Republic of the Philippines

11
Department of
Education
MIMAROPA Region

Division of Romblon
LOOC NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Clemente St., Poblacion, Looc, Romblon

SELF LEARNING MODULE IN

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
CORE SUBJECT
2nd SEMESTER | QUARTER 1 |WEEK 1 - 4

NELYMAY A. GARDOSE
Subject Teacher

09283464644 Mamsh Yeth

nelymay.gardose001@deped.gov.ph
DIRECTIONS: PLEASE USE THE ANSWER SHEETS PROVIDED IN
WRITING YOUR ANSWER. DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING IN THIS
MODULE.

OBJECTIVE
CONTENT STANDARD
The learners demonstrate understanding of:
Formation of Heavy Metals (Week 1)
Synthesis of New Elements in Laboratory (Week 1)
Polarity of Molecules (Week 2)
Intermolecular Forces (Week 3)
Biological Macromolecules (Week 4)

MELCS
1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements
during star formation and evolution. S11/12PS-IIIa-1 (Week 1)
2. Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of
new elements in the laboratory. S11/12PS-IIIb-11 (Week 1)
3. Determine if a molecule is polar or non-polar given its structure.
(Week 2) 11/12PS-IIIc-15
4. Relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties. (Week 2)
S11/12PS-IIIc-16
5. Describe the general types of intermolecular forces. S11/12PS-IIIc-d-
17 (Week 3)
6. Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of
substances. 11/12PS-IIId-e-19 (Week 3)
7. Explain how the structures of biological macromolecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid, and proteins determine their
properties and functions. S11/12PS-IIIe-22 (Week 4)

PERFORMANCE STANDARD
The learners should be able to:
 Make a creative representation of the historical development of the
atom or the chemical element in a timeline.

1
LESSON PROPER

WEEK 1

“FORMATION OF HEAVY METALS”

Have you also wondered what stars are made of? What keeps them
shining so bright? Are there also stars that do not spark? You might also be
asking the same questions ever since you were little that until now you still
seek answers for.

Star Nucleosynthesis: Rise of Stars

Scientists believe that

the formation of the
universe began
through the explosion
of a primordial atom
which happened 13
billion years ago. It is
known as the Big
Bang. It became a
theory that also
explains the
continuous expansion
of the universe.

Right after Big Bang,

protons and
neutrons combined
together and formed
light elements
Hydrogen and
Helium in the
process of Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis.
2
Other light elements such as Lithium and Beryllium were also formed during
this process.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
The word "stellar" means star and the formation of elements in the center of
the star is called stellar nucleosynthesis. Carl Sagan said that "We are
made of star stuff." What did he mean by that? If we know how some
important heavy elements were formed same as stars, that maybe a clue.

Average Star
1. The star is unable to generate heat when it runs out of hydrogen in its
core leading to its contraction and expansion. It cools down and glows
red. The Helium fused into Carbon. The star is now RED GIANT
2. Red giant star becomes exhausted of nuclear fuel, the outer material is
blown off into space leaving the inert Carbon. The remnant is known as
WHITE DWARF.
3. Giant cloud of gas and dust known as NEBULA.
4. It is formed from nebula due to the gravity that pulled Hydrogen gas
together until it spins faster and faster and becomes ignited. A
PROTOSTAR rises.
5. MAIN SEQUENCE STAR starts to form when nuclear fusion occurs at
the core of the star, it begins to contract, glow and become stable.
Hydrogen is converted into Helium.
6. This is said to be the remain of the white dwarf that cooled down and
no longer emits light and heat. The hypothetical BLACK DWARF.

Massive star
1. It is believed that a NEUTRON STAR is formed from supernova
explosion. This is also the smallest star.
2. Explosion of star or SUPERNOVA releases large amount of energy.
Because of that, elements are dispersed into the space.
3. BLACK HOLE is a region in space where gravity is too strong that no
matter can escape from it.
4. A more massive main sequence star evolves, cools and expands
faster than low mass star and will turn into RED SUPER GIANT star,
the largest known star. Carbon fusion still occurs and Oxygen formed.

Look at the diagrams below. These will explain how stars are formed into
different stages because of nuclear fusion (combination of nuclei to form
heavier one) among heavy elements.
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The diagram BELOW shows the Proton-Proton Chain reaction in main
sequence star. This is the process by which average star gets their energy
and convert Hydrogen into Helium. It starts with proton and neutron fused
together to form deuterium. When one proton collides with deuterium,
Helium-3 is formed to form Helium-4.

Case is different in massive star or

star eight times larger than solar
mass. They undergo CNO (Carbon,
Nitrogen, Oxygen) cycle to
convert Hydrogen into Helium. You
can see at the figure how Carbon 12
fused with proton (H) and form
Nitrogen-13. Nitrogen-13 undergoes
beta decay to form Carbon-13.
Carbon - 13 captures proton (H) and
Nitrogen-14 is formed. Nitrogen-
14 captures proton and Oxygen-15
is produced. Oxygen-15 undergoes
beta decay and produces Nitrogen-
15. Nitrogen-15 fused with proton

4
gives off Helium and ends up with Carbon-12. Then the process repeats
again.

Tri alpha process happens in

red giant star once they leave
the stage of main sequence
star. This is how three Helium-4
are converted into Carbon.

A star accumulates more

mass and continues to
grow into red super giant.
Alpha particle fusion
happens at its core and
creates more heavy
elements until Iron. This is
known as the Alpha ladder
process.

How do elements heavier than Iron form? As the energy at the core of the
star decreases, nuclear fusion cannot produce elements higher than Iron.
Different pathway is needed for heavier elements to be formed.

5
  Neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. Below is the
representation of how neutron is captured and heavier nucleus is
formed.
Example:

Neutron capture can be slow or rapid;

a) S-process or slow process happens when there is a slow
rate of capturing neutron while there is a faster rate of
radioactive decay hence increasing the proton by 1.
Example:

b) R-process or rapid process means that there is faster rate of

capturing neutron before it undergoes radioactive decay thus,
more neutrons can be combined at the nucleus. This is what
happens in a supernova forming heavier elements than Iron
with the process known as supernova nucleosynthesis.
Example:

NOTE!!!
The explosion of star or supernova is believed to be the source of
other elements heavier than Iron. During the explosion, these heavy
elements are dispersed into the space. Aside from gases Hydrogen and
Helium in space, other evidence of star formation is the energy emitted
during nu clear reaction. It is also the energy emitted by different forms of
radiation such as UV, Infrared, X-ray, radio wave and microwave.

6
 “SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS IN LABORATORY”

Concept of Atomic Number that Led to the Synthesis of New Elements

in the Laboratory

Elements are made up of tiny particles, the neutron, proton and

electron. H and Helium are the elements that exist in the early beginning.
Early in the Big Bang, it was a tiny elementary particle. As the Universe
expanded and cooled, there was a period of proton-proton chain reaction
wherein protons were fuse into Helium. The Universe ran into a problem.
Red giant cores get past this via the Triple-Alpha process, but the Universe
expands right through this possibility and the density/ temperature are
quickly too low to synthesis any additional elements.

Do you have any idea how the different elements on the periodic table were
formed, known and identified? Let's have a short review..
There is what we call Big Bang Theory that has some key stages:
Singularity, Inflation, Nucleosynthesis and Recombination: Let us
differentiate them. Singularity is a one-dimensional point which contains a
huge mass in an infinitely small space, where density and gravity become
infinite and space-time curves infinitely, and where the laws of physics as
we know them cease to operate. The basic homogeneity in distribution of
matter in the universe was established as a consequence of the first phase
of inflation. Nucleosynthesis was the nuclear fusion and the formation of
new nuclei actions in the early stages of development of the universe.
Recombination - the formation of the capture of free electrons by the
cations in a plasma.

Key Points:
 The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged
particles) in an atom.
 Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who
demonstrated that the atomic number, the number of protons in an
atom, determines most of the properties of an element.

7
  In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
transmutation reaction a process of transforming one element or
isotope into another element.
 In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding
to the atomic numbers 43, 61., 85, and 87. Elements with atomic
numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using particle accelerators.
 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons
to overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic
nuclei using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new
elements.
 Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of
uranium) are called transuranium elements They were discovered in
the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

Dmitri Mendeleev created a classification of elements based on their atomic

weight. He found that organizing the elements at the time by their calculated
weight demonstrated a periodic pattern of both physical and chemical
properties, such as luster, physical state, reactivity to water, and others.

Hello there, let me help you about how elements form with the atomic
concept.
By the way, He is Henry Moseley. He was an English
physicist whose experiment demonstrated that the major
properties of an element are determined by the atomic
number, not by the atomic weight, and firmly established the
relationship between atomic number and the charge of the
atomic nucleus.

Henry Moseley was a researcher at Rutherford's laboratory.

 In 1913, Moseley used Rutherford's work to advance the
understanding of the elements and solve the problem with Mendeleev's
periodic table.
 Moseley noticed that shooting electrons at elements caused them to
release x-rays at unique frequencies. He also noticed that the
frequency increased by a certain amount when the "positive charge" of
the chosen element was higher.
 By arranging the elements according to the square root of the
frequency they emitted, he was able to draw out an arrangement of
elements that more correctly predicted periodic trends.
8
  Mention the experimental evidence he gave to an existing hypothesis:
that the elements' atomic number, or place in the periodic table, was
uniquely tied to their "positive charge", or the number of protons they
had. This discovery allowed for a better arrangement of the periodic
table, and predicted elements that were not yet discovered. His
method of identifying elements by shooting electrons and looking at x-
rays became a very useful tool in characterizing elements, and is now
called x-ray spectroscopy.
 He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an
element. He bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements and
measured their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that
frequency of the X-rays given off by an element was mathematically
related to the position of that element in the Periodic table. The
frequency is proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic
number.
 When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers,
there were four gaps in the table. These gaps corresponded to the
atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later
synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear transmutations.

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

 In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
transmutation reaction -a reaction involving the transformation of one
element or isotope into another element. The first nuclide to be
prepared by artificial means was an isotope of oxygen, 170. It was
made by Ernest Rutherford in 1919 by bombarding nitrogen atoms with
articles:

 However, both alpha particles and

atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to repel each other.
Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing
new elements, atomic nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons
(neutral particles) in particle accelerators.
 James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, as a previously
unknown neutral particle produced along with 12C by the nuclear
reaction between 9Be and 4He:

9
  The first element to be prepared that does not occur naturally on the
earth, technetium, was created by bombardment of molybdenum by
deuterons (heavy hydrogen, H l2), by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in
1937:

 The first controlled nuclear chain reaction was carried out in a reactor
at the University of Chicago in 1942. One of the many reactions
involved was:

The Discovery of the Missing Elements

 Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table
corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of these
elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle accelerators
. A particle accelerator is a device tt.at is used to speed up the protons
to overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic
nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize
new elements. In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence
synthesized element with atomic number 43 using a linear particle
accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum (2=42) with fast-moving
neutrons. The newly synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc)
after the Greek word "technetos" meaning "artificial." Tc was the first
man-made element.
 The bombarding of Mo with deuteron formed technicium which is the
first artificially made element.

 In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered

element with atomic number 85.They bombarded atoms of bismuth
(Z=83) with fast moving alpha particles in a cyclotron . A cyclotron is a
particle accelerator that uses alternating electric field to accelerate
particles that move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field.
Element-85 was named astatine from the Greek word "astatos"
meaning unstable.
 The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were
discovered through studies in radioactivity. Element -61 (Promethium)
was discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium while
10
 element-87 (Francium) was discovered as a breakdown product of
uranium.

The Synthesis of the Elements

 The invention of the device called cyclotron paved the way for
transmuting one element into another artificially. The high-energy
particles that are produced from the cyclotron upon hitting heavy target
nuclei produce heavier nuclei.
 The Universe ran into the Be problem. Red giant cores get past this via
the Triple-Alpha process, but the Universe expands right through this
possibility and the density/ temperature are quickly too low to synthesis
any additional elements.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

 The oldest stars in the Galaxy are deficient in the abundance of
elements heavier than Helium (but show the predicted amount of He.)
 The current record holder has Fe/H about 130,000 times smaller than
the solar value.
 Not quite down to Big Bang abundances, but we are getting pretty
close and still looking.

Chemical Evolution of the Universe

Chemical Evolution
 Low-mass stars synthesize ‘new’ He, C, O during the main sequence,
RGB, HB and AGB phases.
 These freshly minted elements are brought to the surface via
convection and redistributed via stellar winds and planetary nebulae
into the interstellar medium to be incorporated into later generations of
stars.

Chemical Evolution II
 For more massive stars, ‘equilibrium’ fusion reactions produce
elements all the way up to Fe.
 Freshly made elements are delivered via stellar winds or, sometimes
more spectacularly via supernova explosions
11
Chemical Evolution m
What about the trans-Fe elements?
 Equilibrium fusion reactions of light elements don’t proceed past Fe
because of Fe's location at the peak of the curve of binding energy.
 However, in certain circumstances, supernovae for example, non
equilibrium reactions can build elements beyond Fe in the Periodic
Table. Many of these are radioactive, but some are stable.

Neutron Capture Elements

 There are two principle paths to building the elements heavier than Fe.
Both use the addition of neutrons to existing ·seed' nuclei (neutrons
have no charge so are much easier to add to positively charged
nuclei).
S-process (slow addition of neutrons)
R-process (rapid addition of neutrons)

The S-process
 The S-process stands for the Slow addition of neutrons to nuclei. The
addition of a no produces heavier isotope of a particular element.
However, if an electron is emitted (this is called beta decay), the
nucleus moves one step up the periodic table.
 'Slow' here means that rate of no captures is low compared to the
beta-decay rate.
 It really is slow. Sometimes 100's of years go by between neutron
captures.

Example: The s-process acting in the range from Ag to Sb

Here a neutron
changed into a
proton by emitting
an electron.

12
  The S-process can produce elements up to #83 - Bismuth. There are
peaks in the Solar System abundance of heavy elements at 38Sr,
56Ba and 82Pb. These are easily understood in the context of the S-
process and ‘magic’ numbers of neutrons.
 The site of the S-process is AGB start during and between shell
flashes. The no source is a by-product of C13+He4 -> 016
 43Tc is an s-process nucleus and proof that it is in operation in AGB
stars.

The R-process
 The R-process is the Rapid addition of neutrons to existing nuclei.
Rapid here means that many neutrons are added before a beta decay
occurs.
 First build up a VERY heavy isotope, then, as beta-decays occur, you
march up in atomic number and produce the REALLY HEAVY STUFF.
 For this to happen, a big burst of neutrons is needed. The most
promising place with the right conditions is in a SNII explosion right
above the collapsed core.
 We see an overabundance of R-process elements in the oldest stars.
As the early chemical enrichment of the Galaxy was through SNII, this
is evidence of SNII as the source of r-process elements.
 If we look at the Crab Nebula or other SNII remnants we don't see r-
process elements.
 We DO see regions of enhanced 0, Si, Ne and He which appear to
reflect the 'onion skin' structure of the massive star progenitor.

The Transuranic Elements

In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic
number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element having

13
an atomic number 93could be created. He used a particle accelerator to
bombard uranium with neutrons and created an element with an atomic
number 93 which he named neptunium.

Transuranic elements are synthetic elements with atomic numbers

higher than that of Uranium (Z = 92).

At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan,

Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded uranium with deuterons (particles
composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was named
plutonium.

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium)

are called transuranium elements. Hence, neptunium and plutonium are
both transuranium elements. They are unstable and decay radioactively into
other elements. All these elements were discovered in the laboratory as
artificially generated synthetic elements. They are prepared using nuclear
reactors or particle accelerators. In the next lesson, you will learn the
nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of these transuranium elements.

Stellar nucleosynthesis
This is the process by which elements are created within stars by
combining the protons and neutrons together from the nuclei of lighter
elements. Fusion inside stars transforms hydrogen into helium, heat, and
radiation. Heavier elements are created in different types of stars as they
die or explode.

The Superheavy Elements

Superheavy elements are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103.
These are produced by bombarding heavy nuclear targets with accelerated
heavy projectiles.

14
Following are the equations of several nuclear reactions that have important
roles in the history of nuclear chemistry:
 The first naturally occurring unstable element that was isolated,
polonium, was discovered by the Polish scientist Marie Curie and her
husband Pierre in 1898. It decays, emitting particles:

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Directions:
The activities from this module are written on a separate answer sheet.
For the instructions and procedure, please refer to the answer sheet. Do not
write anything on this module.

 ACITIVITY 1: Star Cycle

 ACTIVITY 2: Match Me
 ACTIVITY 3: Nuclear Reaction

15
 WEEK 2

“POLARITY OF MOLECULES”

Chemical bonds are formed when atoms lose, accept or share

electrons. An ionic bond occurs when there is a transfer of one or more
valence electrons form one atom to another. It exists between metal and
nonmetal atoms where metal loses electron/s while nonmetal accepts the
electron/ s donated by metal. On the other hand, when two nonmetal atoms
combine, neither of them loses or gains electron Instead, electron pairs are
being shared by both atoms and the type of chemical bond formed is called
covalent bond.

Remember: NaCl, CaCl2, Fe2O3, KBr, and AlCl3 are all ionic compound
because the atoms involved are combination of metal and nonmetal. On the
other hand, CO2, CCI4, N2O, PCl5 and HCl are covalent compounds because
the atoms involved are both nonmetals.

You have learned that a covalent is a shared pair of electrons between

two atoms. But are the electrons equally shared by the combing atoms?
How does a polar covalent bond differ from a nonpolar covalent? Did you
know that electronegativity of an atom can be used to further classify
covalent bond into polar and nonpolar?

The polarity of molecules is determined by the two factors: the polarity of

bonds based on the electronegativity difference of the atoms involved and
the geometrical shape of the molecules which can be predicted via valence
shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

A. Polarity of Bonds and Electronegativity

In your grade 9 chemistry, you have tackled the lesson on the
periodic properties of elements such as atomic size, metallic property,
ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity. Can you still
recall the definition of electronegativity?
16
 Electronegativity (EN) measures the relative tendency of an atom
to attract electrons to itself when chemically combined with other atom.

Take a look at the electronegativity values of some elements on Fig.1.

What have you noticed? Correct! It increases within period (from left to
right) and decreases within a group (from top to bottom). Take note also
that the higher the value of EN, the more it tends to attract electron
towards itself.

So, what is the connection of electronegativity to the polarity of

bonds? We could use the electronegativity values of the atoms involved
to get the absolute electronegativity difference (ΔEN) which will help us in
predicting what type of chemical bond (ionic, polar covalent or nonpolar
covalent) that would exist between them. Table 1 shows the type of bond
based on the electronegativity difference of bonded atoms.

For example, you are asked to predict what type of bond is present between
the following pairs of atoms by determining their electronegativity difference.
17
 1. Ca and cl
2. Cl and Cl
3. H and Cl
4. S and O
5. C and N

Using the above examples, let us know more about polar and nonpolar
covalent bonds. A polar covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared
unequally by two atoms in a compound. The bonded pair of atoms form an
electric dipole (represented by I I ). Dipole means "two poles" which means
that a molecule has one positive end and one negative end. In this type of
bond, the atom with the higher EN value becomes the partial negative pole
(symbolized as δ-) while the atom with the lower EN value becomes the
partially positive (symbolized as δ+) pole. Always bear in mind that the
direction of the arrow is always pointing from a more electropositive pole to
the more electronegative pole. Take HCl for example, H is having higher EN
than Cl, thus the direction of the arrow is from H pointing to Cl and there is
unequal electron density as represented by a size of the circle (refer to
figure 2). On the other hand, a nonpolar covalent bond develops if both
atoms equally share a pair of electrons between them.

18
 This occurs when the bonding atoms have approximately equal EN
value or equal ability to attract electrons to each side. Nonpolar covalent
bond is an example of bond formed when two chlorine atoms combine.

B.
Polarity of Molecules and Molecular Geometry
You just have learned how to predict the type of bond polarity simply
by calculating the electronegativity difference of atoms (specifically two
atoms). The next question is, how about for those molecules consisting of
more than two atoms like H2O, CCI4, NH3 and CO2? For polyatomic
molecules, both the bond polarity and molecular shape determine the
overall molecular polarity. In terms of molecular geometry, the valence
shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory would help us to determine
the spatial arrangement of atoms in a polyatomic molecule.
You can predict the shape or molecular geometry of a substance using
the following steps:
Step 1: Determine the central atom of a molecule. The central atom is
the least electronegative element.
Step 2: Draw the appropriate Lewis dot structure for the molecule.
Step 3: Count the number of bonding pairs of electrons and non-
bonding (or lone pairs) around the central atom.
Step 4: Determine the electron pair orientation using the total number
of electron pairs.
Step 5: Name the shape of based on the location of the atoms

19
Consider the examples below:

Example 1: Predict the molecular geometry of BCl3

Step 1: ENB = 2.0 ENCl = 3.0 therefore, B will be the central atom and
three Cl atoms are attached to it. By looking at the chemical formula,
you will also have an idea that boron will be the central atom and three
atoms of choline are attached to it.
Step 2:

Step 3: The central atom has three electron pairs: 3 bonded pairs and
no lone pair
Step 4: The electron pair orientation for three electrons is trigonal
planar.
Step 5: The molecular shape of BCl3 is trigonal planar.

Example 2: Predict the molecular geometry of CO2

Step 1: ENC= 2.5 ENO= 3.0 therefore, C will be the central atom and
two O atoms will be the attached to it. (Use may also use the chemical
formula to predict which atom will be the central atom
Step 2:

Step 3: For the purpose of determining the position of the bonding

pairs, let us count the double bonds as one bonding pair. Therefore,
CO2 has two bonding pairs of electron.
Step 4: The electron pair orientation for two electron pairs is linear.
Step 5: The molecular shape of C02 is linear.

Example 3: Predict the molecular geometry of CHCl3.

Step 1: ENC = 2.5, ENH= 2.1 and ENCl= 3.0. Because carbon is less
electronegative than chlorine and hydrogen is normally terminal atom,
C must be the central atom.

20
 Step 2:

Step 3: There are four bonding electron pairs.

Step 4: The electron pair orientation for four electron pairs is
tetrahedral. Step 5: The molecular shape of CHCl3 is linear.

Now that you have learned how to determine the molecular geometry, let us
now go on to our discussion of polarity of molecules based on molecular
shapes. You may study the diagram below and we will use it as our guide.

Going back to our previous examples, let us try to determine the polarity of
molecules of BCl3, CO2 and CHCl3.

21
 For both BCl3 and CO2, the atoms are symmetrically arranged (trigonal
planar and linear) and the attached atoms to the central atom are also the
same. You must also take note that in a symmetrical molecule, the sum of
the bond dipole is equal to zero (because they cancel out) which leads to
the formation of nonpolar molecule. Therefore, both BCl3 and CO2 are
nonpolar. On the other hand, CHCl3, although it has a symmetrical
arrangement (tetrahedral), the atoms attached to the central atom are not all
the same (3 chlorine atoms and l hydrogen atom). This causes CHCl3 to
become a polar molecule.

Identify which molecule is polar and which is non polar given the Lewis
structure and molecular shapes of the following molecules.

If you were able to answer that NH3 and H2O are polar molecules because
the bond dipole cannot be cancelled because of the presence of lone pairs
on the central atom and CCI. and HBr are nonpolar molecules, you are
correct. Job well done!

“POLARITY OF MOLECULES AND ITS PROPERTIES”

A. Polarity, Solubility, and Miscibility

22
 One of the practical applications of polarity of molecule in real-life
scenario is manifested on the solubility and miscibility of substances to
form solution.
Solubility is defined as the ability of a solid substance to be
dissolved in a given amount of solvent while miscibility is the ability of
the two liquids to combine or mix in all proportions, creating a
homogenous mixture.
The general rule to remember about the solubility and miscibility
of molecular compounds can be summarized in a phrase, "like
dissolves like" or "like mixes with like". This means that polar
substances will only be dissolved or mixed with polar substances while
nonpolar substances will be soluble or miscible with another nonpolar
substance.

Which of the following substances below will most likely mix with each
other?
a) water [H20) and chloroform [CHCl3)
b) benzene [C6H6) and chloroform [CHCl3)
c) water [H20) and vinegar [CH3CQOH)
d) acetone (C3H6O) and toluene (C6H5CH3)
e) carbon tetrachloride [CCI4) and water [H2O)

What chemistry concept did you used in answering the question

above? If you answered polarity of molecules, then you are on the right
track. Great job! Benzene and chloroform are both nonpolar compounds
while water and vinegar are both polar compounds, thus they are
miscible to each other. However, the rest is a combination of polar and
nonpolar molecules and therefore will not mix and instead will form two
layers even if shaken or carefully stirred.

B. Bond Strength and Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds

From the previous module, you learned the intramolecular forces of
attraction, the attractive force that binds atoms together. In this module, you
will learn another type of attractive force, the intermolecular forces of
attraction (IMFA) which exists between molecules.

Salient points of IMFA and its effect on the physical properties of covalent
compounds:

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 1. There are several types of IMFA and below they are arranged
from STRONGEST to WEAKEST.
Ion-dipole -> H-bonding -> dipole-dipole -> dipole-induced dipole ->
London forces of attraction
2. The strength of IMFA greatly affects the physical properties of
substances such as boiling point, melting point, vapor pressure,
surface tension, etc.

There are several types of IMFA and their relative strength as compared to
other types. Strong intermolecular forces tend to yield solids and liquids
while weak intermolecular forces favor formation of gases.
Table 1 shows the comparison of the various types of IMFA while table
2 shows the physical properties of polar and nonpolar molecules as affected
by the type of IMFA present.

Table 1. Summary of Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA)

Type of IMFA Interacting Substances Examples
Ion-dipole Ion (cation or anion) and a polar NaCl dissolved in
molecule H2O; Ca2+ and PCl3
Hydrogen Polar molecules containing H H2O, NH3, CH3OH
bonding chemically bonded to a small and
highly electronegative nonmetal
atom such as N, O and F
Dipole -dipole Polar molecules CH3F and H2S; HCI;
Dipole- Polar and nonpolar molecules Hi and CH4
induced dipole
London forces All substances and solely for O2, N2, He gas, Br2
nonpolar molecules and noble
gases

Table 2. General Properties of polar and nonpolar molecules

Polar molecules Nonpolar molecules
IMFA type: H-bonding and dipole- IMFA Type: London dispersion
dipole
Exists as solids or liquids at room Exist as gases at room temperature
temperature
High boiling point Low boiling point
High melting point Low melting point
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 High surface tension Low surface tension
Low vapor pressure High vapor pressure
Low volatility High volatility
Soluble in water Insoluble in water
Let us define the physical properties of substances:
A. Boiling point: temperature at which the vapor pressure and
atmospheric pressure of a liquid substance are equal.

B. Melting point: temperature at which solid becomes liquid. At this point,

the solid and liquid phases exist in equilibrium.

C. Surface tension: energy needed to increase the surface area by a unit

amount;

D. Viscosity: the resistance of the liquid to flow

E. Vapor pressure: pressure exerted by a substance in its gaseous state.

F. Volatility : measures the rate at which a substance vaporizes (changes

from liquid to gas)

In the simplest sense, boiling point, melting point, viscosity and surface
tension increase as the strength of intermolecular forces increases. On the
other hand, vapor pressure and volatility decrease with increasing strength
of IMFA. London dispersion forces increase as the molecular mass of a
substance increases. Unlike in H-bonding, as the molar mass increases, the
boiling point, melting point, viscosity and surface tension decrease.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Directions:
The activities from this module are written on a separate answer sheet. For
the instructions and procedure, please refer to the answer sheet. Do not
write anything on this module.

 WRITTEN ACITIVITY 1: Fill the table

 WRITTEN ACTIVITY 2: Word Cryptogram
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  PERFORMANCE OUTPUT: Fill Me!

WEEK 3

“INTERMOLECULAR FORCES”

Atoms in molecules and ionic substances are attracted to each other

either by sharing or complete transfer of electrons. These attractions keep
the molecules and their identities intact.

Atoms are held together in molecules by strong intramolecular forces,

like covalent and ionic bonds. On the other hand, other forms of attractive
forces are present to keep these molecules together giving rise to the
different states of matter, which, then exhibit their own bulk properties such
as boiling, melting, and freezing points, and viscosity among others.

There are three general types of intermolecular forces (IMF),

namely, van der Waals forces, ion-dipole interaction, and H-bonding.

