Complex Numbers = Introduction You have undoubtedly encountered complex numbers in your earlier courses in mathematics. When you first learned to solve a quadratic equation ax* + bx + c = 0 by the quadratic formula, you saw that the roots of the equation are not real; that is, complex, whenever the discriminant b? — 4ac is negative. So, for example, simple equations such as x +5=Oandx? +x + 1 =Ohavenoreal solutions. For example, the roots of the last equation 7 Hits assumed that V—3 = V3V/—1, then the roots 0 A Definition Two hundred years ago, around the time that complex numbers were gain- ing some respectability in the mathematical community, the symbol i was originally used as a disguise for the embarrassing symbol \V—1. We now simply say that é is the imaginary unit and define it by the property = —1. Using the imaginary unit, we build a general complex number out of two real numbers. Definition Complex Number A complex number is any number of the form z = a + ib where a and b are real numbers and iis the imaginary unit.Definition Equality Complex numbers z, = x; + iy, and z, = x, + iy are equal, z; = Z, if Re(z;) = Re(z,)_ and Im(z,) = Im(@). Acomplex number x + iy = Oifx = Qandy = 0. U Arithmetic Operations Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. If z, = x, + iy, and zp = x, + iy, these operations are defined as follows. Addition: ata=G +d) + Get dy) = +) +i + yd Subtraction: =z; — 22 = (4) + )) — G2 + 2) = On — 2) + 11 — yn) Multiplication: = z-z) = (x; + iy;)(m + dyn) = x2 — WY. + ve + m1y2) a_ntin 2 mtin at tym | ma — A 24 y2 24‘The familiar commutative, associative, and distributive laws hold for complex numbers. ata=ata Zila = 2% at@ta=atats z1(@ats) = (es2a)2s Distributive law: = z,(z + 2%) = 2122 + 2123, Commutative laws: { Associative laws: { In view of these laws, there is no need to memorize the definitions of addition, subtraction, and multiplication. To add (subtract) two complex numbers, we simply add (subtract) the cor- responding real and imaginary parts. To multiply two complex numbers, we use the distributive SZTTESE Addition and Multiplication Ifz, = 2 + 4iand z, = —3 + 8i, find (a) z, + z, and (b) z122. SOLUTION (a) By adding the real and imaginary parts of the two numbers, we get (2+ 4i) + (-3 + 8) = (2-3) + (4+ B= -14 12K, (b) Using the distributive law, we have (2 + 4i(—3 + Bi) = (2 + 41-3) + (2 + 41N(8i) = -6— 12i + 161 + 32i? —6 — 32) + (16 — 12)i = —38 + 4i.[)Conjugate Ifz is a complex number, then the number obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part is called the complex conjugate or, simply, the conjugate of z.If z= x + iy, then its conjugate is g=x-¥. Forexample, ifz = 6 + 3i, then z = 6 — 3i; if = —5 ~ i, thenz = —S +i. Ifzis areal number, sayz = 7, then z = 7, From the definition of addition it can be readily shown that the conjugate of a sum of two complex numbers is the sum of the conjugates: Ararat+y Moreover, we have the additional three properties 4 B= % — ty 1 a Ifz, = 2 — 3iandz, = 4 + 6i, find (a) 3 and) 2 SOLUTION Inboth parts of this example we shall multiply both numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator and then use (2). Zot 2-34 |i — 121 + 1817 4461 4+614-6i 16 + 36 _ 10-24 -_—- 1243Definition Modulus or Absolute Value The modulus or absolute value of z = x + iy, denoted by |z|, is the real number jel = Vx? +? = Vez. Modulus of a Complex Number Ifz= 2 — 3i, then |z| = V2 + (-3F = Vi. healer ASFIGURE —_* shows, the sum of the vectors z, and z, is the vector z, + z). For the tri given in the figure, we know that the length of the side of the triangle