KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI.

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE LEARNING

EFFECTS OF WORK-RELATED STRESS ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: THE

MODERATING ROLE OF PSYCHOSOCIAL WORK ENVIRONMENT

BY
MAUREEN SEKINA ASUAMAH

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCE AND

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF SCIENCE IN
MANAGEMENT & HUMAN RESOURCE STRATEGY

JUNE, 2023

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 DECLARATION

‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work towards the “Master of Science in Management
& Human Resource Strategy” Degree and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no
material previously published by another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of
any other degree of the University, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text’.

MAUREEN SEKINA ASUAMAH ……………………… ……………………..

(PG9173821) Signature Date

Certified by;

Prof. Naail Mohammed Kamil ......………………… ……………………

(Supervisor) Signature Date

Certified by;

Prof. Naail Mohammed Kamil ……………………… ……………………

(Head of Department) Signature Date

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 ABSTRACT

The general objective of the study is to examine the effects of work-related stress on employee

performance using psychosocial work environment as the moderating role. The study was

approached using the quantitative approach. Data was collected from 120 respondents who were

selected using the simple random sampling technique. The analysis of the data revealed a

significant negative relationship between work-related stress and employee performance among

workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi. Higher levels of work-related stress were associated

with lower levels of employee performance. This finding emphasizes the importance of

managing work-related stress to enhance employee performance in MMDAs. The results again

indicated that the psychosocial work environment significantly influenced employee

performance. Factors such as social support, organizational culture, and job demands were found

to have a positive impact on employee performance. A supportive and positive psychosocial

work environment was associated with higher levels of employee performance. The findings

demonstrated that the psychosocial work environment played a moderating role in the

relationship between work-related stress and employee performance. Specifically, a positive and

supportive psychosocial work environment was found to buffer the negative effects of work-

related stress on employee performance. When employees perceived a high level of support and

positive social interactions in their work environment, the detrimental impact of work-related

stress on their performance was mitigated.

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 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my children Ryan Nana Poku Prempeh Danso, Afia Akoto Afriyie
Danso and Nana Afia Nkunim Frimpong and my mom Mrs Veronica Mireku for their support
throughout my course.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my profound gratitude to the Almighty God for his guidance and
grace throughout my life. From the beginning of this study through to its present form, I have
received assistance, contributions and encouragements from many individuals. I wish to
acknowledge with gratitude my indebtedness to all such people. In particular, I am
enormously grateful to Professor Naail Mohammed Kamil, my supervisor for his utmost and
timely intervention in ensuring that this project was completed on time. His thoughtful
insights and guidance through all the stages of the write-up helped to tie up the loose ends. I
owe an appreciation to Mrs. Stella Ofori-Atta for her assistance and to my dear mom whose
encouragement got me to continue with the programme despite my tight work schedules. I am
also grateful to staff of KNUST. Again, a big thanks goes to Hon.Yaw Danso and my siblings
I appreciate your contributions, I say may God bless you all.

TABLE OF CONTENT

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 S
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................I
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................III
DEDICATION........................................................................................................................IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................V
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................VIII
LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................IX
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMNS.....................................................................X
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY...............................................................................1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM..............................................................................4
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY.....................................................................................6
1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE............................................................................................7
1.4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES............................................................................................7
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS............................................................................................7
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY...............................................................................7
1.7 OVERVIEW OF THE METHODOLOGY....................................................................8
1.8 SCOPE OF THE STUDY..............................................................................................9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................11
2.1. CONCEPTUAL REVIEW................................................................................................11
2.1.1. ORIGIN TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITION OF STRESS.....................................11
2.2 NATURE OF STRESS.......................................................................................................12
2.3 STRESS PROCESS OR RESPONSE STAGES................................................................15
2.4 TYPES OF STRESS...........................................................................................................16
2.4.1 ACUTE STRESS.............................................................................................................16
2.4.2 CHRONIC STRESS........................................................................................................16
2.4.3 TRAUMATIC STRESS..................................................................................................16
2.4.4 EPISODIC ACUTE STRESS..........................................................................................17
2.5 CAUSES OR SOURCES OF STRESS AT WORK..........................................................17
2.7 EMPIRICAL REVIEW....................................................................................................25
2.7.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING WORK RELATED STRESS..........................................25
2.7.2 THE IMPACT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE.......................................................27
2.7.3 MODERATING ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK ENVIRONMENT...............32
2.8.1 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW..............................................................................................36

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 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................37
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN..................................................................................................37
3.2 POPULATION OF THE STUDY................................................................................38
3.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND SAMPLING SIZE................................................38
3.4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS..................................................................39
3.4.1 TYPES AND SOURCE OF DATA..........................................................................39
3.4.2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION...................................................................39
3.4.3 INSTRUMENTATION.............................................................................................39
3.5 DATA ANALYSIS......................................................................................................40
3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF DATA.............................................................40
3.6.1 ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE..............................................................................41
3.7 ETHICAL ISSUES.......................................................................................................41
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................43
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS...................................................................43
4.3.2 VALIDITY TEST.....................................................................................................45
4.3.3 EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS...............................................................49
4.3.4 VARIMAX ROTATION OF THE EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS
(EFA)....................................................................................................................................49
4.3.1 RELIABILITY TEST OF CONSTRUCTS.........................................................50
4.3.5 CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS.........................................................51
4.6 REGRESSION RESULTS...........................................................................................53
4.5 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS....................................................................................57
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................61
5.2 CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................................62
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................................63
5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY...............................................................................65
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................67
APPENDIX..........................................................................................................................94
QUESTIONNAIRE..............................................................................................................94
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHICS........................................................................................94

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Demographic Details of Respondents.....................................................................40
Table 4.2: Herman’s Single Factor Test................................................................................43
Table 4.3: Normality Diagnostics.........................................................................................48
Table 4.4: KMO and Bartlett's Test.....................................................................................49
Table 4.5: Rotated Component Matrix...................................................................................49
Table 4.6: Scale Reliability Test..........................................................................................50
4.7 Descriptive Statistics (Work stress, Psychosocial work environment and Employee
Performance)............................................................................................................................52
Table 4.8: Correlation Analysis of Salient Variables.........................................................52

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 LIST OF FIGURES
2.8.1 Conceptual Framework...................................................................................................34

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMNS

MMDA ………………………. Metropolitan Municipal Development Assembly

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Occupational stress has been of great concern to employees and other stakeholders of

organizations. Occupational stress researchers agree that stress is a serious problem in

many organizations (Cooper & Cartwright, 1994; Ornelas & Kleiner 2003, Varca,

1999). The cost of occupational stress is very high in many organizations in recent

times. For instance, the International Labour Organization (ILO) reports that

inefficiencies arising from occupational stress may cost up to 10 percent of a

country’s GNP (Midgley, 1996). Occupational stress is defined as the perception of a

discrepancy between environmental demands (stressors) and individual capacities to

fulfill these demands (Topper, 2017; Vermut & Steensma, 2020). Christo and Pienaar

(2006) for example, argued that the causes of occupational stress include perceived

loss of job, and security, sitting for long periods of time or heavy lifting, lack of

safety, complexity of repetitiveness and lack of autonomy in the job.

In addition, occupational stress is caused by lack of resources and equipment; work

schedules (such as working late or overtime and poor organizational climate) are

considered as contributors to employees’ stress. Occupational stress often shows high

dissatisfaction among the employees, job mobility, burnout, poor work productivity

and less effective interpersonal relationship at work (Manshor, Rodrigue & Chong,

2003). Johnson (2001) similarly argued that interventions like identifying or

determining the signs of stress, identifying the possible causes for the signs and

developing possible proposed solutions for each sign are required.

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Work-related stress is defined as the perceived imbalance between demands made on

people and the resources available to cope with those demands. Work-related stress

remains a major problem facing organizations in both developing and developed

economies (Wafula & Nyaboga, 2019). Therefore, a study that investigates into work-

related stress and employee performance is an asset to all organizations worldwide

including Ghana. Notably, work-related stress is caused by several factors such as

excessively high workloads (Ayayi, 2018; Bhanu & Badu, 2018), unrealistic

deadlines, poor control over work activities, poor interpersonal support, inadequate

work experience, challenges concerning settling into a new promotion and lack of

career opportunities (Bhanu & Badu, 2018). Apart from the above, a study has

indicated that factors that influence work-related stress include interpersonal

relationship in the organization, professional and competence development,

recognition in the organization, work environment, autonomy in work, work-family

interaction, role conflict, job security and remuneration, and non-academic

(Areekkuzhiyil, 2014).

Studies have reported that work-related stress is associated with negative economic

and health outcomes such as anxiety, headache, stomach distress and cardiovascular

disease (Wafula & Nyaboga, 2019; Rasti & Salajeghe, 2019; Leka & Jain, 2010;

Wafula & Nyaboga, 2019). Evidence further suggests that work-related stress could

impact on the physical and emotional health of workers (Rasti & Salajeghe, 2019). On

the economic loss, available statistics indicate the United States and other developing

economies spend over $150 billion every year to cater for work-related stress. These

economic losses have been linked with increased absenteeism, increased worker

turnover, decreased job satisfaction and associated decreases in worker’s health (Leka

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& Jain, 2010). Besides, increased level of work-related stress results in a change in

employees' behaviour towards work with a negative impact on their job performance

(Botwe et al., 2017; Ayayi, 2018; Wafula & Nyaboga, 2019).

Employee performance portrays an employee work achievement after exerting

required efforts on the job which is associated with getting a meaningful work,

engaging profile, and compassionate colleagues/employers around (Pradhan and Jena,

2017). Work-related stress affects employee performance in many organizations

across the world. However, improvement in productivity through employee

performance is key to the survival of present-day organizations in both developed and

developing countries. The impact of work-related stress on employee performance

manifests through increased absenteeism (Wafula & Nyaboga, 2019). However,

according to Areekkuzhiyil (2014), the psychosocial work environment is a critical

factor that influences the organizational stress and as such, a positive psychosocial

work-environment reduces work-related stress whereas a negative psychosocial work

environment increases stress (Areekkuzhiyil, 2014). Therefore, there is a need to

investigate the role of the psychosocial work environment in moderating the

relationship between work-related stress and employee performance in Ghana. It is

against this background that this study examines the moderating role of psychosocial

work-environment in the relationship between work-related stress and employee

performance among workers of Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies

(MMDAs) in Ghana.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The current turbulent environment in which some workers conduct their work requires

that organizations examine their practices. For instance, working in a financial

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institution in Ghana is inherently stressful, because of long working hours, heavy

workloads, dealing with customers and clients with conflicting demands and varied

behavioral patterns. The physical and psychological demands of customers make the

staff more vulnerable to high levels of stress. The effects of stress are evidenced as

increased lateness to work, errors in cash handling and documentation, frequent sick

leaves, high medical bills, which culminates in low productivity. Despite the

extremely negative impact of occupational stress on the individual and productivity,

many organizations may not seem to have put in any concrete measures to address

these stress-related conditions that has adverse affect on productivity.

Empirical studies have been conducted in the banking sector (Giorgi et al. 2017;

Kumari et al. 2016), educational sector (Wafula, & Nyaboga, 2019), health sector

(Red Cross) (Nakato, 2019), transport sector (highways) (Mahiri & Orwa, 2016) and

informal sector (Asamoah-Appiah et al., 2017) suggest that work-related stress

impacts on employee performance. For instance, Giorgi et al. (2017) wrote on work-

related stress in the banking sector and found that stress among banking workers was

high. Their study further revealed that stress could result in poor health outcome

including physical and psychological effects which could go a long way to affect the

wellbeing of the workers and organization. In another study by Kumari et al. (2016)

on the relationship between stress and job performance in the banking sector, it was

reported that private bank officers were at high risk of stress than their counterparts in

the public banks. Further, the study found a relationship between stress and

performance among banking workers in the Uttarakhand Region. In their study on

stress management and employee performance in selected schools in Kenya, Wafula

and Nyaboga, (2019) found that work-related stress as well as stress coping strategies

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positively correlated to employee’s performance in Kenya. In his study on job

characteristics, occupational stress and employee performance among employees in

Red Cross Uganda, Nakato et al. (2019) found a significant negative relationship

between occupational stress and employee performance. In a related study on

occupational stress and employee performance among Kenya National Highways

Authority, Mahiri & Orwa (2016) reported that occupational stress negatively impacts

on work-relationships, interpersonal relationship and productivity of the employees in

the organization. However, these studies were limited to workers in the banking,

health, transport and education sectors and for that matter findings cannot be

generalized to Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) workers in

Ghana. This is because work demands may differ from organization to organization

and the same situation is true for MMDAs. Presented with different work demands

and the likelihood of being exposed to varied work-related stress, there is a need to

examine the effects of work-related stress on employee performance from the

perspective of MMDAs workers using psychosocial work environment as the

moderating role.

In Ghana, Asamoah-Appiah et al. (2017) wrote on the impact of occupational stress

on employee’s performance in the Twifo Oil Palm Plantation Limited and reported the

causes of stress to include job conditions, interpersonal relations, and career

advancement. The study again noted that work-related stress impacts on job

performance and as a result, the management of the organization pays medical bills,

provision of counselling services as well as the establishment of communication

channels to manage stress problems. That notwithstanding, the study was focused on

workers in the informal sector specifically those in the oil palm plantation. Since

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different sector may adopt varied mechanisms for controlling stress among its

workers, there is a need to set up a separate study that targets local government

workers in Ghana. Though studies have found a relationship between stress and

employee performance, it is important to understand the work context within which

this relatiosnship is established and how this context moderates the relationship.

It is however unclear regarding the effects of work-related stress on employee

performance among workers in MMDAs in Ghana. Besides, the moderating role of

psychosocial work environment in the relationship between work-related stress and

employee performance among workers in MMDAs in Ghana is unknown. Yet, a

preliminary field survey conducted by the author suggests that work-related stress

among employee remains a major occupational health problem among local

government workers in Ghana (Author’s Preliminary Survey, 2023). Thus,

understanding the moderating role of psychosocial work-environment in the

relationship between work-related stress and employee performance is critical to assist

stakeholders in formulating policy to regulate work-related stress among workers in

MMDAs to improve employee performance. Against this backdrop, the purpose of

this study is to examine the effects of work-related stress on employee performance in

selected MMDAs in Greater Kumasi using psychosocial work environment as the

moderating role.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The objective of the study is divided into general and specific objectives.

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objective of the study is to examine the effects of work-related stress on

employee performance using psychosocial work environment as the moderating role.

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1.4.1 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are:

1. To assess the relationship between work-related stress and employee’s

performance among workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi.

2. To analyze the effect of psychosocial work environment on employee

performance.

3. To determine the moderating role of psychosocial work environment in the

relationship between work-related stress and employee performance among

workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi.

1.5 Research Questions

Based on the problem stated, the following research questions will be posed:

1. What is the relationship between work-related stress and employees’

performance among workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi?

2. What is the effect of psychosocial work environment on employee

performance?

3. What is the moderating role of the psychosocial work environment in the

relationship between work-related stress and employee performance among

workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi?

1.6 Significance of the study

This study is significant in three areas: empirical, methodological and policy

contribution. Empirically, the study will contribute to literature by providing

information on the effects of work-related stress on employee performance,

dimensions of work-related stress among employees of MMDAs, psychosocial work-

environment factors influencing work-related stress, relationship between work-

related stress and employees performance workers as well as the moderating role of

xvii
employees psychosocial work environment in the relationship between work-related

stress and employee performance among workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi. This

will further help to contribute to the growing but scanty literature on the moderating

role of employees’ psychosocial work-environment in the relationship between work-

related stress and employee performance among workers of MMDAs in Ghana.

From the methodological perspective, this study will serve as a methodological basis

that will guide the design of future research on the effects of work-related stress on

employee performance in selected MMDAs in Ghana. The findings of this study will

also be useful to the MMDAs in Ghana in the design and formulation of policies to

deal with work-related stress among workers which could go a long way to improve

on employee performance.

1.7 Overview of the methodology

Cross-sectional survey design with quantitative approach was employed to examine

the effects of work-related stress on employee performance in selected MMDAs in

Greater Kumasi using psychosocial work environment as the moderating role. Sources

of data for this study will include both primary and secondary sources of data.

Questionnaires will be used to collect primary data on the various specific objectives

of the study. Non-probability sampling technique such as convenience sampling will

be used to recruit a representative sample from Obuasi Municipal Assembly, Obuasi

East District Assembly, Ejisu Municipal Assembly, Ejisu Juaben Municipal

Assembly, Oforikrom Municipal Assembly and Kwadaso Municipal Assembly to

respond to questionnaire. Quantitative data will be analysed using inferential statistics

such as correlation and linear regression which are both embedded in the Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software (Version 21.0). Percentages and

frequencies will be used to describe the baseline characteristics of the respondents.

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1.8 Scope of the study
The scope of the study is divided into two; contextual and geographical. The

contextual scope deals with the subject matter of the study whereas the geographical

scope deals with where the study will be conducted. Contextually, the study was

focused on the effects of work-related stress on employee performance in selected

MMDAs in Greater Kumasi using psychosocial work environment as the moderating

variable. It further focuses on the dimensions of work-related stress among employees

of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi. It again deals with psychosocial work-environment

factors influencing work-related stress among employees of MMDAs in Greater

Kumasi. It also takes into consideration the relationship between work-related stress

and employees’ performance among workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi. It

considers the moderating role of employees’ psychosocial work environment in the

relationship between work-related stress and employee performance among workers

of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi. Geographically, the study will be conducted in

Greater Kumasi specifically, workers at Obuasi Municipal Assembly, Obuasi East

District Assembly, Ejisu Municipal Assembly, Ejisu Juaben Municipal Assembly,

Oforikrom Municipal Assembly and Kwadaso Municipal Assembly.

1.1 Organization of the study

The study was organized into five chapters. Chapter one was devoted to the

background to the study, the statement of the problem, research questions, research

objectives, the significance of the study and scope of the study. Chapter two was

devoted to review of literature, theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Chapter three

focused on organizational profile and research methodology. Chapter four was

devoted to data presentation, analysis and discussion in line with the specific

xix
 objectives of the study. Chapter five focused on the summary of research findings,

conclusion and recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This Chapter reviews detailed existing knowledge of stress and the effect thereof on

efficiency. Views from various authors were used to give a superior hypothetical

comprehension of the way of stress, its causes, and the effect it has on efficiency.

2.1. Conceptual Review

2.1.1. Origin terminology and definition of stress

The term stress was initially utilized in a natural setting by the endocrinologist Hans Selye in

the 1930s. He later expanded and advanced the idea to incorporate unseemly physiological

reaction to any demand. In his utilization, stress alludes to an environment and the stressor to

the inducement creating it. It covers an extensive variety of marvel from gentle disturbance to

extreme brokenness that may bring about serious wellbeing breakdown (Bonson, 2017).

As indicated by Robbins (2016), stress is a dynamic environment in which an individual is

gone up against circumstance, limitation or request identified with what he fancies and for

which the result is seen to be both questionable and vital. From this definition one can state

that stress is not always bad, it additionally has a positive esteem when it offers potential

opportunity. Moorhead and Griffen (2018) additionally characterized stress as a man's

versatile reaction to a boost that spots physical and mental requests on a man.

Essentially, Sherman, Bahlander and Snell (2016), likewise characterized stress as any

adjusting request on an individual brought about by physical, enthusiastic or mental variables

that requires adapting conduct.

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Additionally Taylor Shelley (2015) depicts stress as a negative passionate ordeal joined by

unsurprising biochemical, physiological, subjective and behavioural changes that are

coordinated either toward adjusting the occasions or pleasing its belongings. Once more,

Bennett (2014) characterizes stress as a wide accumulation of physical and mental side effects

that outcomes from troubles experienced by an individual while endeavouring to receive to a

domain. This implies that the potential for stress exists when an ecological circumstance

shows a request debilitating to surpass a man's abilities and assets. From the above

definitions, stress can best be viewed as over the top requests that affects a man physically

and mentally. Along these lines the mental or physical environment are the outcomes from

risk or peril faced and the challenge to expel it.

2.2 Nature of stress

Stress is an unpredictable spectacle since it is not a substance; so it can't be obviously

touched. As indicated by Bowing and Harvey (2015), stress happens with the cooperation

between an individual and nature, which produces enthusiastic strain influencing a man's

physical and mental environment. Stress is brought on by stressors, which are occasions that

make an environment of instability internally in a person. These authors additionally

expressed that the cost of so much stress on people, associations, and society is high.

Numerous employees may experience the ill effects of stress issue or stress-related

sicknesses. Regarding absent days at work, it is assessed that each affected worker loses

around 16 working days a year as a result of stress, anxiety or despondency.

As per Ritchie and Martin (2019), for a considerable length of time stress was portrayed and

characterized as far as external, normally physical, forces following up on a person. Later it

was recommended that the individual's impression of, and reaction to, stimuli or occasions

was critical assess deciding how that individual may respond, and regardless of whether an

occasion was viewed as upsetting. These authors additionally fought that most analysts
xxi
recognized that both outside and internal variables affect stress. They saw stress as a reaction

to external or internal procedures, which achieve levels that strain physical and mental limits

past their farthest point.

As indicated by Blumenthal (2016), for a great many years, the assemblages of

cavemen/women were prepared to manage the cruel rigors of their environment.

Notwithstanding the peril, a surge of adrenaline would prepare cave residents to either battle

or keep running for their lives. Even with misfortune, muscles and nerves were charged for

sudden development, heart rates would build, and blood would course through the veins with

sugar discharged into the circulation system. The flight or battle reaction would prepare them

for activity: effective hormones epinephrine what's more, nor epinephrine, discharged by the

adrenal organs, gifted people with upgraded readiness, quality and vitality. A great many

years after the fact people live in similar bodies and have a similar human brains yet in a

world with totally extraordinary stressors and bothers. While couple of people may confront

threat from wild creatures and unsuccessful chasing, urban life is similarly requesting. The

urban environment is overflowing with stressors, (for example, contamination, clamour,

brutality, traffic) that animate the sensory system into a flight or battle reaction, yet it is just

in uncommon cases that a forceful or incredible physical reaction is suitable.

Blumenthal (2016) saw stress as anything that miracles individuals' capacity to keep up basic

factors (which can be social, mental, otherworldly or organic in nature) internal adequate

breaking points. The experience of stress includes an occasion that is requesting or assets and

additionally the subjective sentiment trouble experienced in its face. An occasion could be

experienced as upsetting if individuals (assessed) it as troubling. Regardless of whether an

occasion is experienced as distressing relies on a man's psychosocial introduction with things

like culture, deep sense of being, qualities, convictions and past encounters impacting the

xxii
examination. Occasions that are evaluated as being overpowering, debilitating, uninspiring or

confliction will probably be experienced as upsetting.

Blumenthal (2016) separated distinctive impacts of stress as follows:

• Subjective impacts: stress prompts uneasiness, wretchedness, disappointment, weariness

and low self-regard.

• Behavioural impacts: stress prompts mishap inclination, substance manhandle, weakened

discourse, eagerness and absent mindedness.

• Cognitive impacts: stress affects our manner of thinking, prompting a trouble or dread of

deciding, absent mindedness, touchiness, psychological barriers and trouble focusing or

thinking obviously. This might be escalated by substance manhandle.

• Physiological reactions: start in the mind and spread to organs all through the body.

Catecholamine from the adrenaline medulla causes the kidneys to raise pulse and the liver to

discharge sugar into the circulatory strain and the liver to discharge sugar into the circulation

system. The pituitary organ fortifies the arrival of corticosteroids, which opposes stress be

that as it may, if in the framework for a delayed timeframe, smothers the safe framework.

These reactions are versatile for managing stress as 'battle or flight" however this reaction is

once in a while valuable in urban work, rather the collection of stress items in the body is

insusceptible suppressive having an effect in degenerative procedures and illness.

• Effects on wellbeing: delayed presentation to stress has significant and unfavourable

impacts on wellbeing. Among conceivable difficulties stress may fuel or assume a part in

bringing about illnesses like asthma, amenorrhea, coronary illness, trunk torments, looseness

of the bowels, dyspepsia, cerebral pains, headaches, diabetes mellitus, ulcers and diminished

drive. In reality as we know it where AIDS is alarmingly predominant individuals should

xxiii
know that stress is immuno-suppressive. HIV separates a man's insusceptible framework,

which abandons them powerless against conceivably lethal contaminations and infections.

2.3 Stress process or response stages

As per Arnold, Robertson and Cooper (2013), stress reaction in three phases.

ALARM RESISTANCE EXHAUSTION

i. Alarm is the principal organize. At the point when the danger or stressor is distinguished or

understood, the body's stress reaction is an environment of caution. Amid this stage

adrenaline was created with a specific end goal to achieve the "battle or-flight response".

There is additionally some initiation of the HPA pivot, delivering cortisol.

ii. The Resistance stage is the place the body needs to choose to 'battle or flight'. The body

will attempt to add assets to help it adapt through most extreme adaption and ideally,

effective come back to harmony for the individual. If be that as it may, the barrier instrument

does not work, or neglects to adapt, it will prompt the third stage which is Exhaustion.

iii. Exhaustion stage is the third and last stage. At this point, the greater part of the body's

assets are in the long run drained and the body can't keep up ordinary function. The starting

autonomic sensory system side effects may return (sweating, raised heart rate, and so on). On

the off chance that stage three is expanded, long haul harm may come about as the body, and

the invulnerable framework is depleted and the capacity is disabled bringing about

disintegration. The outcome can show itself in clear diseases, for example, ulcers, sadness,

diabetes or even cardiovascular issues, alongside other emotional instabilities.

xxiv
2.4 Types of stress

As indicated by Taylor Shelley (2015), there are four noteworthy sorts of stress and she

clarifies them as follows:

2.4.1 Acute Stress

This sort of stress is the most well-known and most unmistakable type of stress. It is the sort

of stress which the individual knows precisely why he is focused on; he was simply in a

fender bender; the school nurture just called him, a bear just sauntered onto his campsite. It

can likewise be something startling yet exciting, for example, a parachute hop. Ordinarily, the

body rest when these unpleasant occasions stop and life returns to ordinary on the grounds

that the impacts are here and now. Intense stress as a rule does not made serious or lasting

harm to the body.

2.4.2 Chronic stress

She depicts this sort of stress as persistent requests and weights for apparently relentless

timeframes. Constant stress is the sort that wears the person out day after day and quite a long

time with no unmistakable escape. It pounds away at both enthusiastic and wellbeing of the

individual prompting breakdown and even demise.

2.4.3 Traumatic Stress

It is an extreme stress response that comes from a disastrous occasion or serious experience,

for example, a cataclysmic event, rape, life-debilitating mischance, or interest in a battle.

Here, after the underlying stun and passionate aftermath, numerous injury casualties

continuously start to recuperate. Be that as it may, for a few people, the mental and physical

manifestations activated by the injury don't leave, the body does not come back to harmony,

and life does not come back to ordinary. This environment is known as post injury stress

issue. Regular indications of this kind of stress are flashbacks or bad dreams about the injury,

xxv
shirking of spots and things related with the injury, hyper watchfulness for indications of peril

and crabbiness and pressure.

2.4.4 Episodic Acute Stress

She went further to clarify long winded intense stress as where the individual encountering

this sort of stress lives are extremely disorderly, wild and they generally appear to confront

numerous distressing circumstance. They are dependably in a surge, constantly late,

continually going up against vastly numerous undertakings, dealing with an alarming number

of demands. Those who are inclined to this sort of stress incorporate "Type A" identity sorts.

On the off chance that an individual is inclined to rambling intense stress, he may not know it

or concede it. He might be married to a way of life that advances stress. Tragically,

individuals with verbose intense stress may discover it so routine that they oppose changing

their ways of life until they encounter extreme physical side effects.

2.5 Causes or Sources of Stress at Work

Repetti (2010), McGronogle and Kessler (2010), Pervin (2012), concur with Arnold,

Robertson and Cooper (2013) in discussing the causes or wellsprings of stress. Arnold,

Robertson and Cooper (2013), recognized five noteworthy reasons for work stress as:

components natural for the occupation, part in the organisation, connections at work,

profession improvement and hierarchical structure and atmosphere.

2.5.1 The Concept of Psychological Work Environment

Work is viewed as an important aspect of quality of life. Conversely, being unemployed is

associated with a higher risk of common mental disorders (Norman, 2020). In spite of this

beneficial effect of work, an unfavorable psychosocial working environment may also pose a

threat to the mental health of workers. Trends such as increased work pace, more high-skilled

jobs, and the increased use of information and communication technology have been placing

xxvi
increasingly higher demands on the mental functions of workers (Wilmot, 2019). Not

surprisingly, high levels of psychological distress are widespread in the working population.

A recent study estimated the prevalence of high psychological distress (likely mental

disorder) at 4.5% and that of moderate distress (mental disorder possible) at 9.6% in a sample

of 60 556 employees of large employers in the USA (Hinson, 2018). Distress is a

heterogeneously defined term that refers to unpleasant subjective stress responses. When

distress reaches the level of clinical relevancy, it may be described as a stress-related disorder

(SRD). This term can be applied to many overlapping stress-related concepts and diagnoses

such as neurasthenia, adjustment disorders and burnout. SRDs represent a significant part of

the work-related common mental disorders in both self-report surveys (Keller, 2019) and in

reporting schemes by occupational physicians (79% in the Netherlands and 40% in the UK.

However, the inter-physician variation for the assessment of work-relatedness of SRDs is

high.

Diagnoses of work-related SRDs are critical on three levels. On the level of primary

prevention, statistics are needed to monitor trends in their incidence and assessing the effect

of national primary prevention initiatives. In the UK for instance, the Management Standards

were developed by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) helping work organizations reduce

work-related stress (Inkoom, 2020). On the level of work organizations, the identification of

one or more cases of work-related SRDs may enhance preventive actions. And on the level of

the worker, occupational physicians can provide recommendations for specific modifications

to the worker’s job, either as part of a return-to-work plan or permanently. Several theories

have been developed that predict negative consequences for the mental health of workers

when exposed to certain psychosocial risk factors at work.

2.6.3 The Concept of Employee Performance

xxvii
Improvement of productivity is a central issue in present-day organizations. Productivity

through job performance stands as a widely researched domain in literature of organizational

behavior (OB) and human resource (HR) development (Bommer et al., 1995; Lawler, &

Worley, 2006; Schiemann, 2009). Job performance as in the form of performance assessment

and management is an essential part of effective HR management and it is a most sought-after

developmental intervention in HR portfolio (Bateman, & Snell, 2007; Fay, & Luhrmann,

2004; Hellriegel et al., 2004). The term “employee performance” signifies individual’s work

achievement after exerting required effort on the job which is associated through getting a

meaningful work, engaged profile, and compassionate colleagues/employers around

(Hellriegel, Jackson, & Slocum, 1999; Karakas, 2010). In order to utilize HR fully and

augment organizational success, effective employee performance management system is

imperative for a business organization. The performancedriven objective is expected to be

aligned with the organizational policies so that the entire process moves away from being

event-driven to become more strategic and a people-centric perspective (Jena, & Pradhan,

2014; London, 2003; Mone, & London, 2009). Why do some organizations perform better

than others and get listed as most preferred employer of the year? Earlier findings have

suggested for deploying lucrative incentive schemes for motivating the employees toward

meaningful job participation (Friedman, & Sunder, 1994; Roth, 1995; Smith, 1991; Sprinkle,

2000). At the same time, there are sufficient pragmatic evidences showing that financial

offers have varying effects and may not be of much significance for escalating employee

performance (Bonner et al., 2001; Camerer, & Hogarth, 1999; Gupta, & Shaw, 2014). This is

due to the changing nature of work and rise of knowledge workers in post-globalization,

which has defied the familiar views of individual work performance (Frese, & Fay, 2001;

Ilgen & Pulakos, 1999). The question that arises over here is, if monetary incentives are

incongruent on one’s effort and performance, then what are the other associated behavioral

xxviii
factors that influence enhancing employee performance. At the same time, with the changing

organizational requirements, the ability to adapt stands as one of an important measure to

assimilate in performance. Unfortunately, little efforts have been made to verify those

subdued variables together empirically. One of the reasons may be that performance is a

difficult concept to outline and measure. The fundamental supposition of organizational

psychology is that individual role and organizational goals are expected to be interdependent

(Pfeffer, & Salancik, 1978). However, there is scarce attention on understanding their intra

and interpersonal behavioral silos upon which members of the organization assesses its

effectiveness. Therefore, it needs a shift of focus from fixed task-centric attitude to a wider

cognizance on addressing varied roles of present-day organizations that influences employee

performance (Fried, Levi, & Laurence, 2008; Ilgen, & Hollenbeck, 1991; Morgeson, &

Humphrey, 2008). This suggests for conducting a rigorous research through clearly defining

the measure of employee performance and developing appropriate instrument that can

validate the underlying factors of the construct. To unfold this research gap, the present

research article is structured in following sequences. We have reviewed literature on job

performance and its different facets explored so far. Second, we have interviewed

academicians and corporate practitioners across India regarding their understanding on the

present state of employee performance at workplace. