Name: Delgado, Brendan Lewis A.

Date: May 16, 2023

Yr. & Section: BSAMT 3-9 Rating:

MIDTERM ASSIGNMENT # 1
AIRCRAFT DAMAGE & DEFECTS
PROPERTIES OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL
METALS
 I. Types of Aircraft Damage and Defects

Aircraft damages and defects are any occurrence that could jeopardize the structural
integrity or safe operation of an aircraft. These are a leading cause of aviation crashes
and are also a factor in many accidents on the ground and in the air. An unexpected
failure of a plane part might cause serious injury or death to passengers and crew if the
part was either poorly designed or poorly maintained. Common types are:

Structural damage/defects

These are defects related to the physical structure of the aircraft, such as cracks
or corrosion in the fuselage, wings, or tail.

Example: Dents

Dents are indentations or craters in an object's surface that emerge as a result of

pressure or impact. They are not limited to any particular material but can appear on
anything from metal to plastic to wood. Dents can range from being merely cosmetic to
being structurally damaging. Paintless dent repair and traditional bodywork are just two
of the methods that may be able to fix the dent, depending on its size and placement.
Engine damage

This can include damage to the engine's cylinders, pistons, and turbines. Engine
damage can be caused by a variety of factors, including foreign object damage,
overheating, and fuel starvation.

Propeller damage

This can include damage to the propeller's blades, hub, and shaft. Propeller
damage can be caused by a variety of factors, including foreign object damage,
improper maintenance, and overloading.

Landing gear damage

This can include damage to the landing gear's struts, wheels, and brakes.
Landing gear damage can be caused by a variety of factors, including accidents,
overloading, and improper maintenance.
Hydraulic system damage

This can include damage to the hydraulic lines, pumps, and valves. Hydraulic
system damage can be caused by a variety of factors, including leaks, overheating, and
foreign object damage. The hydraulic system is responsible for powering many of the
aircraft's critical systems, and failure can cause issues with the landing gear, flaps, and
brakes.

Electrical system damage

This can include damage to the electrical wiring, connectors, and components.
Electrical system damage can be caused by a variety of factors, including lightning
strikes, shorts, and overloading. Electrical defects are related to the electrical systems
of the aircraft, such as problems with the battery, generator, or wiring. Electrical failures
can cause issues with the aircraft's instruments, communications systems, and lighting.

Fuel system damage

This can include damage to the fuel tanks, lines, and filters. Fuel system damage
can be caused by a variety of factors, including leaks, overheating, and foreign object
damage. Fuel leaks or contamination can lead to engine failure, loss of power, and
other issues.

Avionics system damage

This can include damage to the avionics' computers, displays, and sensors.
Avionics system damage can be caused by a variety of factors, including lightning
strikes, shorts, and overloading. Avionics failures can impact the aircraft's navigational
systems, autopilot, and other critical systems.
Mechanical defects

These are defects related to the mechanical components of the aircraft, such as
problems with the engine, landing gear, or hydraulic systems.

System defects

These are defects related to the various systems of the aircraft, such as
problems with the fuel system, pressurization system, or air conditioning system.

Software defects

These are defects related to the software used in the aircraft, such as problems
with the flight control software, navigation software, or communication software.

Some other factors that can cause aircraft damage and defects are as follows:

 Accidental:

Aircraft accidents can cause a variety of damage, including structural damage,

engine damage, propeller damage, landing gear damage, hydraulic system damage,
electrical system damage, fuel system damage, and avionics system damage.

 Overloading

Overloading an aircraft can cause structural damage, engine damage, propeller

damage, landing gear damage, hydraulic system damage, electrical system damage,
fuel system damage, and avionics system damage. When stresses surpass the
material's design stress, it might quickly fracture due to operational overload. The
landing gear of an airplane is a crucial component of the undercarriage that is used
during takeoff and landing. It's common knowledge that they're put through the wringer
when landing. Inadequate planning for this kind of breakdown might result in disastrous
outcomes. Using strong and stiff materials, constructing structures to bear anticipated
loads, and performing routine inspection and maintenance on the aircraft structure are
all effective means of preventing operational overload.

 Manufacturing

Manufacturing defects can cause structural damage, engine damage, propeller

damage, landing gear damage, hydraulic system damage, electrical system damage,
fuel system damage, and avionics system damage.

Poor surface preparation, contamination, improper curing, wrongly applied

pressure, geometrical mismatch between the adherends, and trapped air/moisture in
the adhesive mixture are just some of the many misprocesses that can lead to
manufacturing faults. These flaws are ubiquitous in airplanes made from any material.
Over the past several decades, it has been more critical in the materials and structural
design of airplanes to have a firm grasp on the underlying causes of material flaws or
manufacturing errors.

