indicates the temperature, as the dial of this bimetallic strip
thermometer is calibrated in temperature scale.

2. Cantilever Strip Bimetallic Thermometer

Here a straight bimetallic strip is attached as a cantilever. When temperature rises or falls, the
strip bends either sides and the movement of the front end of the strip is transferred to a pointer
dial system via gear - lever system, to take reading of temperature.

Calibrating Your Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

Bimetallic stemmed thermometers are calibrated using the ice-point method. Calibrate on a
regular basis and after using the thermometer with very hot or very cold foods, or after dropping
or jarring it. In a clean styrofoam cup, make an ice water slush by filling the cup halfway with
ice cubes and the rest with water. Stick the sensing tip of the thermometer into the cup being sure
not to touch the sides or bottom of the cup. Wait four or five minutes or until the needle is
steady. If the needle does not read 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) then turn the nut under the dial
until it does. Clean and sanitize the thermometer and its case before next use
Advantages of Bimetallic strip Thermometer
There are mainly three major advantages of this instrument. Those are
1. One they are robust/ strong
2. They are simple and
3. They are fully mechanical devices no need of power source.
Disadvantages of Bimetallic strip Thermometer
Main disadvantages are they are not very accurate and they are not suitable for measuring lower
temperature as the metals and metallic alloys show nearly same expansion or contraction in
lower range of temperature.

Electrical Thermometers
1. Resistance thermometers

Principle is that the electrical resistance of the sensors is strongly temperature dependent, and
changes with temperature in a predictable way.

Platinum Resistance

Glass coated 100 ohm Pt100 platinum resistance sensor

Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) are the most accurate. However, they are
only suitable for laboratory use, and in industry more rugged industrial platinum resistance
thermometers are used, variously known as IPRTs, Pt100s, RTDs (resistance temperature
detectors).
In a thermometer, the high purity platinum wire sensor is located near the tip of a closed
protective tube, to make a probe which can be inserted into the measurement environment.
Most sensors are made with two wires emerging from the instrument, the resistance of these
wires is included in the measurement and errors of a few °C may result.
Some compensation for the lead resistances can be achieved by connecting a third wire to one
side of the sensor (3-wire connection), but best accuracy requires four wires, two for passing the
current and two for sensing the voltage across the Pt100 resistance.
Good sensitivity can be achieved: measurements routinely made with a precision of better than
a thousandth part of 1°C.
Thermistors

Thermistors for use in current limiting circuits (Cantherm Ltd).

Semiconducting materials such as thermistors are very temperature sensitive and resistance
increases very strongly as the temperature falls.
Well suited for use in small probes with fast response, e.g. as current limiters in electronic
circuits and in medical thermometry, where good sensitivity is achieved over limited temperature
ranges.
Most common are negative temperature coefficient (NTC) types.
Since resistances are large, generally several kilohms, 2-wire connections can usually be used
without significant error. Thermistors are not standardised, and the manufacturer’s specification
must be referred to.

2. Thermocouples
 Thermocouple

Thermocouples are by far the most common temperature sensors in industrial use.
A thermocouple is a temperature sensor based on the Seebeck effect - the generation of a voltage
in electrical conductors along which there is a temperature difference (gradient).
A simple thermocouple consists of two wires  joined at the end where the temperature is to be
measured, the other ends being connected to a voltmeter. The two wires must be of different
materials, because the measured voltage is the difference between the voltages produced in each
wire separately.
Voltage is built up along the lengths of the wires where the temperature gradient is, not at the
junctions, which are only needed to make the electrical connections, and should be kept free of
any temperature gradients. As a result the measured voltage depends on the temperatures at both
ends of the wires.
In common practice the thermocouple is simply connected to the measuring instrument, which
applies compensation for its ‘cold-junction’ temperature.
For more accurate use the reference junctions are controlled or fixed, typically using melting ice
at 0 °C, and copper wires then connect to the instrument.
 

Illustration of a thermocouple measuring the temperature in a furnace

In the illustration most of the voltage is generated where the wires pass through the temperature
drop across the furnace wall, and ideally there are no temperature gradients near the hot junction.
 Some metal-sheathed thermocouples with connectors, and one in a heavy-duty cover

Thermocouples have the following properties that make them suitable for an enormous variety of
industrial, technological and scientific applications:
 Simple
 Rugged in protective metal cables
 Small
 Inexpensive
 Wide temperature range
The voltages are not large, typically only about 40 µV for every 1 °C of temperature difference,
but instruments commonly display readings with 0.1 °C resolution.

Non-contact infrared radiation thermometers

 

Schematic arrangement of a radiation thermometer

 
Radiation thermometers work like cameras, with an optical system (lenses or mirrors) and a filter
which selects the wavelength range (waveband) over which the thermometer is sensitive and
focuses radiation onto a detector whose output indicates the intensity of the radiation and hence
the temperature.
Detector could be:
 'Photo-detector' - incident photons give rise to an electric current
 'Thermal' - senses the temperature rise produced by the energy absorbed
A detector is temperature-controlled to make its response more repeatable. For low temperature
applications, it must be cooled to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and to reduce the intensity of
its own radiation.
Temperatures can be measured remotely using this technique, with the sensor situated some
distance away from the object. Hence it is useful for objects that are very hot, moving or in
hazardous environments.
The amount of radiation emitted can be measured and related to temperature using the Planck
law of radiation.

