Chapter II

Temperature
measurements
 Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Expansion thermometer or liquid in glass
thermometer (LIG)
2.3 Change of state thermometers
2.4 Electrical resistance thermometry
2.4.1 Conductor sensors
2.4.2 Semiconductor sensors
 outline
2..5 Thermoelectric thermometry
2. 5.1 Laws of thermocouples
2.5.2 Thermocouple materials
2.5.3 Thermopiles and thermocouples
connected in parallel
2.6 Pyrometry
2.6.1 Total radiation pyrometer
2.6.2 Optical pyrometer
 Introduction
 When we sit in the sun or near fire, we feel warm or hot.
When things are kept on fire, they also become hot.

 It is heat which makes us and the objects feel warm or

hot. Heat is a form of energy which gives the sensation of
warm or hot.

 A body becomes hot when it gains heat energy and

becomes cold when it leaves out heat energy.

 The measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a

body is known as its temperature
 Contd…

 When a substance receives heat the following effects

are observed.
 Change in volume
 Change in pressure
 Change in electric resistance
 Change in radiation
 Change in thermo electric e.m.f., and
 Change in colour
 Thermometers

 A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or

temperature gradient, using a variety of different principles.
thermo from the Greek for heat and meter from Greek,
meaning to measure.

 It has two important elements, the temperature sensor (e.g.

the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical
change occurs with temperature, plus some means of
converting this physical change into a value (e.g. the scale on
a mercury thermometer).

 Industrial thermometers commonly use electronic means to

provide a digital display or input to a computer
 Classification of Temperature Measuring Devices

(1) Expansion Thermometers

(2) Change of State Thermometers
(3) Electrical Thermometers
(4) Radiation and Optical pyrometers .
 Expansion thermometers
Most solids and liquids expand when they are subjected
to an increase in temperature. The direct observation
is an increase in their size.
This is used to indicate temperature in many
thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometres
 Liquid-in-glass thermometres

 The Liquid in Glass thermometer utilizes the variation in volume of

a liquid in temperature.

 Theyuse the fact that most fluids expand on heating. The fluid is
contained in a sealed glass bulb, and its expansion is measured
using a scale etched in the stem of the thermometer.

 Liquid
in Glass thermometers have been used in science, medicine
metrology and industry for almost 300 years.

Liquids commonly used include Mercury and Alcohol.

Structure
 Structure:
Two basic parts:
a. The bulb: Acting as a reservoir holding the liquid whose
volume changes with temperature.
The Bulb also acts as a sensor or gauge which is inserted in
the body whose temperature is to be measured.
 General Properties 

 Advantages: 
1. They are cheap to manufacture
2. Easy to carry and handle.

Disadvantages: 
1. They tend to have high heat capacities. They are not
sensitive enough, that is they cannot measure rapid
temperature changes.
 The mercury­in­glass thermometer: 
 Invented by German physicist Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit, is a thermometer consisting of mercury
in a glass tube.
 Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature
to be read by the length of the mercury within the
tube, which varies according to the temperature.
 To increase the sensitivity, there is usually a bulb of
mercury at the end of the thermometer which
contains most of the mercury; expansion and
contraction of this volume of mercury is then
amplified in the much narrower bore of the tube
 The space above the mercury may be filled with
nitrogen or it may be a vacuum.
 Range: Covering a wide temperature range from -38
°C to 356 °C, although the introduction of a gas into
the instrument can increase the range to 600 °C or
beyond.
Advantages: 
 1. Mercury is a naturally opaque liquid (Silver). This
means that it can be directly utilised in its pure form.
 
 2. Mercury does not wet glass. When it moves up
and down in the capillary strong cohesive properties
of mercury do not allow it to leave any traces on the
inside of the capillary.  
3. Mercury is a liquid metal. As a metal it has high
conductive properties that allow it to be more
sensitive than the alcohol in glass thermometer. 
Disadvantages: 
1. Mercury poses a potential toxic hazard if the glass
container is ruptured.

The alcohol­in­glass thermometer: 
As a liquid it utilises ethyl alcohol, toluene and technical
pentane, which can be used down to -200 °C.

Range c. -200°C to 80°C, though range tends to be

highly dependent on the type of alcohol used.
Advantages: 
1. It can measure very low temperatures.

Disadvantages: 
1. Alcohol is transparent therefore it requires a dye to make it
visible. Dyes tend to add impurities that may not have the
same temperature range as the alcohol making reading
difficult especially at the limits of each liquid.

2. Alcohol wets glass

 Causes of inaccuraties
 Temperature
differences in the liquid
 Glass temperature also
affects
 The amount of
immersion (vs.
calibration)
 Bimetallic Thermometer

 Definition: The bimetallic thermometer uses

the bimetallic strip which converts the
temperature into the mechanical displacement.
The working of the bimetallic strip depends on
the thermal expansion property of the
metal. The thermal expansion is the
tendency of metal in which the volume of
metal changes with the variation in
temperature.
 Every metal has a different temperature coefficient. The
temperature coefficient shows the relation between the change in
the physical dimension of metal and the temperature that causes
it.

 The expansion or contraction of metal depends on the temperature

coefficient, i.e., at the same temperature the metals have different
changes in the physical dimension.

 The working principle of bimetallic thermometer depends on the

two fundamental properties of the metal.

 The metal has the property of thermal expansion, i.e., the metal
expand and contract concerning the temperature.
 The temperature coefficient of ll the metal is not same. The
expansion or contraction of metals is different at the same
temperature.
The bimetallic strip is constructed by bonding together the two thin strips of different
metals .
The metals are joined together at one end with the help of the welding

The bonding is kept in such a way that there is no relative motion between the
two metals. The physical dimension of the metals varies with the variation in
temperature.
Since the bimetallic strip of the thermometer is constructed with different metals.
Thereby, the length of metals changes at different rates. When the temperature
increases, the strip bends towards the metal which has a low-temperature
coefficient. And when the temperature decreases, the strip bends towards
the metal which has a high-temperature coefficient.
The fig shows the bimetallic strip in the form of the straight cantilever
beam. The strip fixed at one end and deflects at the other end.

The range of deflection of bimetallic strip depends on the type of

metals used for construction. The deflection of the metal is directly
proportional to the length of the strip and the variation of
temperature and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the
strips
Let understands this with the help of the mathematical formula. Consider the
bimetallic strip is made of two different metals, i.e., metal A and metal B.

Both the metals have a different temperature coefficient. The T2 – T1 shows
the variation of temperature, which causes the expansion of the string
 The above equation shows that

Where, t – the total thickness of the strip

n – the ratio of moduli of elasticity = EB/EA
m – the ratio of the thickness
T2 – T1 – change in temperature
tA, tB – the thickness of metal A and metal B.
αA, αB– the thermal coefficient of expansion of metal
A and B.
The expansion causes the strip to move in the uniform circular arc. The radius of the
arm is given by the formula shown below.

the strip bend towards the metals which has a low-temperature coefficient
(when the temperature increases) and the inverse will happen when the
temperature decreases.
 Types of Bimetallic Strip
 The linear strip shows the small deflection. If the length of
strip increases, the size of thermometer also increases. For
keeping the size of the thermometer in the manageable limit,
the helix or spiral strip is used for making the thermometer.

Spiral Strip bimetallic thermometer – In bimetallic strip thermometer,

the spiral-shaped strip is used. This type of thermometer is used for
measuring the ambient temperature. Because of the thermal expansion
property of metal the deformation occurs in the spring with the variation of
temperature. The pointer and dials attached to the spring, which indicates
the variation of temperature.
 The helix type bimetallic strip is mostly used for industrial applications. In
this thermometer, the helix shape strip is used for measuring the
temperature. The free end of the strip is connected to the pointer. The
deflection of the strip shows the variation of temperature.