Other manufacturing problems are:

Defects in Composite Materials

Disbonds

Disbonds are regions of a bonded interface that become unintentionally

separated from one another, either during production or later in the structure's lifespan.
Adhesive and cohesive failures are common issues that arise from production mistakes
such inadequate initial surface cleaning, pressure/vacuum fail, and high loads applied to
the structure in service. The presence of manufacturing faults and in-service loads both
effect disbond, which is dependent on the integrity of the adhesive layer.

Delamination

Delamination occurs when there is a break in the adhesion between two

consecutive layers in a material. Mishandling during production (such as
pressure/vacuum failure) or impact damage or excessive load while in service are also
possible causes. Matrix qualities that are weaker than the reinforcing ingredient in terms
of fracture toughness, strength, and resistance against inter-laminar shear and
transverse strain lead to delamination. Residual/inter-laminar tensions can be caused
by heat stresses and resin cure shrinkage during production.

Foreign Inclusion

A common type of manufacturing problem, a foreign inclusion indicates an

unnatural material was used to create the composite part in question. Foreign inclusions
are usually bits of debris that were left on the surface and didn't get cleaned off before
bonding. The majority of composites with foreign inclusions are fragments of the
protective sheets used to cover the plies before they are impregnated. These sheets
might be made of paper, nylon, or teflon.
Matrix Cracking

Matrix cracking occurs when the resin used to bind the laminate's fibers develops
fissures during production or use. Mechanical tension applied transverse to the fiber
direction during production or use is a common culprit. When a composite laminate is
subjected to mechanical stress, like quasi-static/cyclic tensile loading, this is typically
the first type of damage to appear. Damage to one or more layers of a matrix, but not
the opposing surfaces, is characteristic of matrix cracking. When the damage
penetrates all of the laminate's layers, we speak of a fracture.

Porosity

Incomplete gas microbubble outflow from the part during manufacture causes
porosity in composites. Microbubbles typically combine to generate larger bubbles after
getting stuck between layers or at bonding surfaces where they are unable to escape.
Even the individual bubbles can join forces to cause a larger-scale separation or
delamination. Porosity is often quantified as a proportion of total volume. Because a
high porosity level (several percent) substantially degrades mechanical qualities,
aviation businesses usually severely limit porosity level to low values on important parts
(1.5 percent or 2 percent maximum). Microbubbles of gas tend to combine into larger
voids when the porosity is high.
Fibre Breakage

When the stress applied to a composite material is higher than the fiber's fracture
strength, the material fails in a mode known as fiber breakage. The failure process due
to fiber breaking is often gradual. When a damaged fiber gives out, the remaining fibers
in the area take on a greater share of the load. Since the remaining fibers are now
under a greater concentrated load, the next weakest fibers often give out. This will keep
happening until the entire building cracks. Foreign object collision, lightning strike,
applied load, erosion, scrapes, and abrasion are the most common in-service causes of
fiber breakage.

Other Composite Laminate Typical Defects

Non-uniform laminate thickness and wrinkles or waviness are two examples of

flaws that can occur in composite laminates. A common production flaw is uneven
laminate thickness, which can result from uneven pressure or improperly positioned
molding tools. Wrinkles (waviness) are another common manufacturing problem, often
caused by the movement of layers during processing that was not properly controlled.
The mechanical characteristics of composite laminates can be drastically reduced if
wrinkles are present. During the cool-down phase of composite production, waviness
might develop.

Typical Honeycomb Core Defects

Both during production and use, honeycomb cores are susceptible to a wide
range of imperfections. Multicore structures are more susceptible to honeycomb to
honeycomb disbond, condensed core, buckled core, crushed core, torn core, and torn
core, characterized by cell breaking in a perpendicular direction to the cell axis, as well
as a number of other defects. The disbonding of honeycomb to laminate is another
typical flaw.
Typical Foam Core Defects

Both during production and use, foam cores are susceptible to a wide range of
imperfections. Core subsurface cracking can be thought of as a normal foam disbond
fault, while core cracking is typically associated with excessive stress applied to the
core. Foam cores may also have issues with foam to adhesive disbond flaws, in
addition to the aforementioned issues. Disbonding occurs within the foam, rather than at
the foam limit line, because an adhesive always exhibits some minor penetration within
the foam at bonding surfaces involving foam cores.

Ingress of Moisture and Temperature

Moisture and temperature affect the fiber composite's material qualities. When
temperatures and humidity are higher, the effect becomes substantially more
noticeable.
Defects in Coatings

Environmental degradation, such as corrosion and wear, and physical damage,

such as thermo-mechanical loading in aircraft structures, can both lead to coating
defects. Coatings must be tested for durability on the substrate in order to gauge the
performance of the coating-substrate system as a whole. Due to the severe loading
circumstances under which airplanes operate, the mechanical strength of the coating-
substrate system is critical.