Some general features of radiation thermometry

 Thermal radiation is mostly in the infrared, but as the temperature increases beyond about
700 °C a dull ‘red heat’ can be seen, which gradually brightens to orange, yellow and
finally a brilliant white heat. The effect is very sensitive and radiation thermometry is a
powerful method of temperature measurement, down to – 50 °C or even lower.
 Radiation thermometry uses the concept of a ‘perfect radiator’ or blackbody, so-called
because it's also a perfect absorber of all radiation incident on it, and hence appears
perfectly black when cold. In practice blackbody sources are used to calibrate radiation
thermometers.
 Operating wavelength range must be chosen to suit the temperature. It should be as short
as possible, to achieve the best sensitivity and lowest errors. Main exception is where the
target will be exposed to radiation from heaters in a furnace.
Longer wavelengths and broader wavebands need to obtain enough radiation at lower
temperatures.
Commercial thermometers are made for short, medium and long wavelengths, which must be
chosen to avoid absorption by the atmosphere.

Law of Interior Temperature

The thermocouple is unaffected by hot spots along the thermoelement and the reading is only a
function of T1 and T0
The thermocouple is unaffected by the presence of the inserted material and any local hot spot

Law of Intermediate Materials

As there is no thermal gradient across the new thermoelectric junctions then the presence of the
inserted material does not contribute to the net emf produced by the thermocouple

Junction pairs at T1 and T3 produce the same voltage as two sets of junction pairs spanning the
same temperature range (T1 to T2 and T2 to T3; therefore V13 =V12 +V23

IC Temperature Sensor
 A recent innovation is the ic temperature transducer.
 Available in both voltage & current sensitive configurations. Both supply an output that
is linearly proportional to the absolute temperature.
  Used widely in on/off or alarm point control.

Typical semiconductor temperature sensor packaging. (a) TO99

can. (b) TO-92 plastic moulding. (c) DIP plug

Heat flux measurement

Definition
A heat flux sensor is a transducer that generates an electrical signal proportional to the total heat
rate applied to the surface of the sensor. The measured heat rate is divided by the surface area of
the sensor to determine the heat flux.
The heat flux can have different origins; in principle convective, radiative as well as conductive
heat can be measured. Heat flux sensors are known under different names, such as heat flux
transducers, heat flux gauges, heat flux plates. Some instruments that actually are single-purpose
heat flux sensors like pyranometers for solar radiation measurement. Other heat flux sensors
include Gardon gauges[1] (also known as a circular-foil gauge), thin-film thermopiles, [2] and
Schmidt-Boelter gauges.[3] In SI units, the heat rate is measured in Watts, and the heat flux is
computed in Watts per meter squared.
heat flux measurement instrument
1. Foil type heat flux gauge
2. Transient analysis of foil gauge
3. Thin film sensors
4. Cooled thin wafer heat flux gauge
5. Axial conduction guarded probe
6. Slug type sensor
7. Thin film heat flux gauge etc
Foil type heat flux gauge
The foil type heat flux gauge (also known as the Gardon gauge after its inventor), useful for
measuring radiant heat flux, consists of a thin circular foil of constantan stretched tightly over a
cooled copper annulus as shown in Figure 6.1

One surface of the foil is exposed

to the heat flux that is to be measured while the other surface may be assumed to be
insulated. A copper wire is attached at the geometric center of the foil as indicated in the figure.
A second copper wire is attached to the cooled copper annulus. The constantan foil forms two
junctions with copper, the first one at its center and the second one at its periphery. Under steady
state, the thermoelectric voltage across the two copper leads is a direct measure of the
temperature difference set up between the center and the periphery of the constantan disk. The
temperature field set up within the sensor is thus perpendicular to the direction of the incident
heat flux. The temperature difference itself is a measure of the incident heat flux as will be
shown by the following analysis.
Thin film sensors
The operation of a thin film heat flux sensor, shown schematically in Figure 6.6, and as a
photograph in Figure 6.7 is very simple. A thin barrier of known thermal conductivity is attached
to a surface that is receiving the heat flux to be measured. The barrier imposes a thermal
resistance parallel to the direction of the heat flux and the heat conduction in the barrier is one-
dimensional. The temperature difference across the barrier is measured using a differential
thermopile arrangement wherein several hot and cold junctions are connected in opposition. The
illustration shows only four hot and four cold junctions. In practice thermocouple materials are
deposited as very thin but wide films of very small thickness of a few micrometers thickness.
There may be hundreds of hot and cold junctions in a very small area. The output is proportional
to the heat flux. Example 6.2 brings out the typical characteristics of such a heat flux gauge.

Cooled thin wafer heat flux gauge

The operational principle of the thin wafer type cooled heat flux gauge is the same as the thin
film gauge above. Temperature drop across the constantan wafer is measured by the differential
thermocouple arrangement shown in Figure 6.8 (thicknesses of the gauge elements are highly
exaggerated in this figure, for clarity). Note that the temperature gradient is in a direction
parallel to the applied heat flux. There are two T type thermocouple junctions formed by the
constantan wafer sandwiched between the two copper wafers
Slug type sensor
Schematic of a slug type heat flux sensor is shown in Figure 6.10. A mass m of a material of
specific heat C is embedded in the substrate as shown. Frontal area A of the slug is exposed to
the heat flux to be measured while all the other surfaces of the slug are thermally insulated as
indicated. When the incident flux is absorbed at the surface of the slug, it heats the slug, and
uniformly so if it is made of a material of high thermal conductivity. The transient temperature
response of the slug is related to the incident heat flux and is, in fact, the measured quantity. The
heat flux is inferred by either a theoretical model or by calibration.