corresponding to the vector 2, + z, cannot be longer than the sum of the remaining two sides. In symbols this is zr + 2a] = [zal + [za]. (5) ‘The result in (5) is known as the triangle inequality and extends to any finite sum: len p+ 25 Foe + Sql S [za] + [zal + [za] + 7 + [zal Using (5) on z; + z, + (—2z,), we obtain another important inequality:| Polar Form Rectangular coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, 6) are related by he equations x = r cos 6 and y = r sin 6 (see Section 14.1). Thus a nonzero complex number = x + iy can be written as z = (rcos 8) + i(r sin 8) or =r(cos 6 + isin 8). ‘an argument of a complex number must satisfy the equation tan 6 = y/x. The solutions of this equation are not unique, since if is an argument of z, then necessarily the angles 8 + 27, 0 * 47... ,are also arguments. The argument of a complex number in the interval — ar < 0< is called the principal argument of z and is denoted by Arg z. For example, Arg(i) = 77/2. [S¢ES0 A Complex Number in Polar Form Express 1 — V3i in polar form. SOLUTION Withx=1 andy = — V3, weobtainr = |z| = V1)? + (— V3)= 2.Nowsi the point (1, — V3)liesin the fourth quadrant, wecantakethe solution oftan 6 = — V3, to be @ = arg z = 57/3. It follows from (1) that a polar form of the number is.LJ Multiplication and Division The polar form of a complex number is especially con- enient to use when multiplying or dividing two complex numbers. Suppose 2% = "(cos 6, + isin6) and — z = r,(cos 6, + isin 6,), where 0, and 6, are any arguments of z, and z», respectively. Then 2122 = TyPal(Cos 8; cos 6, — sin 8; sin 62) + i(sin 8; cos 82 + cos 6; sin 2)] (2) ind for z, #0, a a From the addition formulas from trigonometry, (2) and (3) can be rewritten, in turn, as 21% = ryrg{cos(@, + 62) + isin(@, + 62) = 7 [(e0s6, cos 8, + sin 6 sin 63) + i(sin 8, cos 8, ~ c0s 6, sin 6). (3) 2 Ritts = By 7 706i — 82) + ésin(G, — 62). 2 n nspection of (4) and (5) shows that lzza] = [zslzal> | | _ al zo] eal’ q arg(z,z,) = arg 21 + arg 22, aa() = arg z, ~ arg 22(0 DeMoivre’s Formula When z = cos 6 + i sin 6, we have |z| = r = 1 and so (8) yields ae) erora Compute z? for z = 1 — V3i. SOLUTION In Example 1 we saw that aN care z= afeo(-5) + ss0(-5) Hence from (8) with r = 2, @ = —2/3, andn = 3, we get a - V3i U Roots A number w is said to be an nth root of a nonzero complex number z if w" = z. ‘we let w = p(cos + ising) and z = r(cos 6 + isin 6) be the polar forms of w and z, then in view of (8), w" = z becomes p"(cos nb + isin nd) = r(cos 6 + isin 6).Find the three cube roots of z = i. SOLUTION With r = 1, 6 = arg z = 7/2, the polar form of the given number is 2 = cos(m/2) + i sin(ar/2). From (10) with n = 3 we obtain m= om (2 ss a) + isin"? = ™) k= 0,12 3 3 Hence, the three roots are k=0, w= k=l m= 3 k= 2, wz = cosSOLUTION In this case, r = V2 and 6 = arg z = 77/4, From (10) with n = 4, we obtain = vay cos("/4 = or) + isin( 7/4 ; *)), k=0,1,2,3. roots, rounded to four decimal places, are w 16 k=0, wo = (V2) 008 7 + isin ] = 1.0696 + 0.21271 k=l m= vay" [cos + isin *| = -0.2127 + 1.06961 16 k=2, w= v9" [cos 7 + isin ed = —1.0696 — 0.21275 k= 3, wy = (V2)"4| 08 37 16, | = 02127 — 1.0696.