1

Measuring Emotional Intelligence and its impact on Self-esteem and Happiness among

university students

By

Anum Ashraf

FA19E1BA019

Department of Applied Psychology

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

2023
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Measuring Emotional Intelligence and its impact on Self-esteem and Happiness among

University Students

By

Anum Ashraf

A Research Work Submitted to The Department of Applied Psychology

In Partial Foundation of The Requirement for The Degree Of BS Applied Psychology

2023
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Measuring Emotional Intelligence and its impact on Self-esteem and Happiness among

University Students

By

Anum Ashraf

FA19E1BA019

Approved by

___________________________

Supervisor

Prof. Dr. Masood Nadeem

__________________________

Chairman

____________________________

External Examiner
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Declaration

I declare that “Measuring Emotional Intelligence and its impact on Self-esteem and

Happiness among University Students” at the Islamia university of Bahawalpur is my own

work, that it has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university,

and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged as complete

reference and no part of the research has been plagiarized.

Anum Ashraf

FA19E1BA019
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Certificate

It is certified that this thesis entitled “Measuring Emotional Intelligence and its impact on

Self-esteem and Happiness among University Students” presented by Anum Ashraf has been

approved for submission to Department of Applied Psychology, The Islamia University of

Bahawalpur.

___________________

Prof. Dr. Masood Nadeem

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Chapter 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 10
1.1 Background of the study.......................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Statement of the problem......................................................................................................... 13
1.3 Objective of the study:..............................................................................................................13
1.4 Research questions:.................................................................................................................. 14
1.5 Introduction:............................................................................................................................. 14
2 Chapter 2 Literature Review........................................................................................................... 44
2.1 Emotional intelligence:.............................................................................................................44
2.2 Self-esteem:............................................................................................................................... 52
2.3 Happiness:................................................................................................................................. 56
3 Chapter 3 Methodology....................................................................................................................59
3.1 Participants:.............................................................................................................................. 59
3.2 Research Design:.......................................................................................................................59
3.3 Measures:.................................................................................................................................. 59
3.3.1 Informed consent.............................................................................................................. 59
3.3.2 Emotional Intelligence Scale:...........................................................................................61
3.3.3 Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale:.......................................................................................... 62
3.3.4 Subjective Happiness Scale:.............................................................................................64
3.3.5 Data Collection:................................................................................................................ 65
3.3.6 Analysis:............................................................................................................................ 65
3.3.7 Conclusion:........................................................................................................................66
4 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS..................................................................................................................67
4.1 Introduction:............................................................................................................................. 67
4.2 Descriptive statistics:................................................................................................................ 67
4.3 Correlation:...............................................................................................................................71
4.4 Regression:................................................................................................................................ 73
4.5 T-test:......................................................................................................................................... 74
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4.6 Reliability Analysis:..................................................................................................................76

5 Chapter: 05 Discussion.....................................................................................................................78
5.1 Conclusion:................................................................................................................................79
6 References..........................................................................................................................................81
Appendices................................................................................................................................................ 96
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Acknowledgement

Any achiever who gets success does know do so without acknowledgement and the support of

other people. I like to thanks to my most beloved parents for all their endless prayers and

support, without that I would not be able to achieve anything. Second, I like to express gratitude

towards my respective Supervisor Prof. Dr. Masood Nadeem and Co-Supervisor Miss Javeria

Saleem. Without their functioning I would not be able to complete this thesis.

Anum Ashraf
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Abstract

This study explores the relationship between emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness

among university students. Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to understand and

manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others. Self-esteem is a person's overall sense of

worth and happiness is the state of being content with one's life. The study involved a sample of

university students who completed self-report measures of emotional intelligence, self-esteem,

and happiness. Results showed that emotional intelligence was positively associated with both

self-esteem and happiness. The findings suggest that emotional intelligence is an important

predictor of psychological well-being among university students and could be incorporated into

educational programs to enhance emotional intelligence and promote positive outcomes such as

self-esteem and happiness.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness are three important psychological concepts

that have gained significant attention in recent years. Each concept has its unique history and

background, but they are all interconnected.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand and manage one's own

emotions, as well as the emotions of others. This concept was first introduced in the 1960s by

psychologists such as Edward Thorndike, who suggested that social intelligence was a crucial

aspect of successful human interactions. However, the term "emotional intelligence" gained

widespread popularity in the mid-1990s with the publication of Daniel Goleman's book,

Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. (Extremera, N., &

Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2006).

Self-esteem refers to an individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth or value. The

concept of self-esteem has its roots in the work of William James and Sigmund Freud, who both

emphasized the importance of self-evaluation in psychological health. However, it was the

pioneering work of Nathaniel Branden in the 1960s and 70s that popularized the concept of

self-esteem and highlighted its importance in personal growth and development. (Brown, J. D.,

& Marshall, M. A. (2001).

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Students with high self-esteem tend to be more motivated, resilient, and persistent, which can

lead to better academic performance. Conversely, students with low self-esteem may be more

likely to procrastinate, give up easily, and struggle academically. (Gecas, V. (1982).

Self-esteem can also impact the mental health of university students. Students with high

self-esteem tend to experience fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression, and are better able to

cope with stress and adversity. (Kernis, M. H. (2003).

In contrast, students with low self-esteem may be more vulnerable to mental health problems,

and may struggle to manage stress and negative emotions. It can also influence social

relationships in university. (Roberts, B. W. (2008). Students with high self-esteem tend to have

better social skills, make more friends, and have more satisfying relationships with others.

Conversely, students with low self-esteem may struggle to form social connections, and may feel

isolated and alone. (Salmela-Aro, K., Savolainen, H., & Holopainen, L. (2009).

Self-esteem can also impact career prospects after graduation. Students with high self-esteem

tend to be more confident and assertive, and are more likely to pursue career opportunities that

align with their goals and interests. (Rosenberg, M. (1965). In contrast, students with low

self-esteem may be more hesitant to pursue career opportunities, and may struggle to advocate

for themselves in the workplace.

Overall, self-esteem can have a significant impact on the experiences and outcomes of university

students. By developing healthy self-esteem, students can increase their chances of academic

success, positive mental health, satisfying social relationships, and successful career prospects.
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Happiness, on the other hand, is a broad concept that refers to a subjective experience of

well-being, contentment, and satisfaction. (Diener, E. (2000). The pursuit of happiness has been

a fundamental goal of human beings throughout history, and it has been a subject of study in

various disciplines, including philosophy, psychology, and economics. (Huang, C. (2010). In

recent years, the field of positive psychology has gained attention for its focus on understanding

the factors that contribute to happiness and well-being.

Happiness can have a significant impact on university students. Happiness can positively

influence academic performance in university. Students who are happier tend to be more

motivated, engaged, and persistent, which can lead to better academic performance. Conversely,

students who are unhappy may be more likely to procrastinate, give up easily, and struggle

academically. (Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005).

Students who are happier tend to experience fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression, and are

better able to cope with stress and adversity. In contrast, students who are unhappy may be more

vulnerable to mental health problems, and may struggle to manage stress and negative emotions.

Happiness can also influence social relationships in university. Students who are happier tend to

have better social skills, make more friends, and have more satisfying relationships with others.

Conversely, students who are unhappy may struggle to form social connections, and may feel

isolated and alone. (Mauss, I. B., Tamir, M., Anderson, C. L. (2011). Happiness can also impact

career prospects after graduation. Students who are happier tend to be more confident, assertive,

and proactive in pursuing career opportunities that align with their goals and interests. In

contrast, students who are unhappy may be more hesitant to pursue career opportunities, and may

struggle to advocate for themselves in the workplace. (Savino, N. S. (2011).

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Overall, happiness can have a significant impact on the experiences and outcomes of university

students. By cultivating happiness through activities such as exercise, socializing, and pursuing

hobbies, students can increase their chances of academic success, positive mental health,

satisfying social relationships, and successful career prospects.

1.2 Statement of the problem

According to Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, and De-Vries (2004), emotional intelligence self-esteem

and happiness influence a person's attitude, methods of doing things, reactions to events, and

relationships with others in addition to their physical and mental health.

Students utilize emotional intelligence, self-esteem and happiness to their advantage while

interacting with others and with their academic performance. A strong emotional intelligence and

high self-esteem, as stated by Baumeister; Campbell; Krueger and Vohs in 2003, also result in

healthier performances and amazing interpersonal success, which improves happiness and leads

to a healthier way of life.

Additionally, there is no benefit in disputing the reality that students with high self-esteem tend

to encourage, influence, and instigate good wellbeing in both academic performance and

interacting with others, Chris, Pais, Kumar, and Sisodia (2012) all had the same viewpoint. For

successful and efficient performance strong positive mental health behavior as demonstrated by

high self-esteem and emotional intelligence is essential.

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1.3 Objective of the study:

This study was conducted to measure the emotional intelligence and its impact on self-esteem

and happiness among university students.

1.4 Research questions:

1. What is the relationship among emotional intelligence, self-esteem and happiness among

university students?

2. Does emotional intelligence has influence on students’ self-esteem and happiness?

3. What are the factors that influence emotional intelligence, self-esteem and happiness?

1.5 Introduction:

Emotional Intelligence refers to the ability to identify, understand, and manage one's own

emotions, as well as to recognize and respond appropriately to the emotions of others. It is a set

of skills that can be developed over time, and has been shown to be an important factor in

personal and professional success.

The concept of emotional intelligence was first introduced by psychologists Peter Salovey and

John Mayer in the early 1990s, and popularized by author Daniel Goleman in his book

"Emotional Intelligence" published in 1995. According to Goleman, emotional intelligence is

comprised of five key components: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and

social skills.

Self-awareness involves recognizing and understanding one's own emotions and how they affect

thoughts and behaviors. Self-regulation involves managing and controlling one's own emotions
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and impulses. Motivation involves harnessing emotions to achieve personal goals. Empathy

involves recognizing and understanding the emotions of others, and social skills involve

effectively communicating and interacting with others.

Research has shown that individuals with high levels of emotional intelligence are more likely

to succeed in their personal and professional lives, as they are better able to navigate social

situations, form positive relationships, and manage stress and conflicts effectively.

The ability model of emotional intelligence focuses on a person's aptitude for perceiving

emotional information and applying this emotional information to abstract reasoning (Mayer &

Salovey, 1997).

The "abilities to perceive, appraise, and express emotion; to access and/or generate feelings when

they facilitate thought; to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and to regulate

emotions to promote emotional and intellectual development" are more specifically referred to as

emotional intelligence growth”. (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)

Recognizing Emotions is the ability model's initial branch. This section comprises a variety of

abilities, such as the capacity to recognize feelings, accurately express emotions, and distinguish

between genuine and artificial emotional expressions. The Emotional branch is the second

branch, Emotional Facilitation of Thought (or Using Emotions), includes. The ability to use

emotions to direct attention to important events, to create emotions that facilitate decision

making, to use mood swings as a way to consider multiple points of view, and to harness

different emotions to encourage different approaches to problem solving (for example, to use a

happy mood to assist in generating creative, new ideas) are all part of the branch known as

emotional facilitation of thought (or using emotions).

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Understanding emotions refers to the capacity to comprehend intricate feelings and emotional

"chains," how emotions change from one stage to another, how to identify the sources of

emotions, and how emotions relate to one another. Handling Emotions is the fourth branch of the

ability model. Being able to manage one's emotions entails being able to monitor them. Handling

Emotions is the fourth branch of the ability model.

The capacity to manage emotions comprises the capacity to remain conscious of one's feelings,

especially those that are unpleasant, the capacity to assess whether a feeling is genuine or

common, and the capacity to come up with solutions. without necessarily suppressing unpleasant

emotions, emotional issues. Some sources have given empirical data in favor of the four-branch

model (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; see also Roberts, Zeidner, & Matthews, 2001).

In a widely read book by Goleman, the term "emotional intelligence" was defined for both

laypeople and scientists (1995). Salovey and Mayer's first definition from 1990 served as the

foundation for Goleman's work; nevertheless, he added elements like zeal, persistence, and social

abilities. Due to this popularization, there are now many different perspectives on the topic,

ranging from the Mayer-Salovey ability-based conception to lists of competences (Goleman,

1998) to perspectives that emphasize psychological wellbeing (Bar-On, 1997).

We suggested two different concepts of emotional intelligence: an ability model and a mixed

model, in an effort to better understand the divergent approaches (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,

2000). Emotional intelligence is positioned within the realm of intelligence, where emotion and

thought interact in meaningful and adaptive ways. An emotional intelligence is seen as being

similar to Unlike verbal or spatial intelligence, emotional intelligence works with and on

emotional material.
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Mixed models combine multiple facets of personality in a way that is frequently theoretical.