 Human/Maintenance Errors
 Mistakes or omissions in the upkeep of an aircraft can jeopardize its safety and
performance, hence the term "maintenance errors" in the aviation industry. Human error,
insufficient training, and broken machinery are all potential sources of these mistakes.

Failing to correctly repair or replace broken parts, using the wrong techniques or
tools during maintenance, or skipping necessary inspections or tests are all examples of
maintenance faults that can occur in the aviation industry. Accidents and human
casualties may result from flight glitches and failures brought on by these mistakes.

Errors in aircraft maintenance can be reduced by strictly adhering to

maintenance procedures and norms, and by providing extensive training and oversight
for maintenance staff. In order to prevent problems from becoming catastrophic, it is
important to conduct regular inspections and audits. Predictive maintenance software
and automated inspection systems are just two examples of the cutting-edge tools and
technology that may be used to boost the precision and productivity of maintenance
tasks while decreasing the likelihood of human error.

Defects in Joints

Adhesively Bonded Joints

Primary aircraft structures have been adhered together with adhesives for over
60 years. Fluid immersion testing, high/low/cyclic thermal performance testing, static
buckling, and fatigue testing are all part of the lengthy qualification procedure for new
adhesive technology. Coating failure under nanoindentation after 20 cycles, (a) under a
conical indenter at 200 mN and (b) under a Berkovich indenter at 10 mN, for a 100 nm
thick DLC on a silicon substrate.

Friction Stir-Welded Joints

 A cylindrical tool with a short protrusion or 'pin' is rotated and plunged between
two metal plates to create a weld in the solid state joining technique known as friction
stir welding (FSW). Welding, brazing, adhesive bonding, and mechanical attaching are
all viable options for joining metallic materials. Friction stir welding (FSW) has many
desirable features for aerospace applications, including the capacity to weld butt, lap,
and T-joints, the capability to weld classical alloys that are notoriously difficult to weld,
the capacity to weld dissimilar alloys, the potential elimination of cracking in the fusion
and heat-affected zone (HAZ), the lack of weld porosity, etc.

 Environmental factors

Environmental factors, such as corrosion, can cause structural damage, engine

damage, propeller damage, landing gear damage, hydraulic system damage, electrical
system damage, fuel system damage, and avionics system damage.

Also if the surrounding are of airport has a lot bird, bird strikes can happen. This
occurs when a bird collides with an aircraft in flight or during takeoff or landing. It can
cause damage to the aircraft's windscreen, wings, engines, or other parts.
  Extreme Weather Conditions

Airline operations and the functionality of aircraft components can be greatly

hampered by extreme weather conditions such low cloud, fog, rain, snowfall, frost, icing,
and heavy storms (such as thunderstorms and lighting). Extreme weather typically
results in decreased lift and thrust effect due to increased drag and weight. Icing and
lightning are two severe weather events that can have a negative impact on aviation.
Lightning strikes can inflict electrical system damage or even structural damage to an
aircraft, while icing can reduce lift and increase drag. Material with high resistance to
environmental factors, structures designed to withstand expected loads due to weather
conditions, avoiding exposure to severe weather whenever possible, and routine
inspection and maintenance of the aircraft structure to detect any signs of damage or
wear due to extreme weather conditions are all important for preventing damage from
occurring.

Lightning strikes can cause damage to an aircraft's electronics and fuel systems,
as well as structural damage to the exterior

Hail can cause dents and cracks in the aircraft's exterior, leading to potential
aerodynamic issues.
  Corrosion

Corrosion can cause structural damage, engine damage, propeller damage,

landing gear damage, hydraulic system damage, electrical system damage, fuel system
damage, and avionics system damage. Corrosion is the progressive breakdown of
metals as a result of their electrochemical reactions with their environments. It's a major
problem, especially for older planes, as it causes 25% of all failures in metallic parts.
Corrosion can affect any metal component of an airplane.

 Fatigue

Fatigue can cause structural damage, engine damage, propeller damage,

landing gear damage, hydraulic system damage, electrical system damage, fuel system
damage, and avionics system damage. Fatigue is the gradual and localized
deterioration and weakening of a structure due to repeated stress. Crack expansion is a
concern when working with metallic materials. Damage progression in fiber-reinforced
composites occurs in three stages: (a) the appearance of initial matrix cracks, (b) the
emergence and expansion of delamination, and (c) the buckling of delaminated regions
and further degradation leading to collapse.
  Wear

Wear is the steady loss of surface material as a result of mechanical activity

between mating surfaces. There are a number of causes for this, including wear and
tear from things like use and the weather. When aircraft wear is not taken into account
during design and maintenance, structural failure can occur. The use of wear-resistant
materials, the application of lubricants or coatings to reduce friction between surfaces,
the avoidance of abrasive conditions, and routine inspection and maintenance of the
aircraft's structure are all effective means of preventing wear.

 Creep

Creep can cause structural damage, engine damage, propeller damage, landing
gear damage, hydraulic system damage, electrical system damage, fuel system
damage, and avionics system damage. For metals, creep happens at elevated
temperatures and below the yield strength of the material, and it is characterized as the
slow visco-elastic and/or visco-plastic deformation growth of a material over time. There
are three levels to the creep process: initial, secondary, and tertiary. Aircraft structures
are vulnerable to failure if this deformation isn't taken into account during design and
maintenance. The use of high-temperature-resistant materials, avoidance of prolonged
exposure to high temperatures, and routine examination and maintenance of the aircraft
structure are all important measures for preventing creep.

 Design Flaws

Design defects in airplanes have the potential to cause catastrophic incidents,

including fatalities. Flaws in aircraft design might manifest as insufficient safety features,
structural weaknesses, or control system issues. These are defects related to the
design of the aircraft, such as problems with the aerodynamics, stability, or control of
the aircraft.

 Poor Material Choice

When it comes to airplanes, "poor material choice" refers to the usage of

components that aren't optimal for the plane's design and function. Materials that are
either too heavy, too weak, or not resistant to the weather conditions the airplane may
encounter are all examples of this.

The use of low-quality or inexpensive materials for essential plane parts like
engines and frames, or materials that easily corrode or melt under high temperatures,
are all examples of poor material choice. Reduced performance, more maintenance
needs, and even significant safety hazards are all possible outcomes of these
decisions.
 It is crucial to examine the needs of each component and choose materials that
are suitable for their specific application in order to avoid making a poor material choice
in aircraft. The factors of mass, strength, durability, and resistance to the elements must
all be taken into account. Furthermore, testing and analysis should be performed to
guarantee that the chosen materials are safe and up to par with all applicable norms
and requirements.

II. Properties of Aircraft Structural Metals

Hardness

This property refers to the resistibility to abrasion, penetration, cutting action and
distortion. It can be increased by cold working the metal and heat treatment on steel
and certain aluminum alloys. Structural parts are formed from soft state of metals then
heat treated in order to be hardened. Strength and hardness are almost associated
properties of metals.

Strength

It is the ability to resist deformation and the ability to resist stress without
breaking. The strength of the material is affected by the loads or stress.

Density

It is the weight of the unit volume of a material. In order to determine the weight
of the material is determined in weight per cubic inches. It is an important consideration
when choosing the material to be used in the design in order to maintain the proper
weight and balance of the aircraft.

Malleability
 This property involves in forming any shape of metal by hammering, rolling, and
pressing. This process shouldn’t involve cracking, breaking, or leaving some other
detrimental effect in order to be malleable. With malleability, this can form into cowlings,
fairings, and wingtips. Copper is an example of malleable metal.

Ductility

It is a property that permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into any

shapes without breaking. It is used for making wire and tubing. Due to their ease in
forming and resistance to failure under shock loads, ductile metals are greatly preferred
for aircraft use. Aluminum alloys are used to make cowl rings, fuselage, and wing skin
and formed such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads. Chrome molybdenum steel is an
example of ductile metal for shaping. Ductility is same as malleability.

Elasticity

It is the ability to return to its original size and shape when a force is applied. It is
a valuable property because it is unacceptable to have a part that is permanently
distorted. Every metal has an elastic limit where it cannot be loaded without causing any
damage. In the construction of an aircraft, the members and parts are made to
withstand any loads that won’t exceed their elastic limits.

Toughness

It is an ability to withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched without

breaking. It is a desirable property in aircraft in aircraft metals.

Brittleness

It is an ability to allow a little bend or deformation without shattering the metal. A

brittle metal can crack or break easily without change of shape. It is not a desirable
property because the structural metals are subjected to shock loads. Examples of brittle
metals are cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel.

Fusibility

It is the ability to turn into liquid by heat applied to the metal. The metals are
fused in welding. At 2,600 F, the steel fuse is melted and aluminum alloys are melted at
approximately 1,100 F.

Conductivity

It is ability of a metal to absorb heat and electricity. The heat conductivity is

important in welding for the amount of heat needed in proper fusion. Conductivity
determines the type of jig used to control expansion and construction. In aircraft, to
eliminate radio interference, electrical conductivity must be considered in conjunction.

Thermal Expansion

It is the property of metal that has the ability to contract or expand in reaction of
heating or cooling. Expansion of the metal is caused by applied heat. The heating and
cooling process affects the welding jigs, castings, and tolerances necessary for rolled
material.