The thermometer is simple in

construction, robust and less
expensive.
Disadvantages
The thermometer gives the less
accurate result while measuring the low
temperature.
Applications of Bimetallic
Thermometer
The bimetallic thermometer is used in
household devices likes oven, air
conditioner, and in industrial apparatus
like refineries, hot wires, heater,
tempering tanks etc. for measuring the
temperature.
 Vapour Pressure Thermometers
 This type of system is practically filled with liquid. The liquid
expands, but as it is heated, its vapor pressure increases.
 At lower temperature the vapor pressure increase for each unit
of temperature changes is small. at higher temperature the
vapor pressure change is much greater’
 Also, in partially filled vapor pressure thermometers when the
temperature of the bulb is lower, the liquid remains in the bulb
and the vapor occupies the tubing and spiral bourdon.
 When the bulb temperature is higher than that of the rest of
the system, the liquid and vapor change places, with the bulb
now containing the vapor and the spiral bourdon the liquid.
Therefore, with the simple partially-filled vapor pressure
thermometer, the temperature of the bulb should always
remain lower than or higher than the temperature of the
remainder of the system.
•To overcome this limitation, the dual-
filled system is used. (See Fig. T-7)
two different liquids, a vaporizing and
a non-vaporizing type are used.

• The temperature sensitive fluid

which vaporizes is called the
"actuating liquid".

• The vapor pressure acts on a

second liquid which does not
vaporize. The second liquid is called
the " Transmitting liquid", since it
transmits the vapor pressure of the
first liquid to the spiral bourdon.

•In this dual-filled system there is no

transfer of vapor and liquid, the
actuating liquid and its vapor remain
in the bulb at all times.
 Contd…
• Vapor does not expand uniformly as liquid and gas do. The
result is that vapor-actuated thermometers do not satisfy a
uniform scale.
• Instead, the divisions of the scale are spaced so that they are
wider apart at the higher readings than at the lower readings.
Vapor-filled thermometers can measure temperature from -
185°C to +315°C.
• When the vapour pressure thermometer is used as an indicator
it may be of the simple dial type with a 27° scale or the
rectangular case type with a 90° scale. Used as a recorder, the
thermometer may have a very short system, with the bulb
attached to the recorder case or it may have long tube systems
for remote readings.
• Among the filled system thermometers, gas-filled system has
the fastest response, the vapor-pressure system the next fastest
and the liquid filled has the lowest.
 Gas Filled Thermometer:-
 This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confined
gas (constant volume of gas filled under high pressure).

 Nitrogen is the gas most often used for such systems, because
it is chemically inert and possess a favorable coefficient of the
ermal expansion. It cab measure temperature from -250°C to
+540°C.
Table of Characteristics of classes of Tube Systems

Class Filling Low High Shortes Longes

fluid Limit Limit t Span t Span
Class I Liquid - 185°C 315°C -4°C 150°C
or other
than
mercury
Class II Vapor -185°C 315°C 4.5°C 150°C
Class III Gas -265°C 540°C 38°C 540°C
Class IV Mercury -45°C 540°C 4.5°C 540°C
 Electrical resistance thermometry
 In this category there are two types (i) those using conductor
sensors (ii) those using semiconductors (thermistors)
 Conductor sensors
Resistance of pure metallic conductors increases with temperature
in a reproducible manner.
Some of the metals and the range of temperature measurement
using them are the following .
 Semiconductor sensors (Thermistors)
 Thermistors are temperature sensitive variable resistor made
of semi-conductor material.
 Thermistors are made of metal oxides and their mixtures viz.
Oxides of Copper, Nickel, Manganese, Iron, Tin, etc.
 They are available in
(i) beads as small as 0.4mm in diameter (ii) discs ranging from 5
to 25mm diameter (iii) rods (a few mm diameter 50mm long)
 Thermoelectric thermometry

 An e.m.f is generated, when junctions of two dissimilar metals

are kept at different temperatures. The combination of the
two metals is called thermocouple.
 A device which converts one form of energy into another is
called a Transducer. A thermocouple is a transducer which
converts thermal energy into electrical energy
Laws of thermocouples

Law of homogeneous circuit

A thermo electric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a
single homogeneous material however varying in c.s. by the
application of heat alone. The implication is that two different
materials are needed to form a thermocouple.
Law of intermediate materials
 Insertion of an intermediate metal into a thermocouple circuit will
not effect the net emf provided the two junctions introduced by
the intermediate metal are at identical temperature.