Even though the model primarily excludes both emotion and intelligence, the resulting collection

of traits, dispositions, skills, competencies, and talents is known as emotional intelligence.

(Cavazotte, F., Moreno, V., & Hickmann, M. (2012).

Several approaches to measuring emotional intelligence have also emerged as a result of these

various frameworks. Self-report measures such as those developed by Bar-On (2007) or observer

ratings such as 360-degree evaluations have both operationalized mixed models (e.g., Boyatzis,

Goleman, & Rhee, 2000). Self-report measures have also been developed as part of the

ability-based approach (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995; Schutte et al., 1998).

Although we still think that such measures are useful, we think that tests of emotional

intelligence that focus on ability or performance best operationalize the concept as an

intelligence by having test participants solve emotional-related tasks. Based on the four-branch

ability model of emotional intelligence, we created the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale

(MEIS), a multitask, ability-based assessment of emotional intelligence. The MEIS contains

activities including analyzing faces and designs for emotions, creating and then using an emotion

to reason, defining complicated emotion terminology, and choosing the best emotional

decision-making approach (see, e.g., Mayer et al., 1999).

To separate the craze from the science, several researchers have taken a critical stance towards

the emotional intelligence area (e.g., Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998; Mayer et al., 2000;

Roberts et al., 2001). The most important questions seem to be whether emotional intelligence

can be operationalized, if trustworthy emotional intelligence tests can be developed, and whether

emotional intelligence is a concept. what emotional intelligence predicts and the amount of such

prediction; how to determine proper responses for such exams.

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Emotional intelligence is a relatively recent construct that can be distinguished from current

personality characteristic models. The reliability of the MEIS, its link to frequently evaluated

personality characteristics (discriminant validity), and its connection to specific (self-reported)

behaviors are all examined in this study in an effort to resolve some of these concerns

(convergent validity). The concept's operationalization and identification of what is objectively.

In other publications (Mayer et al., 1999; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001).

The capacity to identify emotions in ourselves and others, comprehend their consequences, and

apply this knowledge to inform our ideas and behaviors is known as emotional intelligence.

Comparatively speaking, emotionally intelligent people are more likely to succeed since they

typically get along with people better and are more sensitive and caring. And for that reason, it

makes sense to understand more about emotional intelligence. (Bratton, V. K., Dodd, N. G., &

Brown, F. (2011). 

You may achieve your academic and professional goals, strengthen your relationships, and

further your career and personal objectives by developing your emotional intelligence. Also, it

can support your ability to connect with your emotions, follow through on your aspirations, and

decide wisely about your own objectives. (Blattner, J., & Bacigalupo, A. (2007).

When we are self-conscious, we are aware of our abilities and limitations as well as how we

respond to different circumstances and others. This knowledge can assist us in establishing limits

and managing our interactions with others in a way that is true to who we are. Also, when we are

aware of who we are, we can communicate more effectively since we are better able to

comprehend others and what they might be seeking in a conversation. The ability to improve

ourselves and our lives in ways that are relevant to us is a result of self-awareness. (Gottfredson,

R. K., & Searle, T. P. (2014).

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The process of taking control of one's life and making choices that have an impact on oneself is

known as self-management. It is about taking charge of one's own health and being proactive.

Setting objectives, acting to accomplish them, and tracking progress are all parts of

self-management. It also entails being adaptive and flexible, changing plans as necessary to

achieve objectives. (Ashkanasy, N. M., & Daus, C. S. (2002).

Simply said, those who have empathy and compassion interact with others more effectively.

They are able to develop connections based on mutual respect and understanding because they

have the capacity to see things from other people's points of view. (Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R.

T. (2008). Since they can more readily relate to other people's feelings, those who have empathy

and compassion are better at offering consolation and assistance.

Finally, those who have empathy and compassion are more inclined to be altruistic and make

extra efforts to assist others. Those who have empathy and compassion are among the most

valued members of any society because of all of these characteristics. (Ashkanasy, N. M., &

Dasborough, M. T. (2009).

 While it used to appear that way, just because you enter an office building through a door does

not mean that you must check your emotions there before beginning work. In actuality, feelings

have always been there in the job, but they had to be restrained and individuals had to pretend

they didn't feel anything while they were working. (Leutner, F., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T.

(2011).

Yet these days, we are acknowledging the advantages of letting emotions at work. And because

of how the workplace has changed, emotional intelligence is more important than it formerly

was. For one thing, we now work mostly in teams rather than alone, and clever businesses are
 20

learning that acknowledging emotions may result in healthier workplaces. (Castro, F., Gomes, J.,

& de Sousa, F. C. (2012).

It's not a free-for-all of emotions by any means, but individuals are more likely to be conscious

of their own and other people's emotions and respond appropriately. In our rapidly changing

digital age, being more adaptive to change is crucial, thus those with higher emotional

intelligence tend to be as well. (Camuffo, A., Gerli, F., & Gubitta, P. (2012).

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a propensity where people are likely to be able to discern, assess,

and deal with their own and others' emotional states in order to accomplish specific objectives.

(Fox and Spector, 2000; Choudary, 2010). According to Mayer et al. (2000), emotional

intelligence (EI) was a zeitgeist that included a collection of psychological characteristics and a

set of skills for processing associated emotional data. The word "zeitgeist" also denoted the

synthesis of people's feelings.

"Emotional self-assessment," "self-expression assessment," "identification of others' emotions

for emotional self-regulation," and "the use of emotions to facilitate performance" were the four

components that made up the cognitive framework of emotional intelligence (EI). (Mohammad

et al., 2009). People's cognitive processes can be adjusted by emotions, enabling them to reason

logically, and emotional intelligence (EI) enables people to be able to recognise and distinguish

between different feelings. (Prati et al., 2003). In other words, EI equips people with the skills to

successfully balance their feelings and reason. (Mayer et al., 2000).

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the capacity to embrace one's emotions and use them to inform

choices about oneself and others. (Karimi et al., 2014; Vidyarthi et al., 2014). It also alludes to

the capacity for empathy, the ability to manage one's urgent needs, and the constructive use of
 21

one's emotions. (Karimi et al., 2014; Vidyarthi et al., 2014). EI, according to Goleman et al.

(2013), also includes a person's capacity to control their feelings and impulses under pressure,

including when they feel like a failure, depressed, or frustrated.

Students must develop their social and emotional skills in addition to their academic information

in order to generate successful learning opportunities in the classroom. (Amirian and Behshad,

2016). EI has been linked to success in a variety of areas, including instructional effectiveness

(Ghanizadeh and Moafian, 2009), student learning (Brackett and Mayer, 2003), and scholastic

accomplishment (Márquez et al., 2006; Fallahzadeh, 2011).

Additionally, empirical study demonstrated a favorable correlation between EI, scholastic

success, and other learning-supportive emotional and cognitive traits. According to Shamradloo's

(2004) study, emotional intelligence is a better predictor of scholastic success than cognitive

intelligence. Due to this, it is advantageous to research students' emotional intelligence in order

to support their scholastic success.

People with poor self-efficacy and EI might find it challenging to finish their everyday tasks in a

timely manner. (Rostami et al., 2010). Serious worry also plays a part in the performance decline,

which lowers self-efficacy. As a consequence, those with high EI are able to control their

feelings and take initiative in solving issues. Emotional intelligence affects crucial job outcomes

as well as one's capacity to regulate self-efficacy through causal thinking. (Gundlach et al.,

2003).

Both Chan (2007) and Mikolajczak and Luminet (2007) discovered that those with high EI also

exhibited greater levels of self-efficacy. However, more research is required to determine which

EI components are more crucial in showing the shifts in self-efficacy. (Shipley et al., 2010).
 22

Self-efficacy and emotional intelligence are linked in SCT (Bandura, 1997; Gundlach et al.,

2003), and emotional intelligence influences self-efficacy. (Mikolajczak and Luminet, 2007;

Hamdy et al., 2014; Gurbuz et al., 2016).

Our emotional and bodily health appear to depend on our sense of self-worth. Research has

shown that it enhances success in specific areas, like schooling, and more generally has a

beneficial effect on our physical and mental health as well as our social approval. (Jordan et al.,

2017). Low self-esteem is a risk factor for mental health concerns and a diagnosis indicator for a

number of mental health conditions. (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Despite societal differences, people who have greater levels of self-esteem tend to be happier,

more satisfied, and less moody. (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003). Physical

well-being is correlated with higher self-esteem. On the other hand, low self-esteem may result

in worse bodily health and a slower rate of recovery from sickness. (Stinson et al., 2008).

The association may be explained by the fact that people with poor self-esteem are less likely to

practice healthy behaviors like exercising and going to checkups. Another fundamental human

need, to establish effective relationships and belong to a group in order to increase our chances of

survival, may be the source of our need for self-esteem. (Workman & Reader, 2015).

Working together increased our chances of surviving in the environments where we developed.

The theory also explains why social approval input from others has a big impact on how we see

ourselves. (Yang et al., 2016). According to the theory, we create world perspectives to give our

lives stability and purpose. As a result, having high self-esteem depends on upholding the

requirements set forth by our professed beliefs or religious teaching.

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The hypothesis does seem to explain why people with high levels of self-esteem have lower

levels of generalized worry. Although it isn't a proven theory, it's possible that having high

self-esteem can shield our emotional health from setbacks. (Brown, 2010). Higher self-esteem

individuals have more psychic resources and, as a result, feel better about themselves than

individuals with lesser self-esteem. Someone with greater self-esteem is more favorable across

more areas.

According to research, the majority of our mentality and sentiments of self-worth are

environmental; approximately 50% of these traits are hereditary. (Horsburgh, Schermer, Veselka,

& Vernon, 2009; Svedberg, Hallsten, Narusyte, Bodin, & Blom, 2016; Bleidorn et al., 2018). It is

a crucial difference, even though the precise nature of the genetic impact or the breakup of the

most major environmental factors is still unknown.

Even though there is still much to learn about the history of self-esteem and how it is passed

down through families, our brains are unquestionably where it is stored. But the precise location

and method are still unknown. Though there is still much to learn, research is starting to unravel

some connections between self-esteem and the brain.

A 2016 study that appeared in Nature used functional M.R.I. to examine pupils' brains and

discovered relationships between neural activity and trait self-esteem. Additionally, it discovered

that the neural activity in reaction to self-evaluation appears to be modulated by the self-esteem

characteristic. (Yang et al., 2016). More recent research revealed that the conversion of a person's

subjective perception of image into state self-esteem involves particular brain areas. (Kawamichi

et al., 2018).
 24

High amounts of intrinsic work values in adolescence are associated with positive feelings in

maturity, according to a 2020 research that examined data from over 23 years. Notably, intrinsic

job ideals in youth and maturity are also linked, over time, to higher levels of self-esteem. Adults

may endeavour to learn new things, acquire new skills, and improve abilities. (Fukasawa,

Watanabe, Nishi, & Kawakami, 2020).

It should come as no news that intrinsic drive and self-esteem are related. Since intrinsic

motivation is associated with both physical and mental health, it is aided by satisfying the

fundamental psychological requirements of relatedness, autonomy, and competence, according to

the Self-Determination Theory. (Ryan & Deci, 2018).

Social media websites are incredibly popular and provide a window into the lives of celebrities,

friends, family, and coworkers through their penned words, views, and photos. However,

legitimate worries about their impact on mental health and wellness keep coming up.

In fact, the ubiquitous practice of taking selfies among young women (and numerous other

groups) seems to be associated with greater levels of self-objectification and poorer self-esteem.

(Veldhuis, Alleva, Bij de Vaate, Keijer, & Konijn, 2018).

According to study, anxiety about one's body image is a common cause of emotional distress in

women and is closely related to one's sense of self-worth. The higher the physical dissatisfaction,

the weaker the feelings of self-worth. However, research indicates that some negative feelings

can be transcended with self-compassion. (Stapleton, Crighton, Carter, & Pidgeon, 2017).

In fact, 2017 research found that those who participated in a self-compassion and self-esteem

writing group had increased bodily appreciation. (Seekis, Bradley, & Duffy, 2017). Enhancing

self-compassion may implicitly increase our self-esteem and impression of how we appear while
 25

lowering our distress when we have a negative self-perception. In the long run, altering our

views will improve how we view ourselves.

Human virtues and good psychological traits have drawn a lot of attention since the advent of

positive psychology. Researchers have concentrated on "engagement," the favourable alternative

to burnout, which is described as a positive, satisfying state of mind linked to work and is

characterised by vigor, devotion, and absorption. (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). The term

"academic engagement" broadens the definition of "engagement" and describes the extent to

which students participate in coursework and other learning activities connected to their official

education. (George, 2009).