| Sets in the Complex Plane LT Terminology Before discussing the concept of functions of a complex variable, we need) to introduce some essential terminology about sets in the complex plane. + Suppose zo = x + iyo. Since |z — zo] = V(x — %0)* + (y — yo)" is the distance between the points z= x + éy and z= xy + éypthe points z = x + iy that satisfy the equation . [Ziel Zo] aa p > 0, lic on a circle of radius p cemered at the point zy Wes Circles (@) |z| = 1 is the equation of a unit circle centered at the origin. (b) |z — 1 — 2i| = 5 is the equation of acircle of radius 5 centered at 1 + 2i. ‘The points z satisfying the inequality |z — zo| 0, lie within, but not on, a circle of radius p centered at the point zo. This set is called a neighborhood of zo or an open disk. A [point & is said to be an interior point of a set S of the complex plane if there exists some neigh- borhood of zp that lies entirely within S. If every point z of a set S is an interior point, then S is said to be an open set.er eenen eet oes e-(1.1+ 21 < 0.05runctions of a Complex Variable | _| Functions of a Complex Variable When the domain A in the foregoing definition of a function is a set of complex numbers z, we naturally say that fis a function of a complex ble z or a complex function for short. The image w of a complex number z will be some complex number u + iv; that is,Limit of a Function Suppose the function fis defined in some neighborhood of zp, except possibly at z itself. Then is said to possess a limit at zo, written lim f@ = L a if, for each e > 0, there exists a 6 > 0 such that |f() — L| < e whenever 0 < |z ~ zo] <6. Theorem Limit of Sum, Product, Quotient Suppose lim,.,, f(<) = L; and lim,.,,, g(@) = L;. Then @ in U@+s@Ql=Lth w fim f@e@ HL, A function fis continuous at a point zy if lim f @) = f(). ErAF fee ji Be, Fomin contin ee at Reo by fod’ fob: 1 re | PakesVest ae pre Co omnneee S| =o fo eng 8 vale forcti has a ign hi ilo Metheot -y ~y =m L “Efe = Le Forma) be vax (mx) 6 Cageat — ethed 3 xe Yeoh, go FSaO a aay 2 r2tosOSuib 2oBBSlf Gop 3 - = Ws eo yr org vole 8 pelious basa cbifetent b fo! unique Limite clootrot exist. th Job faze pe lo pHs Coy) oeey™ x30Definition Derivative Suppose the complex function fis defined in a neighborhood of a point zp. The derivative of Sf + Az) ~ fe) FG) = Jim TOE Constant Rules: 7) ¢= 0, 7 of(e) = of'@) Sum Rule: U/l) + @1=s'@ + '@) Product Rule: 4 [f(os(@] = ede" + etey'@ 8@f'®@ — f@s'@ (Quotient Rate: eee area Chain Rule: 4 fo) = f'e@)s'@- The usual Power Rule for differentiation of powers of z is also valid: d z" = nz""', naninteger.A Function That Is Nowhere Differentiable Show that the function f(z) = x + 4iy is nowhere differentiable. SOLUTION With Az = Ax + iAy, we have fle + Az) — f@ = (x + Ax) + 4i(y + Ay) — x — 4iy = Ax + 4idy fe + Az) = fe) . Ax+ 4idy Ot eee rea ee re) Az 420 Ax + iAy and so (10) Now, if we let Az > 0 along a line parallel to the x-axis, then Ay = 0 and the value of (10) is 1. On the other hand, if we let Az— 0 along a line parallel to the y-axis, then Ax = 0 and the value of (10) is seen to be 4. Therefore, f(z) = x + 4iy is not differentiable at any point z. || Analytic Functions While the requirement of differentiability is a stringent demand ere is a class of functions that is of great importance whose members satisfy even more severe equirements. These functions are called analytic functions. Definitior Analyticity at a Point A complex function w = f(2) is said to be analytic at a point z) if fis differentiable at zy and at every point in some neighborhood of zo.ervaArve = Sho. tet Sis comk'nusus Subnok fear = 2 gtable ab F at 2-0 fl2rnz)= Fez , fle -# fip-A- fliadz) —f2) 2p Wee oe 42-90 Az Apso Az AX cAgy " Leap >to) Durihy b [ie tet fie -! ae x70 Annid, ap ny = ea ye Mehod 2 fe, Wine “actteg * bem LJ =! Me thea -3 , i Axllmimy ry, jefe :lonsicddes falta te (ath: 4 ae as Gees +t gece Ww Along Xeanés oa ee os) (Ogee) Yani, tim Bm (aiteg o7 ie - Lim bao cee a x By ong Yorn (een) = Bm (Se ‘Le dleosmet enart a ety a