 This means that there can be a measuring instrument, soldered

or brazed between the two metals in order to monitor the emf
generated.
 Law of intermediate temperature
If a thermocouple develops an e.m.f e1 when the junctions are at
T1 and T2 and an e.m.f e2
 when the junctions are at T2 and T3, it will develop an e.m.f e1 +
e2 when the junctions are at T1 and T3.
 Thermopiles and Thermocouples connected in
parallel

Thermocouples may be computed electrically series or parallel.

When connected in series, the combination is thermopile.

Here P1, P2 and P3 are the measurement points and Q1 to Q4 are the reference
points.
The total output from n thermocouples will be equal to the sum of individual emfs.
So the purpose is to get a more sensitive measurement.
Thermocouples when connected in parallel connection provides better averaging. The
parallel combination gives the same voltage if all the measuring and reference junctions
are at the same temperature, If all the measuring junctions are at different temperatures
and the thermocouples
have the same properties, the voltage measured is the average of the individual voltages.
 Pyrometry
The word is derived from pyros + metron.
The methods under this are primarily thermal
radiation measurement. There are two distinct
instruments. Under this category:

(i) Total Radiation Pyrometer

(ii) Optical pyrometer
 Pyrometry
 Pyrometers are used to measure the
temperature which is difficult to measure.

 They are non-contact devices, used to

measure temperature above 1500 degree
Celsius, contact devices may melt at this
temperature.
Construction and Working Principle of Radiation
Pyrometers
The pyrometer has an optical system,
including a lens, mirrors and
adjustable eyepiece and a detector
circuit.
An optical system collects the visible
and infrared energy from an object
and focuses it on a detector.
Working:
The heat energy emitted from the hot
body is allowed passed on to the
lens. Which collects it and focused on
to the detector with the mirror and
eyepiece arrangement.
Now the detector converts the
radiation energy into an electrical
signal. Thermophiles and photon
multipliers are commonly used
detectors. Detectors produce the
reading and shows in the temperature
display.
Advantages:
 Low cost
 N need of contact
 Fast response speed

Disadvantages:
 Emissitive error are introduced
 Error due to the obsortion of the radiation by
the carbon dioxide , water or other apparently
transparent gases
 Pyrometer Working Principle 

• When temperature being measured is very high and

physical contact with the medium to be measured is
impossible or impractical, optical pyrometers based
on the principle of thermal radiation are used.

• These Pyrometer Working Principle are used under

condition where corrosive vapours or liquids would
destroy thermocouples, resistance thermometer and
thermister, if made to come in contact with the
measured medium.
 …
Contd
Radiation pyrometers measures the
radiant (energy) heat emitted or
reflected by a hot object. Thermal
radiation is an electro magnetic
radiation emitted as a result of
temperature and lies in the
wavelength of 0.1 —100 μm.
According to the principle of thermal
radiation, the energy radiated from a
hot body is a function of its
temperature. Referring to Fig. 13.54,
the heat radiated by the hot body is
focused on a radiation detector. The
radiation detector is blackened and it
absorbs all or almost all radiation
falling on it (if the temperature is very
small compared with that of hot body,
then
 Contd….

Therefore, the heat received by the detector is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature of the hot body.
Radiation pyrometers are of two types.
•Total Radiation Pyrometers
•Infrared Pyrometers

Total Radiation Pyrometer (TRP)

The total radiation pyrometer receives virtually all the radiation from a hot body
and focuses on a hot body and focuses on a sensitive temperature
transducer such as thermocouple,bolometer, thermopile, etc. Total radiation
includes both visible and infrared radiation.
In this type of pyrometer, a diaphragm unit along with a mirror is used to focus the
radiation on a radiant energy sensing transducers.

The lens (mirror) to the transducer distance is adjusted for proper focus
.
The mirror arrangement has an advantage that since there is no lens, both
absorption and reflection are absent.

Presence of any absorbing media between the target and the transducers, reduces
the radiation received and the pyrometer reads low.
 Due to the fourth Power Law (q is proportional to T4) the
characteristics of total radiation pyrometer are non-linear and
has poor sensitivity in lower temperature ranges.

 Therefore, total radiation pyrometers cannot be used for

measurement of temperature lower than 600 °C, since errors
are introduced at lower temperatures.

 Hence, total radiation pyrometers are used mostly in the

temperature range of 1200 °C — 3500 °C.

 The output from a total radiation pyrometers whether amplified

or not, is usually taken to a PMMC instrument or to a self-
balancing potentiometer. The output may be fed to a recorder
or controller.
 Infrared Pyrometers

 Infrared pyrometers are partial or selective radiation

pyrometers. Above temperatures of 550 °C, a surface starts
to radiate visible light energy and simultaneously there is a
proportional increase in the infrared energy.
 Infrared principles using thermocouples, thermopile and
bolometers are used.

 Also various types of photo-electric transducers are most

commonly used for infrared transducers.

 The most useful transducers used for industrial application

are the Photo-voltaic cells. These cells used in radiation
pyrometers, respond to wavelength in infrared region and
may be used to measure temperature down to 400 °C.
The infrared radiation is focused on a photo-voltaic cell as shown in Fig.
. It is necessary to ensure that the cell does not become overheated.
The core of radiation passing to the cell is defined by the area of the first diaphragm
 The protective window is made of thin glass and serves to protect the cell and filter from
physical damage.
The filter is used on the range of 1000 °C to 1200 °C in order to reduce the infrared
radiation passed to the photo cell.
This help in preventing the photo cell from being overheated.
All infrared systems depend on the transmission of the infrared radiant energy being
emitted by a heated body to a detector in the measuring system.
The sensor head is focused on the object whose temperature is being measured and/or
controlled.
The infrared energy falling on the detector either changes the detector resist­ance in
proportion to the temperature as in the case of thermister or generates an emf in the
detector such as a thermopile. The change in resistance or generated emf is then indicated
on a meter.
 Optical pyrometer( Disappearing filament Type)

Basic Principle of optical pyrometer:

The principle of temperature measurement by brightness comparision is
used in optical pyrometer. A colour variation with the growth in
temperature is taken as an index of temperature.
This optical pyrometer compares the brightness of image produced by
temperature source with that of reference temperature lamp.
The current in the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is
equal to the brightness of the image produced by the temperature
source.
Since the intensity of light of any wave length depends on the
temperature of the radiating object, the current passing through the
lamp becomes a measure of the temperature of the temperature
source when calibrated.
Construction of optical pyrometer
 CONTD…

 An eye piece at one end and an objective lens at the

other end.
 A power source (battery), rheostat and millivoltmeter
(to measure current) connected to a reference
temperature bulb.
 An absorption screen is placed in between the objective
lens and reference temperature lamp.
 The absorption screen is used to increase the range of
the temperature which can be measured by the
instrument.
 The red filter between the eye piece and the lamp
allows only a narrow band of wavelength of around
0.65mui
 Operation of optical pyrometer

 When a temperature source is to be measured , the radiation

from the source are focused onto the filament of the reference
temperature lamp using the objective lens.
 Now the eye piece is adjusted so that the filament of the
reference temperature lamp is in sharp focus and the filament
is seen super imposed on the image of the temperature
source.
 Now the observer starts controlling the lamp current and the
filament will appear dark as in figure (a)
 if the filament is cooler than the temperature source, the
filament will appear bright as in figure (b) if the filament is
hotter than the temperature source, the filament will not be
seen
 as in figure (c) if the filament and temperature source are in
the same temperature.
Hence the observer should control the lamp current until the
filament and the temperature source have the same brightness which
will be noticed.

 when the filament disappears as in figure (c) in the superimposed

image of the temperature source [ that is the brightness of the lamp
and the temperature source are same].

At the instance, the current flowing through the lamp which is
indicated by the millivoltmeter connected to the lamp becomes a
measure of the temperature of the temperature source when
calibrated.
Applications of optical pyrometer:
 Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of molten
metals or heated materials.

 Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of furnace and

hot bodies.
Advantages of optical pyrometer:
 Physical contact of the instrument is not required to measure
temperature of the temperature source.

 Accuracy is high + or – 5’C.

 Provided a proper sized image of the temperature source is obtained

in the instrument, the distance between the instrument and the
temperature source does not matter.

 The instrument is easy to operate.

 Limitations of the Optical pyrometer:

 Temperature of more than 700’C can only be

measured since illumination of the temperature
source is a must for measurement.

 Since it is manually operated, it cannot be used

for the continuous monitoring and controlling
purpose.