According to existing research, high academic engagement fosters academic success (Johnson

and Sinatra, 2013), benefits students' physical and emotional health (Wefald and Downey, 2009),

increases their capacity for school adjustment (Wang and Fredricks, 2014), and decreases their

likelihood of dropping out of school. (Fan and Williams, 2010).

Contrarily, poor teenage academic involvement can result in academic failure, pulling out of

school, substance misuse, youth crime, and an increase in unfavorable feelings like worry and

melancholy. (Leslie et al., 2010; Li and Lerner, 2011). According to Blackwell et al. (2007),

adolescence is a delicate and crucial stage of growth during which teenagers must balance a

heavy workload at school with adjusting to profound physical and psychological changes.

Some young people regularly experience unfavorable feelings like worry and sadness. (Sahin,

2014). Exam-focused education is a significant issue in the Chinese educational system. There is

a lot of utilitarian consciousness about how the present educational system is violating the
 26

essence of education, and the standard of educational assessment is one that uses scores as the

only standard. (Wang, 2004).

Academic achievement in adolescents is thought to be a crucial sign of their capacity for

learning. (Christenson et al., 2012). Academic engagement can accurately predict students'

current academic performance and also influence their future functional growth, according to

research on psychological factors that influence academic performance other than classroom

teaching and learning methods (Hershberger and Jones, 2018). (Fredricks et al., 2016).

Upon reviewing the pertinent literature, we discovered that the majority of the studies on

scholastic involvement have been conducted on college students. It has concentrated on aspects

of the classroom environment like the teacher-student relationship and peer relationships (Yang

and Lamb, 2014; Fredericks et al., 2004), as well as aspects of the family environment like

family socioeconomic status and family support (Randolph et al., 2006). (Blondal and

Adalbjarnardottir, 2014).

There hasn't been much study on the connection between personal traits and scholastic

engagement. (Li and Li, 2021). Although study has shown that self-esteem and self-efficacy have

an effect on scholastic involvement, neither the relative contributions of these two factors nor the

combined effect of these two factors have been established. Additionally, there is a dearth of

study on the controlling factors of scholastic engagement.

In order to improve adolescent academic engagement and aid adolescents in navigating the

delicate and crucial stage of adolescence, it is necessary to fully consider the supportive

resources of family, school, and society. This includes examining the influence of psychological

factors that regulate or intervene in adolescents' academic engagement. The assessment of a

 27

person's attitudes and ideas about his or her capabilities and ideals is known as self-esteem.

(Rosenberg, 1965).

Because of all the shifts in the teenagers' duties and obligations during adolescence, self-esteem

is often unstable. Early puberty is when self-esteem tends to drop, and it usually rises in the

middle and later years. (Trzesniewski et al., 2003). Adolescents with high levels of self-esteem

frequently have good self-experiences, excellent interpersonal interactions, and improved

physical and mental health (Peng et al., 2019; Cameron and Granger, 2019). (Li et al., 2010).

People's identities, capacities, and potential are determined by the opinions and judgements they

have of themselves. (Burns, 1982). These potent interior forces act as an internal compass,

leading and nurturing people through life and dictating their behavior. Self-concept and

self-esteem are terms used to describe how people feel and perceive themselves. These, along

with their capacity to handle life's difficulties and exert control over their circumstances, are

extensively discussed in literature. (Seligman, 1975; Bandura, 1977; Bowlby, 1980; Rutter, 1992;

Harter, 1999).

The sum of a person's views and information about his or her own characteristics and traits is

known as self-concept. It is categorized as a cognitive schema that organizes both abstract and

tangible perspectives of the self and regulates how information about the self is processed.

(Markus, 1977; Kihlstrom and Cantor, 1983). Self-concept is analogous to other ideas like

self-image and self-perception. Self-esteem, which is equated with self-regard, self-estimation,

and self-worth, is the subjective and emotional component of the self-concept. (Harter, 1999).

It pertains to an individual's overall assessment of his or her worth, whether positive or negative,

based on the ratings they assign themselves in various roles and spheres of life. (Rogers, 1981;
 28

Markus and Nurius, 1986). In addition to being viewed as a fundamental component of mental

health, good self-esteem is also seen as a protective factor that, by acting as a buffer against the

effects of negative influences, promotes improved health and positive social behavior.

As seen in aspects of life like accomplishments, success, happiness, and the capacity to combat

illnesses like cancer and heart disease, it is thought to actively support healthy functioning. On

the other hand, a shaky self-concept and low self-esteem can significantly contribute to the

emergence of a wide range of mental illnesses and societal issues, including anxiety, bulimia,

bulimia nervosa, depression, violence, drug abuse, and high-risk behaviors.

These conditions not only cause a great deal of emotional suffering for affected individuals, but

they also place a heavy load on society. As will be demonstrated, prospective studies have

emphasized both high self-esteem and poor self-esteem as risk and mitigating factors. In

conclusion, since self-esteem is thought to influence both bodily and mental health, it should be a

major emphasis of health promotion, especially mental health promotion.

Self-esteem is a psychological component that has received significant attention in empirical

research over the past 15 years, and it is one that affects health and quality of life. (Evans, 1997).

Recent research has demonstrated that perceived well-being strongly corresponds with high

self-esteem and that there is a significant relationship between self-esteem and both mental and

emotional well-being. (Zimmerman, 2000).

Happiness has been found to be most strongly and consistently predicted by self-esteem.

(Furnham and Cheng, 2000). Positive self-esteem, internal norms, and goals do appear to

actively add to "well-being," in contrast to low self-esteem's detrimental effects on adjustment.

 29

(Garmezy, 1984; Glick and Zigler, 1992). Self-concept, personality, and self-esteem are among

the essential components of mental wellness, according to Tudor (Tudor, 1996).

There is a strong correlation between scholastic success and self-esteem, according to numerous

studies. (Marsh and Yeung, 1997; Filozof et al., 1998; Hay et al., 1998). Positive self-esteem has

been shown to improve children's confidence and scholastic success during the formative years

(Coopersmith, 1967), and it is a predictor of academic success, such as reading proficiency.

(Markus and Nurius, 1986). Children with strong self-esteem have better cognitive aptitudes,

according to the findings of a longitudinal survey among elementary school students. (Adams,

1996).

Additionally, studies have shown a connection between fundamental self-evaluations assessed in

early adulthood and childhood and work happiness in middle age. (Judge et al., 2000). Studies on

stress and/or physical illness make the protective nature of self-esteem especially clear because

they demonstrate how it can shield a person from anxiety and doubt. Observations of those who

are permanently sick show this.

It has been discovered that having a companion and many close connections, along with a

higher sense of control, effectiveness, and high self-esteem, all have direct protective impacts on

the onset of melancholy symptoms in the terminally sick. (Penninx et al., 1998). Self-esteem has

also been demonstrated to improve a person's capacity to deal with illness and post-operative

mortality.

According to research (Broers et al., 1998) on pre-transplant psychological factors and longevity

following bone marrow transplantation, having a high level of self-esteem before operation is

associated with a prolonged life. Chang and Mackenzie (Chang and Mackenzie, 1998)
 30

discovered that a patient's degree of self-esteem was a reliable indicator of how well they would

recover functionally from a stroke.

Erikson (Erikson, 1968) first proposed his theory on the phases of psychosocial development in

children, teenagers, and adults, which included a notion for the evolving character of self-esteem.

As long as the process of identity crystallization is ongoing, people are preoccupied with their

self-esteem and self-concept, according to Erikson. If this negotiation process is unsuccessful,

the person will stay perplexed and unsure of who they truly are. Identity issues include

ambiguity, dispersion.

This is a two-way process, as people who have high self-esteem are better able to internalize

others' favorable perceptions of them. For instance, Garber and Flynn (Garber and Flynn, 2001)

discovered in their prospective study of young adolescents that low maternal acceptance, a

maternal history of depression, and exposure to negative interpersonal contexts, such as negative

parenting practices, an early history of child maltreatment, negative feedback from significant

others on one's competence, and family strife and disruption, all contribute to the development of

low self-worth.

Disparities between competing aspects of the self, such as between the ideal and the actual self,

particularly in areas of significance, are other causes of low self-esteem. The greater the gap

between a child's assessment of a competency area and their perception of their own ability in

that area, the poorer their sense of self-worth. (Harter, 1999).

The self as perceived by oneself and the self as perceived by important others may also differ.

This may allude to contrasts between self-perceived skills and the absence of parental or peer

support, as Harter (Harter, 1999) suggested. Last but not least, children's cognitive, inferential
 31

processes that involve observation and evaluation of their own behaviors and competencies in

particular areas may lead to both negative and positive sentiments of self-worth.

The lower their opinion of their abilities, particularly when compared to those of their peers or

the expectations of important others, the lower their self-esteem. A learned propensity for

negative or optimistic thoughts can unfavorably or positively bias such self-monitoring

processes. (Seligman et al., 1995). Negative self-esteem can have a wide range of effects. A

downward spiral of self-appreciation brought on by low self-esteem can lead to risky behaviors,

self-defeating attitudes, and mental susceptibility.

The research literature emphasizes how poor self-esteem has harmful consequences. However,

there is conflicting evidence regarding the direct links between low self-esteem and issues or

illnesses across a number of studies. (Flay and Ordway, 2001). According to clinical research,

poor self-esteem is linked to sad emotions, depressive disorders, despair, suicidal thoughts, and

attempts at suicide (Patterson and Capaldi, 1992; Rice et al., 1998; Dori and Overholser, 1999).

(Overholser et al., 1995). Studies of correlation have repeatedly revealed a substantial inverse

connection between depression and self-esteem. (Beck et al., 1990; Patton, 1991).

Individual assessments of occurrences were found by Campbell et al. (Campbell et al., 1991) to

be directly linked to their self-esteem. Subjects with low self-esteem gave less importance to

good everyday events and more to bad past events than subjects with high self-esteem. In order

to reinforce their optimistic self-image, people with high self-esteem made more consistent and

global mental attributions for positive events than for negative events.

However, subjects with poor self-esteem were more likely to attribute positive events to outside

forces and chance and bad events to steady and general internal attributions. (Campbell et al.,
 32

1991). A growing amount of research shows that people with poor self-esteem are more likely to

report being depressed and that there is a connection between aspects of attributional style,

self-esteem, and depression. (Abramson et al., 1989; Hammen and Goodman-Brown, 1990).

Prospective studies provide some evidence for the causative function of self-esteem. Low

self-esteem in early maturity (Wilhelm et al., 1999), puberty (Teri, 1982), and infancy (Reinherz

et al., 1993), has been found to be a significant predictor of depression in later life. When

cumulative stress, social support, and self-esteem were added later in the regression analysis,

Shin (Shin, 1993) discovered that of the latter two, only self-esteem accounted for substantial

extra variance in melancholy.

Additionally, Brown et al. (Brown et al., 1990) demonstrated that high self-esteem can serve as a

buffer even though it is closely linked to a lack of social support. There seems to be a connection

between failing to meet personal standards, poor self-esteem, and depression. (Harter, 1986,

1990; Higgins, 1987, 1989; Baumeister, 1990). As an alternative, another research found that

when analyzing the impact of life events and problems, total stress interacted with poor

self-esteem to forecast depression, whereas self-esteem alone had no significant effect. (Miller et

al., 1989).

In conclusion, findings from cross-sectional and longitudinal research have demonstrated that

melancholy is predicted by poor self-esteem. The importance of Seligman's new work on

"positive psychology" is underscored by the possibly harmful effects of poor self-esteem in

depressive disorders. According to his study, educating kids to confront their pessimistic ideas

while fostering optimistic subjective thinking (and boosting self-esteem) can lower their risk of

developing pathologies like melancholy. (Seligman, 1995; Seligman et al., 1995; Seligman and

Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
 33

Although melancholy and low self-esteem are commonly linked, eating disorders and other

internalizing illnesses have also been linked to low self-esteem. According to research,

self-esteem is negatively linked with worry and other symptoms of emotional and bodily distress.

(Beck et al., 2001). Ginsburg et al. (Ginsburg et al., 1998), for instance, found that adolescents

with severe social anxiety had poor self-esteem.

It has been demonstrated that the desire of self-esteem acts as a protective avoidance mechanism

against fundamental human worries, buffering anxiety at its core. Research with elementary

(Ginsburg et al., 1998) and secondary school students has revealed this method of defense.

(Fickova, 1999). Additionally, empirical studies have demonstrated that raising individuals'

self-esteem lowers anxiousness. (Solomon et al., 2000).