 Van der Waals forces, after the Dutch chemist Johannes van der
Waals (1837- 1923) consist of dipole-dipole interaction, dipole-induced
dipole interaction, and dispersion forces. Dipole-dipole attraction is
present among polar molecules. Through constant movement, the
charges of the molecules align in such a way that the positive (+) end
of one molecule is attracted to the negative (-) end of the other
molecule. This happens due to the shift of electron density towards the
more electronegative element in the molecule resulting to (+) and (-)
ends. The measure of this electron shift is known as dipole moment,
represented by crossed arrow,

 Dipole-induced dipole interaction, just like the dipole-dipole forces,

depends on the presence of polar molecules. The other molecule
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 needs not be a polar one. The partial charges present in the dipole
cause the polarization or distortion of the electron distribution of the
other molecule. This gives rise to regions of partial (+) and (-) poles.
This induced dipole will then be attracted to the original polar
molecules, resulting to dipole-induced dipole attraction.

 Dispersion forces (London dispersion forces), were named after the

German physicist Fritz London (1900- 1954). The electron cloud of a
neutral substance can be normally distributed around the nucleus. At
any given time, the electron distribution may be uneven resulting to an
instantaneous dipole. This temporary dipole will then influence the
neighboring atoms through attractive and repulsive forces. Eventually,
the substances will gain instantaneous dipoles, too. Attraction between
opposite charges will happen among the species present. These are
true for ion-induced dipole and induced dipole-induced dipole
interactions.

 Ion-dipole interaction results from the attraction between either a cation

(+) or an anion (-) with permanent polar molecules. The ions will be
attracted to the opposite charges present in the dipole resulting to this
type of attraction.

 H-bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the H-

atoms in a polar bond. It requires that the H-atoms in the molecules be
bonded with more electronegative atoms such as 0, N, or F to form H-
bonds with other molecules.

All interacting substances exhibit the presence of London dispersion forces

in addition to other forces of attraction among them.

Intermolecular forces (IMF) present among species.

 Polar substances exhibit dipole-dipole interaction due to the presence
of (+) and (-) ends of the molecules. In the exercise above, Sulphur
dioxide (S02) has polar ends that will participate in the dipole-dipole
forces of attraction.

 With the presence of an ion (cation or anion), the charged ends of

polar molecules will be attracted to the dipole. This is true in the case
of Na+ and formaldehyde. The positive (+) sodium ion will be attracted
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 to the partially -negative oxygen in formaldehyde, resulting to an ion-
dipole interaction.

 For the third example, C02 is a nonpolar substance. It is a linear

molecule and the electron shift at the right of C is balanced by the
electron shift to the left. This produces no net shift in electron density
so no net charged is produced. For nonpolar molecules, only
dispersion forces are present.

 In both NH3 and H2O, the hydrogen atoms are bonded to more
electronegative atoms, nitrogen and oxygen, respectively. This permits
them to form H-bonds with other molecules with the same condition.
Thus, H-bond is present between NH3 and H2O.
 Ion-induced dipole forces of attraction are present among Fe2+ ions
together with oxygen molecules. The charge in iron will distort the
electron distribution in 02 resulting to temporary poles in oxygen. The
oppositely-charged particles, Fe2+ and partially-negative end of O2 will
then be attracted to form the above-mentioned force of attraction.

In all of the examples above, London dispersion forces are also present.

“EFFECTS OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON THE PROPERTIES OF

SUBSTANCES”

The properties of matter can be seen from either the microscopic or

macroscopic level. The microscopic level includes the atoms, molecules,
and ions which we cannot see. The macroscopic level shows how the bulk
properties are exhibited by matter. These properties include surface tension,
viscosity, boiling, melting, and freezing points, and solubility. Intermolecular
forces play a very important role to determine how substances behave at
the macroscopic level.

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Factors affecting the strength of intermolecular forces among
molecules

The properties of substances as viewed on the macroscopic level can

be explained by the types of intermolecular forces present between and
among substances. These bulk properties can be predicted through an
analysis of the interplay of intermolecular forces in each substance.
The chart below tells us of the relative strengths of intermolecular forces.
This can be referred to when trying to relate the IMF to the properties of
substances.

Properties of substances affected by intermolecular forces

 Surface Tension
This is the amount of energy required to stretch the surface area
of liquids (e.g., 1 cm2). Liquids with high intermolecular forces tend to
have high surface tensions. When water is dropped on a waxy surface,
it tends to form a round bead to minimize the surface area that it
occupies.
An example of surface tension is capillary action. It is the ability of
liquid molecules to move against gravity. The forces bringing about
capillary action are cohesion (intermolecular attraction between like
molecules) and adhesion
(an attraction between
unlike molecules.
Water molecules
exhibit cohesion while the
attraction between water
and the sides of the glass
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 tube is adhesion. If adhesion is stronger than cohesion, the liquid is
pulled upward.
If cohesion is greater than adhesion, there is a depression or
lowering, resulting to a lower height of the liquid in the capillary tube.
The stronger the intermolecular forces possessed by molecules,
the higher is the surface tension of the substance.

 Viscosity
This is a measure of a liquid's
resistance to flow. The greater the viscosity
of a liquid, the more slowly it flows. The
viscosity of substances decreases with
high temperatures; thus, syrup flows faster
when hot.
The strength of intermolecular forces
affects the ease with which substances
flow. Liquids that have high intermolecular
forces are highly viscous. The presence of
strong H-bonds in some liquids makes
these substances highly viscous. The
LEDS of glycerol below shows three (3)
OH· groups that can participate in H-bonding whereas water has only
one OH- group to form H bonding. Glycerol is more viscous than water.

 Boiling point and Melting Point

Boiling point depends on the equilibrium vapour pressure exerted
by the liquid or solid above the liquid or the solid. This means that the
rate of vaporization is equal to the rate of condensation of the
substance in a closed container. Vapour pressure also varies with

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temperature. The graph below shows the effect of temperature on the
vapour pressure of water.

At 100˚C, the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric

pressure of 1.00 atm. Boiling occurs at this point, where the vapour
pressure of water is equal to the pressure of the atmosphere.
There are substances that boil at a lower temperature and some
at a higher temperature. These temperatures depend on the vapour
pressure exerted by the liquids or solids. Vapour pressure, on the other
hand, depends on the intermolecular forces present in the substances.
When the intermolecular forces are strong, the vapour pressure is low.
As a consequence, boiling will occur at a higher temperature
because more energy is needed to break the intermolecular bonds for
the substance to change into vapour. Water, for example, exhibits
strong H-bonds such that vaporization needs more energy to change
the liquid to vapour.
London dispersion forces predominate in methane, CH4. These
are the weakest forces of attraction among molecules. It needs a little
energy to break the bonds such that methane changes to vapour
easily. As a consequence, more vapour are released in which vapour
pressure will eventually equal to atmospheric pressure. Boiling then
will occur. This explains why water has a higher boiling point than
methane.
This condition is also true for melting point. The ease with which
bond breaks affects the melting points of substances. The greater
intermolecular forces there are among molecules the higher is their
melting point.
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 The strength of dispersion forces also depends on the size of the
substance or the number of electrons in the substances. The ease with
which the electron distribution is distorted explains the amount of
dispersion forces that a substance exhibits. The distortion of the
electron distribution is known as polarizability.
The greater the polarizability of the electron distribution the
greater are the dispersion forces. When the dispersion forces are high,
the boiling and melting points are also high.
Br2 and F2 are both diatomic gases. They are also both nonpolar,
but Br2 is a bigger molecule than F2. The polarizability of Br2 is greater
than F2 so it has greater dispersion forces. This explains why Br2 has
a higher boiling point than F2. Greater amount of energy is needed to
overcome the big dispersion forces in Br2 than in F2.

 Solubility
Solubility is the ability of a substance (solid, liquid, or gas) to
dissolve in a given substance (solid, liquid, or gas). The amount of any
substance dissolved in a solvent (the substance that dissolves another
substance) depends on the types of interaction among molecules,
pressure, and temperature.
The rule "Like dissolves like" applies to solubility. This means that
the kind of substances being dissolved should exhibit the same
properties or should be compatible for them to form solutions. The
polarity of molecules is an important factor for substances to dissolve
in certain molecules. Highly polar molecules will dissolve substances
that have dipoles. The negatively charged particles will be attracted to
the positively-charged particles of the involved substances. This
attraction will subsist in the solutions.
Water is considered as a universal solvent because of its ability
to dissolve almost everything. Water is highly polar and has the ability
to form H-bonds with polar substances.
Nonpolar substances, on the other hand will also dissolve
nonpolar substances. Intermolecular forces, such as dispersion forces,
will prevail to maintain the dissolution of substances.

To predict the behaviour of substances, several considerations should

betaken.
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 First, the polarity of substances should be determined together with the
predominant intermolecular forces present in the substances. For
example, consider NaCl (sodium chloride) and CH4 (methane). NaCl is
a dipole while methane is nonpolar. Dipole-dipole interaction is
predominant in NaCl while dispersion forces are present among
methane molecules.
 Since dipole-dipole forces are stronger than dispersion forces, NaCl
will have higher boiling and melting points. It is also highly soluble in
water due to ion-dipole interaction that will prevail. Mwthane is not
soluble in water because there are no poles that will participate in the
dissolution process with water .
 Between CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride) and CHCl3 (trichloromethane),
trichloromethane has a higher boiling and melting points than carbon
tetrachloride. It is also slightly soluble in water. Trichloromethane is a
polar molecule while carbon tetrachloride is a nonpolar molecule. The
dipole-dipole interaction in CHCl3 is stronger than the dispersion forces
in CCl4. Again the boiling and melting points are higher in CHCl 3 than
in CCl4 Hence, since CHCl3is polar, then it is soluble in water.
 Ammonia (NH3) and methyl fluoride (CH3F) are both polar but the
ability of NH3 to form H-bonds qualifies it for higher boiling and melting
points than CH3F. At the same time, H-bonding also enables NH3 to be
more soluble in water than CH3F.
 Phosphorus pentachloride (PCL5) and phosphorus pentabromide
(PBr5) have the same molecular shape and polarity. What matters here
is the size of the molecule when comparing the properties of these
substances. Bromine contains more electrons than chlorine. This
makes PBr5 bigger and heavier. In this case, dispersion forces are
greater in PBr5 so it has higher boiling and melting points than PCL 5.
Since these two substances are both nonpolar, then they are not
soluble in water.
 Pentane (C5H12) and isopentane (C5H12) both contain the same number
of C and H atoms in the formula. However, their molecular structures
are different. Below are the LEDS of the two substances. Pentane has
an extended structure while isopentane has a compact structure.
Extended structures have more opportunities for interactions than
compact structures. Extended molecules have stronger intermolecular
forces than the compact structures. As such the boiling point of
pentane is higher than that of isopentane. It is also true for their

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 melting points. Both molecules are nonpolar so they are no: soluble in
water.

The nature of intermolecular forces present in molecules is a good gauge to

predict properties of substances.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Directions:
The activities from this module are written on a separate answer sheet.
For the instructions and procedure, please refer to the answer sheet. Do not
write anything on this module.

 ACITIVITY 1: Match Me
 ACTIVITY 2: Look For It
 ACTIVITY 3: Identify Me

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 WEEK 4

“BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES”

Biological macromolecules are large, organic molecule such as

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Most of them are organic
compounds and the functional group determines their chemical properties.
Biomolecules have a huge variety of functions, such as storing energy,
protection, etc. Now be ready with your journey to the different
biomolecules, their structures, and functions found in your food.

Food is a source of molecules that are needed for life. These are
biological molecules. What you eat belongs to biomolecules. There are
four biological molecules that make up all of life.

Terms and Definitions

 Monosaccharide - simplest form of carbohydrates
 Monomer - a molecule that can react with other molecule to form very
large molecules or polymers
 Peptide - short chain of amino acid monomer link by peptide bonds
 Hormones -special chemical messengers that are created in the
endocrine gland
 Amino acids - organic compounds that combined to form proteins
 Enzymes - proteins which make the bio chemical reaction fast
 Nucleotide - made up of three components: nitrogen -containing base,
five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
 Phospholipids - contain glycerol, two-fatty acids, and a phosphate
group

Biological Macromolecules

1. Carbohydrates
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 The word carbohydrate may be broken down to carbon and hydrate.
Another term for carbohydrate is saccharide. Carbohydrates are classified
either as simple or complex. Simple sugars are monosaccharide and
disaccharides. Complex sugars are polysaccharides.
Carbohydrates are the primary energy source of the human body. The
different saccharides that humans eat are converted to glucose which can
be readily used by the body. The excessive consumption of carbohydrates
is converted to glycogen which is stored in the liver and in muscles.
Glycogen is a slow releasing carbohydrate

 Monosaccharide (one saccharide)

Glucose used in dextrose, blood sugar; the form utilized by
Galactose found in milk and milk products
Fructose found in fruits and honey

 Disaccharides (two saccharides)

Maltose glucose + glucose found in malt
Sucrose glucose + fructose found in regular table sugar,
sugarcane, and sugar beet
Lactose glucose + galactose found in milk and milk products

 Polysaccharides (many saccharides)

Starch / Amylase storage form of glucose in plants
Amylopectin storage form of glucose in plants
Glycogen storage form of glucose animal; stored in the liver and
Cellulose structural material in plants --cell wall in wood, wood
fiber cannot be digested by humans

Carbohydrates
They are made from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Monomer: saccharides
Examples: rice, cereal, potatoes, fruits, pastas
Function: main energy source of the body

2. Lipids or Fats
Lipids or fats are important nutrients in your body but eating too many
especially unhealthy fats such as saturated fats and trans fats can lead to
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heart disease, cancer, and obesity. Lipids also serve other functions such
as material for cell mem brane, insulation to maintain body temperature, aid
in digestion, and as signal molecules.
There are different classifications of lipids: triglyceride, phospholipid,
wax, and steroid. The lipid family is one of the most varied in terms of
structure but they share the common property of being insoluble in water.
Fat and oil are the most common examples of lipids. They are under
triglycerides because they are composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
Fat refers to solid triglyceride usually from animal sources such a
meat, milk, butter, margarine, eggs, and cheese. Oil refers to liquid
triglycerides from plant sources. Examples are olive oil, com oil, sunflower
oil and soybean oil. Animal fats contain high percentages of saturated fatty
acids while plant oils are mostly unsaturated fatty acids.

Lipids
They are made from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
They are soluble (dissolve) in oil but are insoluble (don't dissolve) in water.
Examples: fats and oils
Function: long-term storage of energy in the body
Monomer: fatty acid

3. Proteins
Proteins are composed of four elements, namely: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. Sulfur and other metals are sometimes also found
in proteins. If carbohydrates are made up of saccharides, proteins are made
up of amino acids.

Examples of proteins and their functions are:

 Keratin is a structural protein found in hair, skin, and nails.
 Fibroin I Silk protein - Fibroin is found in silk. Silk has a smooth and
soft texture. It is one of the strongest natural fibers that have high
resistance to deformation. It is also a good insulating material.
 Collagen is a major insoluble fibrous protein found in connective
tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin, cartilage and the cornea of
the eye. It comprises as much as 30% of proteins in animals.
 Enzymes function to catalyze chemical reactions. They either speed
up a reaction, lower the needed energy for a reaction to take place, or
bind substances to their specific partners.
Examples of enzymes:
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 o Lipase - help in digestion of fats
o Pepsin - help in breaking down proteins into peptides [smaller
units)
o Sucrase - also called invertase; help in the digestion of sugars
and starches

 Myoglobin is a polypeptide that stores oxygen in muscles. It contains

a heme group which has an iron where the oxygen is stored.

Proteins
They are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
Proteins are made up of amino acids combined through a dehydration link
called a peptide bond.
Monomer: amino acid
Two classes:
1. Saturated fats have two carbons attached to each carbon [except the
one at the end). Saturated fats are unhealthy fats like butter.
2. Unsaturated fats arc missing at least one hydrogen and arc curl in
shape.
The unsaturated fats are healthy, and include oils.

4. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids play a n essential role in the storage, transfer, and
expression of genetic information. Nucleic acid was discovered by a 24-
year-old Swiss physician named Friedrich Miescher in 1868. He was
puzzled that an unknown substance in white blood cells did not resemble
carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. He was able to isolate the substance from
the nucleus and initially called it nuclein. He eventually was able to break
down nuclein into protein and nucleic acids. He found out that nucleic acids
contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
The most common examples of nucleic acids are DNA
[deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). DNA is a nucleic acid
that carries the genetic code of organisms. It is fondly termed as the
blueprint of life. RNA, on another hand, carries the information from the
DNA to the cellular factories for the synthesis of proteins. If carbohydrates
are composed of saccharide units, proteins of amino acids, and lipids of

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fatty acids, nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are
also known as polynucleotides.
Three parts of nucleotide:
1. Nitrogenous base
2. Five-carbon carbohydrate or sugar
3. Phosphate group

Nucleic Acids
They are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
Monomer: nucleotide
Examples : DNA and RNA
Function: involves the genetic materials, Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA). DNA is the blueprint of life because it contains
instructions on how to make proteins in the body.

Structures of Different Biomolecules

Remember this mnemonic device of biomolecules: CHO CHO CHON
CHONP

C stands for the element Carbon

H stands for the element Hydrogen
O stands for the element Oxygen
N stands for the element Nitrogen
P stands for the element Phosphorous

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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Directions:
The activities from this module are written on a separate answer sheet. For
the instructions and procedure, please refer to the answer sheet. Do not
write anything on this module.

 WRITTEN ACTIVITY 1: Take Me Home

 WRITTEN ACTIVITY 1: Modified True or False
 PERFORMANCE OUTPUT:

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