Studies on eating disorders plainly demonstrate the crucial function of self-esteem during the

school years. At this point of life, identification becomes entwined with weight, body type, and

dieting habits. Low self-esteem has been linked to the emergence of eating disorders in female

schoolchildren and teenagers, according to researchers (Fisher et al., 1994; Smolak et al., 1996;

Shisslak et al., 1998). (Vohs et al., 2001).

According to a recent 4-year prospective follow-up research among teenage in-patients with

bulimic traits, low self-esteem also appears to be a predictor of the poor result of therapy in such

disorders. (Van der Ham et al., 1998). Programs that use the enhancement of self-esteem as the

primary preventive strategy in eating disorders have arisen as a result of the substantial impact

that self-esteem has on body image. (St Jeor, 1993; Vickers, 1993; Scarano et al., 1994).

Self-esteem has been cited by numerous academics as a crucial element in crime prevention,

rehabilitation, and behavioral change despite the fact that the reasons of such behaviors are
 34

numerous and complicated. (Kressly, 1994; Gilbert, 1995). Low self-esteem was one of the main

risk factors for problematic behavior in a new longitudinal questionnaire survey of high school

students. (Jessor et al., 1998).

Recent research confirms that having a high sense of self-worth is substantially linked to less

violence (Fleming et al., 1999; Horowitz, 1999), whereas having a low sense of self-worth is

strongly linked to both violence and group participation. (Schoen, 1999). Children who

participated in bullying in Ireland as bullies, victims, or both had substantially lower self-esteem

than other kids, according to the findings of a countrywide research on the subject. (Schoen,

1999).

It has been discovered that adolescents who lack self-esteem are more likely to engage in

criminal activity. Interestingly, after engaging in delinquent conduct, these teenagers' self-esteem

was favorably correlated with delinquency. (Schoen, 1999). Participating in delinquent behavior

with other juvenile peers can boost children's self-esteem and feeling of connection, according to

Kaplan's self-derogation theory of delinquency (Kaplan, 1975).

Additionally, it was discovered that those who exhibit narcissism and exceptionally high levels

of self-esteem have greater propensities for expressing rage and aggression. (Baumeister et al.,

2000). To sum up, violent behavior is linked with low self-esteem. Low self-esteem is a risk

factor for the emergence of problem behavior, even though the majority of research in the fields

of aggressive behavior, aggression, and delinquency are correlational. It's interesting to note that

the emergence of aggressive behaviors is correlated with both poor and high self-esteem.

According to Muha (Muha, 1991), poor self-esteem can cause issues with social functioning and

school dropout while positive self-image and self-esteem help to competent functioning in
 35

infancy and youth. Such problematic behaviors may have significant social repercussions for the

person as well as the larger society.

Numerous protection initiatives have lowered the dropout rate of vulnerable pupils. (Alice, 1993;

Andrews, 1999). Self-esteem is emphasized in each of these programmed as a key component in

preventing dropouts. Self-esteem has an effect on risky behavior as well as bodily wellbeing.

Rouse (Rouse, 1998) found that resilient adolescents were less likely to engage in a range of

risky behaviors and had better self-esteem than their non-resilient classmates.

Self-esteem that is high is thought to be protective against drug addiction. Teenagers who have

more favorable self-concepts are less likely to use drugs or alcohol (Carvajal et al., 1998),

whereas those who have poor self-esteem are more likely to abuse drugs, alcohol, and tobacco.

(Crump et al., 1997; Jones and Heaven, 1998).

Among homeless ethnic-minority women overcoming drug abuse, lower self-esteem was also

linked to sexual risk-taking and sharing of syringes. (Nyamathi, 1991). In contrast to solitary

women whose companions used condoms, Abel (Abel, 1998) found that lone females whose

partners did not use condoms had reduced self-esteem. Low self-esteem was one of the variables

that made it challenging to decrease sexual risk behavior in research of homosexual and/or

bisexual men. (Paul et al., 1993).

Happiness is typically defined as the good feelings we experience in relation to the enjoyable

activities we engage in on a daily basis. Positive feelings like pleasure, comfort, gratitude,

optimism, and inspiration are a few instances of how to make us happier and inspire us to thrive.

Hedonic (Ryan & Deci, 2001), the existence of positive feelings and the lack of negative

emotions, is the term used to describe contentment in scholarly writing.

 36

In a broader sense, human flourishing is composed of both hedonic and eudemonic principles,

about which a vast body of literature exists and which characterize our individual meaning and

purpose in life. (Ryan & Deci, 2001). People from all countries consider their subjective

well-being to be more significant than their material achievement and the most essential aspect

of their lives. (Diener, 2000).

Positive results are frequently associated with subjective well-being, such as excellent health

and job performance. (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). Additionally, it appears that

subjective well-being not only tracks life occurrences but also has a direct impact on the

accomplishment of goals. There is a need for additional study to look into the factors that

contribute to this essential construct's determinants because its origins are currently only just

starting to be known.

Numerous studies have demonstrated a relationship between subjective well-being and the

Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality, particularly the domains of neuroticism, extraversion,

and conscientiousness. These studies also demonstrated that, despite the fact that personality

does not entirely encompass subjective well-being, the two constructs are consistently correlated.

(DeNeve & Cooper, 1998).

A number of reasonable psychological processes have been put forth to explain the connection

between personality and subjective well-being. For instance, some scholars have highlighted the

functions of Extraversion and Neuroticism in incentive and punishment systems, respectively

(Cantor & Sanderson, 1999; Carver & Scheier, 1990). Others have suggested that the connection

results from personality's secondary, instrumental impacts on the events a person has. (McCrae &

Costa, 1991).
 37

Political and economic variables, as well as significant life events, are also linked to subjective

well-being; however, the impacts of these factors leave a large portion of the variation in

subjective well-being unaccounted for. (See Diener, Lucas, & Scollon, 2006, for a review).

According to results from numerous personality studies, genetic influences account for about

50% of the variation in the FFM domains (Bouchard & Loehlin, 2001), and it also indicates that

variance in psychological well-being is relatively heritable.

In a seminal twin study using the Multiphasic Personality Questionnaire's Well-Being scale,

Lykken and Tellegen (1996) discovered that nonadditive gene-gene interaction effects accounted

for about half of the variance in well-being and that twins' shared environmental factors did not

result in more similar levels of happiness.

However, this research discovered proof for genetic impacts that are additive rather than

nonadditive. These personality and emotional well-being research produced little proof of the

common environment's influence. The studies' estimates of environmental effects are likely

conservative, though, because they ''transact'' with genetic variations and produce complicated

effects that are not visible in the primary (average) effects (Johnson, 2007).

As we've already mentioned, there have been some suggested neural links between personality

and emotional well-being. As is the case with Neuroticism and melancholy (Kendler, Gardner,

Gatz, & Pedersen, 2007; Kendler, Gatz, Gardner, & Pedersen, 2006), one reason for the

relationship between personality and subjective well-being that has not been investigated is that.

There may be a genetic link between disposition and psychological well-being. In the research

described here, we examined this theory in a sizable representative group of American adult

twins.
 38

We proposed that the genetic makeup of the FFM completely accounts for the heritable

component of psychological well-being. This theory suggests that the genetic and environmental

models of subjective well-being may be defined in terms of personality, which, if confirmed,

would offer significant insights for theories of subjective well-being.

People want a lot of useful things in life, but they want pleasure more than anything else.

(Diener, 2000). People's perceived wellbeing in both ideas and emotions has been described as

their sense of contentment. (Diener, 2000; Kahneman and Krueger, 2006). In fact, well-being

study indicates a link between high levels of pleasure and resources prized by society, such as

good mental health (Koivumaa-Honkanen et al., 2004) and a long life (Danner et al., 2001).

The way that people perceive the quality of their lives in three different but connected mental

aspects—frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and cognitive assessments of life

satisfaction in various domains—has been referred to as subjective well-being since the earliest

studies. (Diener, 1984, 1994, 2000; Argyle et al., 1999; Diener et al., 1999; Lyubomksky et al.,

2005; Pressman and Cohen, 2005).

Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the variables that influence happiness,

operationalized as psychological well-being. The concept of happiness is specifically researched

primarily in the areas of positive psychology or meditative practices, which are based on age-old

wisdom traditions. According to Sheldon and King (2001), positive psychology is "the scientific

study of human strengths and virtues," and its roots can be found in Aristotle's thoughts on

various viewpoints on wellbeing. (Ryan and Deci, 2001).

On the other hand, contemplative practices involve a wide range of mental exercises, including

mindfulness, which is conceptualized as a form of awareness that arises from witnessing the
 39

current instant without passing judgement on those experiences. (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Bishop et

al., 2004). The majority of these meditation techniques come from various Buddhist meditative

styles like Vipassana and Mahayana. (Kornfield, 2012).

Notably, both viewpoints emphasize conquering pain and finding pleasure. (Seligman, 2002).

Buddhism encourages "the cultivation of happiness, true inner transformation, deliberately

choosing and focusing on positive mental states," in particular. (Lama and Cutler, 2008).

Additionally, it has been demonstrated that mindfulness increases both eudemonic and hedonic

well-being (Shultz and Ryan, 2015). (Howell et al., 2011). In actuality, despite the fact that

intellectual debates and the pursuit of practical knowledge have a long history with the meaning

of happiness, hedonism has come to be associated with happiness in contemporary times.

It depends on obtaining instant enjoyment, avoiding negative effects, and having a high level of

life happiness. (Argyle et al., 1999). However, academics now contend that genuine subjective

well-being transcends this constrained perspective and supports the idea that pursuing pleasure is

a eudemonic activity. (Ryff, 1989; Keyes, 2006; Seligman, 2011; Hone et al., 2014).

Within this perspective, people appear to place a greater emphasis on having the best possible

psychological health, leading profoundly fulfilling lives, realizing their own potential, personal

development, and a feeling of liberty. (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Ryff, 2013; Vazquez and Hervas,

2013; Ivtzan et al., 2016).

Such a viewpoint has support in psychology from Maslow's (1981) theory of human drive,

among other sources. Maslow claimed that a healthier way of living results in a higher level of

happiness. According to Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs, when people's most basic
 40

and localized requirements are met, they are then able to fully and deeply feel happiness due to

the highest level's limitless satisfaction. (Inglehart et al., 2008).

Therefore, a number of academics today contend that high levels of psychological well-being

require a multi-dimensional viewpoint that takes into account both hedonic and eudemonic

components. (Huta and Ryan, 2010; Ryff and Boylan, 2016). In a broader context, the process of

cultivating well-being represents the idea that mental health and optimal performance go beyond

the absence of disease. (Keyes, 2005).

This method is particularly clear when we consider that the World Health Organization (1948)

even redefined what mental health is, viewing it as a condition of complete bodily,

psychological, and social well-being rather than simply the lack of disease. There is currently

data to support the idea that happiness is, to some degree, trainable and modifiable. Therefore,

straightforward cognitive and behavioral techniques that people adopt in their daily activities

may increase pleasure. (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009).

A wide range of therapeutic interventions have been used throughout psychology history to

lessen the symptoms of a number of conditions that could prevent people from experiencing

happiness, such as rage, anxiety, and melancholy. (For instance, see Forman et al., 2007;

Spinhoven et al., 2017). In contrast to this viewpoint, a different and less developed one that can

be found in psychology emphasizes the scientific study of unique experiences and positive

characteristics for personal growth and thriving rather than for therapeutic purposes. (e.g.,

Fredrickson and Losada, 2005; Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009).

Given its intricacy and significance, the issue of precisely how to promote subjective well-being

and pleasure is still up for debate. Of course, the answer to this issue is crucial, both for each
 41

person and for society as a whole. Simple, self-administered cognitive behavioral techniques are

included in positive psychology interventions. They are meant to mirror people's views and

behaviors and, as a result, to make them happier. (Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009; Hone et al.,

2015).

Particularly, a number of thorough psychiatric interventions to increase happiness are available,

including Fordyce's programmed (Fordyce, 1977), Well-Being Therapy (Fava, 1999), and

Quality of Life Therapy. (Frisch, 2006). Similar to this, numerous meditation-based programs,

including awareness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1990) and Mindfulness-Based

Cognitive Therapy, seek to cultivate emotional control and awareness (Carmody and Baer, 2008;

Fredrickson et al., 2008; Weytens et al., 2014). (MBCT; Teasdale et al., 2000).

These mindfulness-based interventions are not just a fad (De Pisapia and Grecucci, 2017), as

they have been demonstrated to improve wellbeing across a number of domains, including

cognition, consciousness, self, and affective processing (Baer et al., 2006; Keng et al., 2011;

Choi et al., 2012; Coo and Salanova, 2018; Lambert et al., 2019).

Typically, mindfulness programmed combine structured and informal exercises to train focus and

increase a person's ability to deal with unexpected and/or unpleasant ideas and experiences.

(Segal and Teasdale, 2002). In this setting, people are progressively exposed to meditation

techniques, beginning by concentrating on their own bodies and breathing before moving on to

their thoughts and mental states.

The results of these programmed include a decrease in emotional reactivity to negative affect,

stress, and aggressive behavior (Arch and Craske, 2006; Grecucci et al., 2015; Calabrese and

Raffone, 2017); positive emotions and reappraisal; and life satisfaction (Fredrickson et al., 2008;
 42

Kong et al., 2014). (Fix and Fix, 2013). The link between the frequency of meditation and

contentment is mediated by all these outcomes. (Campos et al., 2016).

This enables treatments based on positive psychology to enhance psychological well-being and

pleasure as well as lessen depressive symptoms, negative affect, and other psychopathologies.

(Seligman, 2002; Quoidbach et al., 2015). The consciousness of what is important to participants

may increase as a result of practicing mindfulness. (Shultz and Ryan, 2015). This characteristic

has been linked to the development of self-efficacy and independent operating and is due to an

increase in eudemonic wellbeing. (Deci and Ryan, 1980).

Additionally, being mindful of the present instant offers a better perception of the current

experience, which has been linked to an increase in hedonic well-being. (Coo and Salanova,

2018). According to these strategies, new study shows a correlation between trainings that cover

both hedonic and eudemonic well-being and demonstrably better health outcomes. (Sin and

Lyubomirsky, 2009).

Although studies on contentment in general continue to be of interest to scientists, these studies

have a number of drawbacks. In accordance with more conventional psychological research,

which is mainly concerned with the study of mental disorders, the majority of the research has

concentrated on clinical studies to evaluate the efficacy of happiness-based interventions.

(Garland et al., 2015, 2017; Groves, 2016).

Second, the majority of current treatments are primarily concerned with observing just one

factor, such as showing appreciation or mastering emotional control. (Boehm et al., 2011;

Weytens et al., 2014). Additionally, studies frequently only involve 1- to 2-week treatments
 43

(Gander et al., 2016), contrary to the notion that eudemonia is connected to substantial and

enduring parts of one's personal lifestyle.

Furthermore, despite the fact that the efficacy of mindfulness-based therapies is well established,

research on the effects of mindfulness retreats, which involve more intense practice over the

course of days or even years, has been lacking [for a meta-analysis and review, see Khoury et al.

(2017), McClintock et al. (2019), and Howarth et al. (2019).

Objectives:

❖ To determine the level of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and happiness among university

students.

❖ To assess the validity and reliability of measures of emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and

happiness among university students.

❖ To examine the relationship between emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness

among university students.

Hypotheses:
 44

❖ There will be significant relationship between emotional intelligence and Self-esteem among

university students.

❖ There will be significant relationship between emotional intelligence and happiness among

university students.

❖ There will be significant relationship between self-esteem and happiness among university

students.

2 Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Emotional intelligence:

The idea of "Emotional Intelligence" (EI) could not have arrived at a better moment as society

descended into the abyss of intolerance and violence over the smallest of offences. In his book

"Raising an Emotionally Intelligent Child" published in 1997, John Gottman discussed how

children's psyches and approaches to different problems vary noticeably from adults'. He noticed

that between the middle of the 1970s and the late 1980s, kids were moodier, agitated, anxious,

despondent, and lonely.

 45

Families were getting smaller as a result of both parents working to satisfy financial obligations,

and kids were suffering from a dearth of social opportunities. Time spent with family and friends

was declining as more people turned to television and computers for amusement and

engagement. After fifteen years, we can see that things have only gotten worse. Therefore, the

idea of controlling and directing the emotional crest towards a better existence offers promise for

the future.

Any theory must distinguish itself from and at the same time have some connection to the

established extant theories of the same field in order to maintain interest and survive the stringent

demands of academic research. When scientists approach data in a methodical way, a unique

research methodology will manifest. (Kuhn, 1970). The idea matures as a result of extensive

argument, inquiry, and discussion surrounding the theory or model.

Unless the theory passes Karl Popper's Test, which states that it must be able to "explain things

that other theories cannot, or if it has the potential to explain things better than competing

theories."(Emmerling and Goleman, 2003).

The theory of EI has the additional duty of establishing its veracity not only to academics but

also to non-academic people since it holds promise for a better society that is tolerant and

sympathetic towards the faults and shortcomings of their fellow humans. It is crucial to decide

which EI we will examine because there are many different definitions of the concept being

suggested in this developing area.

Despite the fact that the term "emotional intelligence" has been used in literature for some time

even before Payne (Leuner, 1966, as referenced in Petrides, 2011), the idea's current shape has its

roots in Salovey and Mayer's construct from 1990.The idea was hailed as novel and, if true, as a
 46

ground-breaking discovery. But the book "Emotional Intelligence - Why it can matter more than

IQ" by Daniel Goleman is largely responsible for the theory's present level of popularity. (1995).

Numerous constructs have been put forth as a result of the success (many of which are not

supported by empirical data, as Goleman's work did not rigorously rely on data from studies and

tests).

The theory has split into two distinct methods, the "ability" model of Mayer and Salovey and the

"mixed" models of Goleman and Bar-On, as a result of ongoing study and interest in the area.

Currently, Bar-On's model is known as a characteristic model and Goleman's model as a

competency model. The academic success of pupils who study online is affected by a number of

variables. Numerous recent studies have demonstrated that self-efficacy, learning drive, and

emotional intelligence (EI) all have an impact on scholastic success.

These studies include those by Berenson et al. (2008), Nonis and Fenner (2012), and

Cussó-Calabuig et al. (2018) and Yokoyama (2019). According to Mortiboys (2012), there have

been many academics interested in the impact of EI on education, and the number of papers on

that topic has dramatically increased. (Perera, 2016). EI, according to Mayer et al. (2008), is the

ability to control, understand, and make use of one's pertinent emotional characteristics and

cognitive capacity when interacting with others.

EI also implies that people's social intelligence allows them to distinguish between their own

and others' emotions in a variety of situations. Emotional traits and cognitive ability are

advantageous for language learning in EI when it comes to reading comprehension,

introspection, speaking, listening comprehension, and writing performance (Motallebzadeh,

2009; Abdolrezapour and Tavakoli, 2012; Afshar and Rahimi, 2016; Chang, 2021).

(Pishghadam, 2009; Shao et al., 2013).

 47

Additionally, high EI has a beneficial effect on language growth and language learning

techniques (Rostampour and Niroomand, 2013; Kourakou, 2018). (Aghasafari, 2006). EI and

learning desire were found to be favorably linked by Dubey (2012). Henter (2014) also

suggested a favorable correlation between EI, motivation, and language proficiency. Motivation,

according to Schunk and Meece (2005), is a profound mental event that propels people to

participate in goal-directed behavior.

Motivation is typically characterized as the power of a person's dominating behavior. (Jenkins

and Demaray, 2015). The efficacy of pupils' learning was linked to their motivation, according to

Bain et al. (2010). The stimulation of desire could also be used to sustain students' learning.

According to Tella (2007), a dearth of learning motivation made it challenging to achieve

acceptable learning results. Ivanova and co. (2019).

They observed that students' learning motivation affected their scores in foreign languages in

their study on second language acquisition. As a consequence, learning motivation was crucial

because it was directly related to performance and scholastic success. (Titrek et al., 2018;

Duchatelet and Donche, 2019). Self-efficacy is crucial for both the methods and results of

learning. (Zhang and Ardasheva, 2019).

It enables students to take a more active role in their drive, reasoning, and behavior during the

learning process. (Anam and Stracke, 2016). Self-efficacy is one of the elements of social

cognition; Bandura described self-efficacy as one's confidence in one's capacity to complete

tasks. (Bandura, 2001). Belief, a crucial aspect of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), is the main

contributor to personal efficacy in human achievements, attitudes, and performance. (Kirk et al.,

2008).
 48

Additionally, according to Morali (2019), reading self-efficacy and mindset have a significant

prognostic impact on EFL (English as a Foreign Language) readers' success in reading

comprehension. (Rachmajanti and Musthofiyah, 2017). In his study, Bandura (1997) related the

role of efficacy with the idea of EI and speculated that better self-efficacy might be associated

with better self-awareness and emotional regulation.

According to Gundlach et al. (2003), EI could affect self-efficacy by influencing emotions and

the use of causal reasoning, which had an impact on significant work outcomes. Additionally,

students' self-efficacy acted as a mediating factor between EI and scholastic achievement.

(Udayar et al., 2020).

As a result, students' motivation for learning as well as their confidence in their skills and

performance are both influenced by their emotional intelligence and capacity for managing their

emotions. Due to their self-confidence, students' EI also contributes to improving their academic

performance. (Udayar et al., 2020). Early on, Salovey and Mayer introduced the idea of EI.

(Salovey and Mayer, 1990; Mayer and Salovey, 1993; Bar-On, 1997).

The ability to watch and distinguish one's own and other people's feelings and emotions, which

may influence one's ideas and behavior, is how they characterized emotional intelligence (EI).

Additionally, EI is a collection of interconnected cognitive and emotional skills. (Ciarrochi et al.,

2001). It also describes the capacity for distinguishing between, expressing, managing, and

making use of one's feelings through self-adaptive methods. (Nordin, 2012; Shafiq and Rana,

2016).

To adjust to social behavior, humans need to be able to recognize their own emotions as well as

those of others. (Salovey and Mayer, 1990; Mayer and Salovey, 1993). How individuals change
 49

their own feelings, how they modify their emotions towards others, and what emotional

substance they use when addressing issues are all aspects of emotion perception. (Salovey and

Mayer, 1990; Mayer and Salovey, 1993).

In Bandura's SCT (Bandura, 1986), which emphasized the value of social experience and the

need for visual learning in the process of character development, self-efficacy was a key

individual component. (Mahler et al., 2018). Self-efficacy, according to Bandura (1997), is the

conviction that one is capable of planning and carrying out actions to produce the desired results.

According to Qureshi's research, behavior was influenced by the interaction of cognition (a

psychological aspect), behavior, and the surroundings. (Qureshi, 2015).

To put it another way, people's choices in specific circumstances were influenced by their own

observations. One's recollection of how others behaved will shape his or her thought processes

and social interactions in the future. According to Bandura (1994), people with high self-efficacy

exhibited a variety of good characteristics, including belief in one's capacity to complete difficult

tasks and a commitment to doing so.

Other traits include establishing difficult goals and then pursuing them, putting more effort into

tasks and then restoring confidence in one's abilities after failure and difficulty (Bandura, 1994).

Self-efficacy helps us manage our emotions, ideas, and actions. It also has to do with confidence

in one's own abilities. (Baron et al., 2016; Halper and Vancouver, 2016).

Individuals' view on what they can and cannot do is a component of self-efficacy. (Bandura,

1997; Kirk et al., 2008). Mankind's achievements, views, and performance were greatly

influenced by the conviction in self-efficacy, which was a crucial component of SCT. (Bandura,
 50

1997; Kirk et al., 2008). Contrarily, those who lack confidence or self-efficacy may believe that

things are more difficult than they actually are.

which can lead to melancholy, increased stress, and tunnel vision when fixing problems. (Pajares

and Schunk, 2001). Salovey and Mayer (1990) demonstrated the connection between EI and

self-efficacy by demonstrating that the idea of EI was people's capacity to manage their feelings.

They added the definition of EI, which they applied to the mentality and actions of leaders, as the

capacity for observing and differentiating feelings.

Additionally, controlling this level of self-awareness was crucial for the emotional shift.

(Bandura, 1997). Self-awareness and self-efficacy were closely related because self-efficacy

prioritized self-awareness and self-regulation. (Bandura, 1997). This factor has an impact on how

self-efficacy grows. Bandura (1997) noted that people's EI and self-efficacy would be

internalized when they recognized thoughts, emotions, and behavior to describe organizational

reality through their self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-control. (Bandura, 1997).

The primary factor influencing the growth and realization of self-efficacy in SCT, which was

comparable to the area of research that was concentrated on in the study of EI, was the stress on

self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-control. (Gundlach et al., 2003). In light of this, some

scholars have hypothesized a connection between the studies of self-efficacy and EI. The

primary reason for this is that, by modifying their potential feelings,

EI can help people come up with causal attributions that have the least negative effects on their

sense of self-efficacy. (Gundlach et al., 2003). Additionally, Emmer and Hickman (1991)

proposed that scholars look into how emotions and self-efficacy are related in academic contexts.
 51

The connection between the impact of efficacy and the EI framework was made in

ground-breaking research by Bandura (1997).

He reasoned that greater levels of self-efficacy might come from the control of one's feelings and

self-awareness. Numerous studies have revealed a strong relationship and favorable correlation

between EI and self-efficacy. (Kirk et al., 2008; Rastegar and Memarpour, 2009; Hamdy et al.,

2014; Gurbuz et al., 2016). As was already mentioned, Goleman made a remarkable addition to

the field of emotional intelligence in that he popularized the theory to the point where it

immediately made the cover page of the Times.

With his 1995 book "Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ," he

sensationalized the subject by making bold assertions that occasionally bordered on hyperbole,

such as "nearly 90% of the difference" between stellar workers and average ones was due to EI.

(Goleman, 1998).

Goleman conducted more study on emotional intelligence after being influenced by Salovey and

Mayer's results. He suggested a four-branch model that was further divided into twenty

emotional competencies. He did not fit the Salovey and Mayer paradigm. He thinks that these

emotional skills can be learned and cultivated rather than being innate abilities. Emotional

intelligence, which he views as a latent, inborn skill, in turn, relied on a person's ability to

cultivate these emotional competencies.

Emotional skills and emotional intelligence are comparable to pears and apple sauce. (Goleman,

2003). Goleman (1998) published an essay in the Harvard Business Review that was the first to

adapt the idea of EI to the business world. He called attention to the fact that strong emotional

intelligence was a trait of successful leaders. The "entry level requirements" were "threshold
 52

capabilities," which Goleman (2000) defined as having a strong technological background and a

high IQ.

On the other hand, effective interpersonal, social, and team-building skills enable a person to

establish strong relationships with his or her coworkers, superiors, and employees, which are

essential for success. If IQ helped an individual land a decent position, it was EI that would help

him keep it and succeed at work. (Emmerling and Goleman, 2003; Cherniss et. al. 1998;

Boyatzis and Oosten, 2002).

The ECI enhanced the SAQ with the goal of creating a tool that could be used in all professions

and environments. New exam items were introduced and focused on in order to cover

competencies that the SRQ did not cover. The reliability and intercorrelation of the items were

examined based on samples taken from 596 managers and salespeople, and the ECI was updated

and redone in 1999.

The revised version now asks participants to rate each item on a scale from 1 to 6, with the

highest response reading the behavior is highly characteristic of this individual and the lowest the

behavior is only slightly characteristic of the individual (2000) Boyatzis et al). The Johnson and

Johnson Consumer & Personal Care Group conducted a study on 358 managers to determine if

there were any particular leadership traits that distinguished between high and average

performers.

The study's significant findings revealed a strong correlation between superior performance and

emotional competence. (Cavallo & Brienza, 2004). The emotional intelligence hypothesis claims

to be able to predict and enhance people's life abilities. The theory's proponents contend that the
 53

secret to a higher quality of life is in comprehending, evaluating, and controlling one's own and

other people's feelings.

The first and primary challenge that the theorists face is to design an instrument or build upon

existing measures which will correctly evaluate and assess an individual's emotional skills

because the operationalization of the theory is the critical element which supports their claim.

The other important question whether emotional intelligence is a unique type of intellect or just

old wine in a new bottle—will also be answered by this.

2.2 Self-esteem:

A key element of good growth from childhood to maturity is self-esteem. It can be broadly

characterized as a person's feeling of total self-worth or how positive they feel about themselves.

(Rosenberg, 1965). In addition to other constructs like self-efficacy internal locus of control

(having the sense that one has control over things rather than the outside world having control),

and self-compassion self-esteem is a part of one's self-concept, which is one's knowledge and

beliefs about their personal attributes. (Bolger & Patterson, 2001; Lamoureux, et al., 2012; Neff,

2003).

Together, these concepts can foster resilient behavior in the face of stresses in life. Researchers

studying the idea of self-esteem have been skeptical of its function in growth in recent years.

(Baumeister, et al., 2003; Neff & Vonk, 2009). They contend that self-evaluations, which are

frequently reliant on outside sources, serve as the foundation of self-esteem. For instance, when

people complement our achievements or when we believe they like us, we feel good about

ourselves.
 54

As a result, self-esteem is erratic and subject to change based on the input we receive. When we

perceive a danger to our self-esteem, we may also become protective in an effort to preserve it.

Although each of these issues is legitimate, it is crucial to differentiate between flimsy

self-esteem and genuine self-esteem. (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003). True self-esteem, in

contrast to weak self-esteem, is steadier, driven by internal motivation, and independent of

outside influences.

True self-esteem, as opposed to flimsy self-esteem, encourages healthy growth and working.

Self-compassion is a closely linked and equally significant concept. Treating oneself with care

and empathy rather than with judgement and self-criticism is a key component of

self-compassion. Recognizing our shared humanity and the fact that everyone encounters both

achievement and failure is another important aspect of it.

The third element of self-compassion is mindfulness, which is the capacity to maintain

self-awareness and avoid becoming overwhelmed by our feelings and ideas. According to

research, having a high level of self-compassion is a sign of wellbeing and a guarantee of steady

mental health. (Neff & McGehee, 2010). Additionally, it has been discovered that

self-compassionate people have a lower chance of developing melancholy, anxiety, obsessive

perfectionism, and rumination. In addition, self-compassion has been shown to foster resilience

by acting as a cushion against adverse life occurrences (Leary et al., 2007).

Unsurprisingly, people who have high levels of self-compassion also seem to have high levels of

self-esteem. Self-compassion and self-esteem probably go hand in hand, and they might even be

reciprocal. In other words, self-compassion and self-esteem go hand in hand. Any type of child

abuse has a detrimental effect on a child's ability to grow into a healthy person. Researchers
 55

have discovered that child abuse is linked to poor self-esteem, low self-compassion, and exterior

locus of control (Bolger & Patterson, 2001; Eskin, 2012; Tanaka, et al., 2011).

This has a number of unfavorable consequences, such as an elevated chance of emotion

dysregulation, suicidal thoughts, anxiety, and melancholy. Damage to the different

self-constructs mentioned can start as early as childhood, and the negative effects can last well

into maturity. This emphasizes the significance of healthy environments for optimum

self-development and the need for early assistance and protection to help mitigate the negative

effects of toxic environments like child abuse and/or exposure to violence.

On the other hand, high self-esteem, self-compassion, self-efficacy, and perceived internal locus

of control have all been demonstrated to promote resilience and to be protective against the

negative consequences of child maltreatment and other life stressors (Afifi & MacMillan, 2011;

Bolger & Patterson, 2001; Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997; Kort-Butler, 2010; Lamoureux, et al.,

2012; Leary, et al., 2007; Vettese, et al., 2011).

Bolger and coworkers discovered that internalizing issues (such as anxiety, sadness, etc.) were

less common when people believed they had an internal locus of control. Self-compassion was

found to be adversely correlated with problems with emotion regulation by Vettese and

coworkers. In other words, people who had higher levels of self-compassion were better able to

control their feelings.

Overall, these findings are promising and highlight the need for strengthening these

self-constructs in order to assist people who have experienced abuse. Prevention and

rehabilitation programmed should focus on fostering positive self-esteem, self-compassion,

self-efficacy, and an internal center of control in order to give kids the tools they need to grow a
 56

positive sense of self. As shown by the studies above, this may both lower the chance of and

strengthen resilience in the wake of abuse.

Furthermore, in order to better understand the traits of children who were frequently the targets

of abuse, Elliot and coworkers (1995) performed research with sex offenders. It was discovered

that kids who lacked self-assurance or had poor self-esteem were frequently the targets. In

addition, fostering positive self-concept and self-compassion may help people stay away from

crime in the future.

According to research, offenders frequently struggle with poor self-esteem, which is worsened

by profound feelings of guilt. (Marshall, et al., 2009). Offenders would minimize the

repercussions of perpetrating assault and also have less concern for their victims in order to

avoid experiencing this shame and further drops in self-esteem. Promoting self-compassion from

a young age may aid in boosting sensitivity and self-worth while reducing the harmful impacts of

shame.

According to research by Leary and coworkers from 2007, people who participated in an

experimental setting that encouraged self-compassion claimed to have less bad affect and to be

better able to take personal accountability for their actions. Instilling self-compassion in children

may lead to greater sensitivity for other people and possibly a decreased propensity to harm

them. They might also foster resistance to the damaging impacts of mistreatment.

It is reassuring to understand that these self-constructs are flexible and can thus be strengthened

with efficient programming, particularly to combat the effects of mistreatment. Additionally, it's

critical to keep in mind that social interaction with others rather than seclusion is how we build
 57

our sense of self. This serves as a powerful recall to involve kids in activities that support the

growth of a healthy self in order to make sure they develop and thrive as adults.

2.3 Happiness:

Because people are made with hearts and brains that have desires, everyone always expects to

find pleasure in life. Because of this, people constantly try to be happy. According to (Hurlock,

1980), happiness results from meeting requirements or goals and is a reason or method for

appreciating life. If the requirements and aspirations are met, happiness is possible.

Individuals will experience contentment as a type of happiness through this fulfilment. The

person is able to live his life calmly and contentedly thanks to the pleasure. Happiness is

characterized by emotions of joy and serenity, as well as by a sense of well-being, mental

tranquility, life contentment, and the lack of anguish or suffering. Happiness is essential in life,

regardless of an individual's age. (Rusydi, 2007).

A good psychological condition with high levels of life contentment, positive affect, and low

levels of negative affect is known as happiness. (Carr, 2004). Happiness is the degree of the

classification of a good quality of life from someone, according to (Veenhoven, 2003).

Veenhoven further stated that living satisfaction may be used to define pleasure. The degree of

life contentment is typically the greatest indicator of happiness, which is a latent concept. The

dominance of positive effects over negative feelings and overall life contentment are other

definitions of happiness.

According to (Myers, 2010), there are four traits that always exist in individuals who are happy

in their lives. These traits are being able to value oneself, having high optimism, being open, and

being able to manage oneself. As it develops, the concept of happiness grows in popularity, and
 58

everyone aspires to be happy. (Lama & Howard C. Cutter, 2009). This is consistent with Layard's

(2005) assertion that one of life's objectives is to find pleasure.

Furthermore, according to (Layard, 2005), achieving wealth and happiness is the ultimate goal

of existence. Life is more peaceful and satisfying when people are happy. The more that can be

accomplished, the greater one's requirements and expectations must be. Everyone yearns to be

happy. This uplifting feeling supports a sound demeanor and has a calming impact. The

enjoyment and peace of life, both bodily and psychologically, are what make us happy. By

meeting the requirements and desires of others, happiness can be attained. People will therefore

strive diligently to achieve happiness. (Snyder & Lopez, 2007)

There are many things one can do to feel joyful. As with happiness obtained from drugs and

unrestricted sex, these techniques occasionally have a fleeting or even negative influence on

happiness (Tomé, Matos, Simes, Diniz, & Camacho, 2012). Anyone can find happiness, even at

the early stages of maturity. Early adulthood is a time when people are deemed independent and

have obligations. (Santrock, 2012).

Additionally, people who are in their early adult years are thought to be capable of making

choices for their lives that impact both themselves and others (Hurlock, 1980). There are many

issues during the early mature years. This is as a result of all the new adjustments that need to be

made. Students must complete developmental duties during the early adult era. (Papalia &

Feldman, 2014). Early adult students are regarded as being competent to make decisions for

themselves.

Their social and psychological growth is maturing, so this is in line with that. societal and

psychological growth that is maturing. Students who can make decisions should be able to
 59

execute them successfully because choices are thought to be in line with their capabilities and

standards. In truth, not all of them are capable of carrying out the choice effectively or even

bringing up a failure because the choice might result in misery. (Maharani, 2015).

Meanwhile, unhappy pupils often have unhealthy personalities, and their bodily health is also

compromised. (Baumgardner, S. R., & Crothers, 2010). Students with unhealthy personalities are

more likely to experience melancholy because they are unhappy more often. Students frequently

experience emotional swings, which disrupts their social life.

Students lose their ability to empathize with others or themselves. (Gilman et al., 2009). In

addition, this prevents duties related to growth from being completed in early adulthood and in

the future. (Santrock, 2012).

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3 Chapter 3 Methodology

The purpose of this methodology is to provide a step-by-step guide on how to conduct a research

study on emotional intelligence as a predictor of self-esteem and happiness among university

students. This methodology will outline the various stages involved in conducting a research

study, including the research design, participants, measures, data collection, and analysis.

3.1 Participants:

The participants for this study are undergraduate students from the university having a variety of

academic majors and years of study. Inclusion criteria require that participants are currently

enrolled in an undergraduate program and are at least 17-23 years of age.

3.2 Research Design:

The research design for this study will be a quantitative, correlational study. This design will

allow us to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness

among university students.

3.3 Measures:

The following measures will be used to collect data:

3.3.1 Informed consent

Dear Participant, thank you for participating in this study.

This is Anum Ashraf a researcher, this research is being conducted under the supervision of

Prof. Dr. Masood Nadeem and the co-supervisor is Miss Javeria Saleem in the Department of

Applied Psychology at Islamia University of Bahawalpur. My topic is “Emotional Intelligence

 61

as a predictor of Self-esteem and Happiness among university students”. You will be asked

short questions. It will take you only five to ten minutes to complete. You are requested to read

each question carefully and answer it honestly. Your participation in this study means a lot. Also,

it should be clear that the information obtained from the participants will be used only for

research purposes. The identity of all participants will be kept confidential. You can withdraw

your interest in this research at any time. If you have any questions related to this research, you

can easily contact to this email.

ashrafanum80@gmail.com

(Demographic Data)

Name(optional)______________

Age: _____________________

Gender: ___________________

Program: __________________

Department: _______________

Area: ____________________

Signature: ________________
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3.3.2 Emotional Intelligence Scale:

This measure will assess the participants' emotional intelligence level. The scale consists of 30

items that measure various components of emotional intelligence, including self-awareness,

self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.

Factors Items

Perception of emotions 5,8.9,15,18,25,27,29,32

Managing own emotions 3,21,22,28,31

Managing others’ emotions 1,11,24,26

Utilization of emotion 17,20,23

Uncategorized 2,4,6,7,10,12,13,14,16,19,30,33

Reliability: Emotional intelligence scale meets the reliability requirements with a Cronbach

alpha value of 0.842. Furthermore, research also showed that the emotional intelligence scale

met the reliability requirements with a Cronbach alpha value of 0.750.

Content validity: This refers to the extent to which the items in the emotional intelligence scale

are measuring the construct of emotional intelligence. Content validity can be assessed by

examining the items in the scale and determining whether they are relevant to the construct being

measured.
 63

Construct validity: This refers to the extent to which the emotional intelligence scale is

measuring the construct of emotional intelligence and not some other construct. Construct

validity can be assessed by examining the correlations between the emotional intelligence scale

and other measures of emotional intelligence or related constructs.

Criterion validity: This refers to the extent to which the emotional intelligence scale predicts

some external criterion, such as job performance or academic achievement. Criterion validity can

be assessed by examining the correlation between the emotional intelligence scale and the

criterion variable.

3.3.3 Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale:

This measure will assess the participants' self-esteem level. The scale consists of 10 items that

measure the level of global self-worth and self-acceptance.

Reliability:

Internal consistency reliability: This refers to the extent to which the items in the RSES are

measuring the same construct. Internal consistency reliability can be assessed using Cronbach's

alpha, and a score of 0.70 or higher is considered acceptable. Studies have found that the RSES

has good internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from 0.77 to 0.88.

Test-retest reliability: This refers to the extent to which the RSES produces consistent results

over time. Test-retest reliability can be assessed by administering the same scale to the same

individuals at two different points in time and calculating the correlation between the scores.
 64

Studies have found that the RSES has good test-retest reliability, with correlation coefficients

ranging from 0.70 to 0.85.

Validity:

Content validity: This refers to the extent to which the items in the RSES are measuring the

construct of self-esteem. Content validity can be assessed by examining the items in the scale

and determining whether they are relevant to the construct being measured. The RSES was

developed based on a review of the literature on self-esteem, and its items have been found to be

highly relevant to the construct of self-esteem.

Construct validity: This refers to the extent to which the RSES is measuring the construct of

self-esteem and not some other construct. Construct validity can be assessed by examining the

correlations between the RSES and other measures of self-esteem or related constructs. Studies

have found that the RSES has good construct validity, as it correlates strongly with other

measures of self-esteem and correlates inversely with measures of depression and anxiety.

Criterion validity: This refers to the extent to which the RSES predicts some external criterion,

such as academic achievement or job performance. Criterion validity can be assessed by

examining the correlation between the RSES and the criterion variable. Studies have found that

the RSES has good criterion validity, as it correlates positively with measures of academic

achievement, job performance, and social competence.

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3.3.4 Subjective Happiness Scale:

This measure will assess the participants' level of happiness. The scale consists of 04 items that

measure different components of happiness, including positive affect and overall happiness.

Reliability:

Internal consistency reliability: This refers to the extent to which the items in the SHS are

measuring the same construct. Internal consistency reliability can be assessed using Cronbach's

alpha, and a score of 0.70 or higher is considered acceptable. Studies have found that the SHS

has good internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from 0.79 to 0.94.

Test-retest reliability: This refers to the extent to which the SHS produces consistent results

over time. Test-retest reliability can be assessed by administering the same scale to the same

individuals at two different points in time and calculating the correlation between the scores.

Studies have found that the SHS has good test-retest reliability, with correlation coefficients

ranging from 0.68 to 0.89.

Validity:

Content validity: This refers to the extent to which the items in the SHS are measuring the

construct of happiness. Content validity can be assessed by examining the items in the scale and

determining whether they are relevant to the construct being measured. The SHS was developed

based on a review of the literature on happiness, and its items have been found to be highly

relevant to the construct of happiness.

 66

Construct validity: This refers to the extent to which the SHS is measuring the construct of

happiness and not some other construct. Construct validity can be assessed by examining the

correlations between the SHS and other measures of happiness or related constructs. Studies

have found that the SHS has good construct validity, as it correlates strongly with other measures

of happiness and correlates inversely with measures of depression and anxiety.

Criterion validity: This refers to the extent to which the SHS predicts some external criterion,

such as life satisfaction or well-being. Criterion validity can be assessed by examining the

correlation between the SHS and the criterion variable. Studies have found that the SHS has

good criterion validity, as it correlates positively with measures of life satisfaction, well-being,

and positive affect

3.3.5 Data Collection:

Data collection will be conducted using questionnaire. Participants will be given questionnaire

and asked to complete it in their own time. The survey will take approximately 5-10 minutes to

complete.

3.3.6 Analysis:

The collected data will be analyzed using statistical software, such as SPSS. Descriptive statistics

will be used to summarize the data, and inferential statistics, such as Pearson's correlation

coefficient and multiple regression analysis, will be used to test the study's hypotheses.
 67

3.3.7 Conclusion:

In conclusion, this methodology outlines the steps involved in conducting a research study on

emotional intelligence as a predictor of self-esteem and happiness among university students. By

following this methodology, it can ensure the study's rigor and validity, and make informed

conclusions about the relationship between emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness

among university students.

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4 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.1 Introduction:

The results section is an essential part of any research paper, as it provides the reader with a

comprehensive summary of the study's findings. In this particular study, we focused on

investigating the relationship between emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness among

university students. The results of this study are significant because they can shed light on the

importance of emotional intelligence in enhancing the well-being of university students. By

examining the relationship between emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness, we can

gain insights into how emotional intelligence can contribute to a more fulfilling university

experience. To arrive at these results, we employed various statistical techniques, including

descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis, t-tests, and reliability

analysis. These methods helped us to determine the levels of emotional intelligence, self-esteem,

and happiness among university students and to identify any significant relationships between

these variables. By presenting these results, we hope to contribute to the broader body of

research on emotional intelligence and its effects on personal and social outcomes. Our findings

could have implications for universities and other educational institutions interested in promoting

the emotional well-being of their students.

4.2 Descriptive statistics:

Descriptive statistics such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and range were used to

analyze the data collected. Mean is the average of the data, while median is the middle value in

the data set, and mode is the value that appears most frequently. Standard deviation measures
 69

how dispersed the data is, while range shows the difference between the highest and lowest

values in the data set.

Table 1: Sociodemographic Characteristics of Participants at Baseline

Baseline characteristic
n % M SD skew
N=110

Gender 1.55 0.500 -.185

 Female 50 45.5
 Male 60 54.5

Area 1.51 0.502 -.037

 Rural 54 49.1
 Urban 56 50.9

Semester 4.35 1.673 -.400

 1st 8 7.3
 2nd 12 10.9
 3rd 7 6.4
 4th 30 27.3
 5th 18 16.4
6th 31 28.2
7th 2 1.8
8th 2 1.8

Age 20.91 1.774 2.459

18-21 78
22-25 29
32 Above 1

Table 1 presents the sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants, which

provide valuable insights into the study population. The sample consisted of 110 university

students, with a slightly higher proportion of males (54.5%) than females (45.5%). The mean age

of the participants was 20.91 years, with a standard deviation of 1.774. The majority of

participants fell in the age range of 18-21 years, with 78 participants (70.9%) falling in this

range. Regarding the area of residence, the sample was almost evenly split between urban and

rural areas, with 56 participants (50.9%) from urban areas and 54 participants (49.1%) from rural
 70

areas. The mean score for the area variable was 1.51, with a standard deviation of 0.502 and a

slightly negative skew (-0.037). In terms of academic progress, the participants were distributed

across different semesters of their academic program, with the majority (28.2%) in their 6th

semester. The mean semester score was 4.35, with a standard deviation of 1.673 and a negative

skew (-0.400). The descriptive statistics for sociodemographic variables provide important

information about the characteristics of the study participants. The majority of participants were

males, aged between 18-21 years, and from urban areas. These findings are valuable for

interpreting the study results and generalizing the findings to similar populations.

Figure 1: List of Departments

Figure 1 shows a pie chart that was created to visually represent the distribution of

departments among the 110 university students in the study. Zoology had the largest
 71

representation, accounting for 19.1% of the participants, followed by Psychology with 11.8%

and BBA with 6.4%. The remaining departments each made up less than 5% of the sample.

Table 2: Level of variables

Statistics
E RSES SHS
Valid 110 110 110
N
Missing 0 0 0
Mean 99.37 64.91 47.30
Median 100.00 25.00 16.00
Std. Deviation 8.821 3.238 3.468
Variance 77.814 10.487 12.028
Skewness .178 -.023 -.428
Range 41 16 15

Emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness are all important psychological

constructs that are relevant to the well-being and success of individuals. Understanding the level

of these variables among university students can provide insight into their mental health and

overall quality of life. Emotional Intelligence (E): The mean score for emotional intelligence is

100.37 with a standard deviation of 8.821. The scores range from 80 to 121, with a median score

of 100 and a mode of 93. Self-Esteem (RSES): The mean score for self-esteem is 24.91 with a

standard deviation of 3.238. The scores range from 17 to 33, with a median score of 25 and a

mode of 25. Happiness (SHS): The mean score for happiness is 16.30 with a standard deviation

of 3.468. The scores range from 7 to 22, with a median score of 16 and a mode of 18. These

descriptive statistics can be used to gain insight into the levels of emotional intelligence,

self-esteem, and happiness among university students.

 72

4.3 Correlation:

In this study, a correlation table was used to examine the associations between emotional

intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness among university students.

H1: there will be significant relation among Emotional Intelligence, Self Esteem &

Happiness.

1. H1a: There will be significant relationship between emotional intelligence and

Self-esteem among university students.

2. H1b: There will be significant relationship between emotional intelligence and

happiness among university students.

3. H1c: There will be significant relationship between self-esteem and happiness

among university students.

Table 3: Correlation table

  1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Emotional 1
Intelligence
1. Perceptio .546** 1
n of
Emotions
2. Managing .541** .086 1
Own
Emotions
3. Managing .373** .098 .057 1
others
Emotions
4. Utilizatio .286** -.099 .105 -.057 1
n of
emotions
Self Esteem .443** .009 .075 -.035 -.177 1
Subjective .467* -.038 -.029 .070 -.026 .563* 1
Happiness
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
 73

The present study aimed to investigate the relationships between emotional intelligence,

self-esteem, and subjective happiness among university students. The table consists of seven

variables, with emotional intelligence being broken down into four subscales: perception of

emotions, managing own emotions, managing others' emotions, and utilization of emotions. and

the results are presented in Table 3.

The analysis revealed significant positive correlations between emotional intelligence and

both self-esteem (r = .443, p < .01) and subjective happiness (r = .467, p < .05), indicating that

higher levels of emotional intelligence are associated with greater levels of self-esteem and

subjective happiness in this population. Furthermore, the analysis showed positive correlations

between all subcategories of emotional intelligence, with perception of emotions exhibiting the

strongest correlation with both self-esteem (r = .546, p < .01) and subjective happiness (r = .563,

p < .05). This finding suggests that the ability to perceive and understand one's own and others'

emotions is a key aspect of emotional intelligence that is positively associated with self-esteem

and subjective happiness. Interestingly, the analysis also revealed a negative correlation between

the utilization of emotions and managing others' emotions (r = -.057, p < .01), indicating a

potential trade-off between these two aspects of emotional intelligence. Specifically, individuals

who are more skilled at utilizing their emotions may be less effective at managing others'

emotions, and vice versa. This finding suggests that emotional intelligence may be a

multidimensional construct that involves a complex interplay of different skills and abilities.

Overall, the results of this study provide valuable insights into the relationships between

emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and subjective happiness among university students. The

findings suggest that emotional intelligence is an important factor in promoting psychological

well-being in this population, and highlight the need for further research to fully understand the
 74

mechanisms underlying these relationships and to identify potential interventions to enhance

emotional intelligence and well-being.

4.4 Regression:

The purpose of the present study was to explore the relationships between emotional

intelligence, self-esteem, and subjective happiness among university students. To further

investigate these relationships, a multiple regression analysis was conducted, and the results are

presented in Table 4. This analysis aimed to determine the extent to which emotional intelligence

predict subjective happiness and self-esteem in this population.

H2: the impact of the Emotional Intelligence on the Subjective Happiness and Self Esteem

1. H2a: To determine if emotional intelligence is a significant predictor of self-esteem

among university students.

2. H2b: To determine if emotional intelligence is a significant predictor of Subjective

Happiness among university students.

Table 4: Regression table H3

B SD 95%CI B P
Variables LL UL

Emotional 2.042 0.242 -3.543 .585 -.114 .005

Intelligence

Based on the hypothesis that emotional intelligence is a significant predictor of

self-esteem among university students, a regression analysis was conducted using SPSS. The

results indicate that emotional intelligence has a positive and significant effect on self-esteem

among university students. Specifically, the beta coefficient for emotional intelligence is 2.042 (p
 75

= .005), indicating that a one-unit increase in emotional intelligence is associated with a 2.042

unit increase in self-esteem among university students. These findings suggest that emotional

intelligence can be an important factor in promoting self-esteem among university students, and

highlight the importance of developing emotional intelligence skills in educational settings.

Table 5: Regression table H4

B SD 95%CI B P
Variables LL UL

Emotional 1.479 .142 -3.543 .585 -.114 .008

Intelligence

Based on the regression analysis results, it can be concluded that emotional intelligence is a

significant predictor of subjective happiness among university students. The beta coefficient of

1.479 with a standard deviation of .142 and a 95% confidence interval ranging from -3.543 to

.585 suggests that for each unit increase in emotional intelligence, there will be a corresponding

increase of 1.479 units in subjective happiness. Moreover, the significant p-value of .008

indicates that this relationship is unlikely to have occurred by chance. Therefore, the hypothesis

that emotional intelligence is a significant predictor of subjective happiness among university

students is supported by the results of the regression analysis.

4.5 T-test:

The present study aims to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and two

important indicators of psychological well-being: self-esteem and subjective happiness among

university students. To achieve this objective, a t-test will be conducted to compare the means of

emotional intelligence scores among high and low self-esteem and happiness groups. This study
 76

is significant as it will provide valuable insights into the role of emotional intelligence in

promoting positive psychological outcomes among university students.

Table 6: T test
Logistic parameter Male Female t(300) p Cohen’s

M SD M SD d

Emotional 99.9 8.741 100.94 8.973 4.043 .000 0.741

Intelligence scale

Self Esteem 67.21 6.113 63.82 6.62 1.842 .008 0.336

Subjective 45.84 5.253 47.56 5.92 -.841 .004 0.154

Happiness

A t-test was conducted to examine potential gender differences in Emotional Intelligence

(EI), Self Esteem, and Subjective Happiness (SH). The sample consisted of 110 participants,

with representation of males and females (50 males, 60 females). Results indicated that females

scored significantly higher on EI (M = 100.94, SD = 8.973) compared to males (M = 99.9, SD =

8.741), t(300) = 4.043, p < .001, Cohen's d = 0.741, indicating a moderate effect size. Regarding

Self Esteem, males scored significantly higher (M = 67.21, SD = 6.113) compared to females (M

= 63.82, SD = 6.62), t(300) = 1.842, p = .008, Cohen's d = 0.336, suggesting a small effect size.

Finally, males reported lower SH scores (M = 45.84, SD = 5.253) compared to females (M =

47.56, SD = 5.92), t(300) = -0.841, p = .004, Cohen's d = 0.154, indicating a small effect size. In

conclusion, these results suggest that females tend to have higher levels of EI and SH than males,

while males tend to have higher levels of self-esteem. However, the effect sizes were small to

moderate, indicating that the observed gender differences may not be clinically significant.
 77

4.6 Reliability Analysis:

Reliability analysis is a crucial statistical technique used in psychological research to

evaluate the consistency and stability of measurements. In the context of the current study, which

investigates the relationship between emotional intelligence and self-esteem and happiness

among university students, assessing the reliability of the measurement tools used is necessary to

ensure the accuracy and validity of the findings. Therefore, this paper presents the results of the

reliability analysis conducted on the instruments used to measure emotional intelligence,

self-esteem, and subjective happiness.

Table 7: Reliability Analysis

Variables Range

n M SD Cronbach’s Potential Actual skew

Alpha

Emotional 110 100.94 8.973 0.712 1-5 33-165 .256

Intelligence

Self Esteem 110 63.82 6.62 0.757 1-4 10-40 .678

Subjective 110 47.56 5.92 0.612 1-7 4-21 .371

Happiness

The reliability analysis table presents the results of the internal consistency analysis

conducted on the three measures: Emotional Intelligence, Self-Esteem, and Subjective

Happiness. The measures' range indicates the minimum and maximum possible scores, while the

actual range of scores observed in the sample is presented. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient, a
 78

measure of the measures' internal consistency, was found to be acceptable for Emotional

Intelligence and Self-Esteem measures, with values of 0.712 and 0.757, respectively. However,

the Subjective Happiness measure yielded a relatively lower Cronbach's alpha value of 0.612,

indicating that the items may not be as internally consistent as desired. Additionally, the

skewness values indicate that all three measures' distributions were moderately skewed, with the

Self-Esteem measure showing the most pronounced skewness.

 79

5 Chapter: 05 Discussion

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize and understand one's own emotions and

those of others, and to use that knowledge to guide thought and behavior. In recent years, there

has been growing interest in measuring EI and understanding its impact on various aspects of

human well-being, including self-esteem and happiness. This thesis discusses the measurement

of EI and its relationship with self-esteem and happiness.

Measuring EI is a complex process that involves the assessment of a range of emotional skills,

including the ability to recognize and understand emotions, regulate one's own emotions, and

respond appropriately to the emotions of others. There are several different measures of EI,

including self-report questionnaires, performance-based tests, and observer ratings. Some of the

most commonly used measures of EI include the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence

Test (MSCEIT), the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), and the Trait Emotional Intelligence

Questionnaire (TEIQue).

Research has shown that EI is positively related to self-esteem, or the degree to which

individuals feel positive about themselves and their abilities. Individuals with higher levels of EI

tend to have more positive self-concepts, higher self-esteem, and greater self-confidence. They

are also more likely to set challenging goals for themselves and to persist in the face of obstacles.

One possible explanation for the link between EI and self-esteem is that individuals with higher

levels of EI are better able to regulate their emotions, which may lead to a more positive outlook

on life and a greater sense of self-worth.

 80

In addition to its impact on self-esteem, research has also shown that EI is positively related to

happiness, or the subjective experience of positive emotions and life satisfaction. Individuals

with higher levels of EI tend to experience more positive emotions, such as joy, gratitude, and

contentment, and are more resilient in the face of negative life events. They also tend to have

more positive relationships with others and to engage in more prosocial behaviors. One possible

explanation for the link between EI and happiness is that individuals with higher levels of EI are

better able to regulate their emotions, which may lead to a greater sense of well-being and life

satisfaction.

5.1 Conclusion:

In conclusion, measuring EI is a complex process that involves the assessment of a range of

emotional skills, including the ability to recognize and understand emotions, regulate one's own

emotions, and respond appropriately to the emotions of others. Research has shown that

individuals with higher levels of EI tend to have more positive self-concepts, higher self-esteem,

and greater self-confidence, as well as greater happiness and life satisfaction.

However, more research is needed to better understand the complex relationships between EI,

self-esteem, and happiness. Future studies should aim to explore the causal relationships between

these constructs and investigate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at enhancing EI and

promoting greater well-being.

In conclusion, measuring emotional intelligence and understanding its impact on self-esteem and

happiness has important implications for promoting psychological well-being. By enhancing

 81

emotional skills, individuals may be better equipped to navigate the challenges of daily life, build

positive relationships with others, and experience greater happiness and life satisfaction.
 82

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Appendices
Informed consent
Dear Participant, thank you for participating in this study.
This is Anum Ashraf a researcher, this research is being conducted under the
supervision of Prof. Dr. Masood Nadeem in the Department of Applied Psychology at Islamia
University of Bahawalpur. My topic is “emotional intelligence as a predictor of self-esteem and
happiness among university students”. You will be asked short questions. It will take you only
five to ten minutes to complete. There are no right or wrong questions. You are requested to read
each question carefully and answer it honestly. Your participation in this study means a lot.
Also, it should be clear that the information obtained from the participants will be used only for
research purposes. The identity of all participants will be kept confidential. You can withdraw
your interest in this research at any time. If you have any questions related to the research, you
can easily contact these people.
ashrafanum80@gmail.com

(Demographic Data)

Your name (optional) ---------------------

Age-------------------------------------------

Gender-------------------------------------

Program--------------------------------------

Department-----------------------------------

Area---------------------------------------------

Email (optional) -----------------------------

Signature-------------------------------------
 98

Appendix A:

Emotional Intelligence Scale:

Instructions: Indicate the extent to which each item applies to you using the following scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither disagree nor agree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
1. I know when to speak about my personal problems to others.
2. When I am faced with obstacles, 1 remember times I faced similar obstacles and
overcame them.
3. I expect that I will do well on most things I try.
4. Other people find it easy to confide in me.
5. I find it hard to understand the nonverbal messages of other people.
6. Some of the major events of my life have led me to re-evaluate what is important and not
important.
7. When my mood changes, I see new possibilities.
8. Emotions are some of the things that make my life worth living.
9. I am aware of my emotions as I experience them.
10. I expect good things to happen.
11. I like to share my emotions with others.
12. When I experience a positive emotion, I know how to make it last.
13. I arrange events others enjoy.
14. I seek out activities that make me happy.
15. I am aware of the nonverbal messages I send to others.
16. I present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others.
17. When I am in a positive mood, salving problems is easy for me.
18. By looking at their facial expressions, I recognize the emotions people are experiencing.
19. I know why my emotions change.
20. When I am in a positive mood, I am able to come up with new ideas.
21. I have control over my emotions.
22. I easily recognize my emotions as I experience them.
23. I motivate myself by imagining a good outcome to tasks I take on
24. 1 compliment others when they have done something well.
25. I am aware of the nonverbal messages other people send.
26. When another person tells me about an important event in his or her life, I almost feel
though I have experienced this event myself.
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27. When I feel a change in emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas.
28. When I am faced with a challenge, I give up because I believe I will fail.
29. I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them.
30. I help other people feel better when they are down.
31. I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles.
32. I can tell how people are feeling by listening to the tone of their voice.
33. It is difficult for me to understand why people feel the way they do.

Source: Reprinted from Personality and Individual Differences, 1S, N. S. Schulte et al.
Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence, 167 177. Copyright 1998,
with permission from Elsevier.
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Appendix B:
Rosenberg Self Esteem scale:
Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. Please indicate
how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement.
1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. At times I think I am no good at all.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
6. I certainly feel useless at times.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
7. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
8. I wish I could have more respect for myself.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Scoring:
Items 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 are reverse scored. Give “Strongly Disagree” 1 point, “Disagree” 2 points,
“Agree” 3 points, and “Strongly Agree” 4 points. Sum scores for all ten items. Keep scores on a
continuous scale. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem.
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Appendix C:
SUBJECTIVE HAPPINESS SCALE
Scale:

1. In general, I consider myself:

not a very happy person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a very happy person
2. Compared to most of my peers, I consider myself:
less happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 more happy
3. Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going on,
getting the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization describe you?
not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a great deal
4. Some people are generally not very happy. Although they are not depressed, they never
seem as happy as they might be. To what extend does this characterization describe you?
not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a great deal

Scoring:
Sum the scores for each item together. Keep scores continuous.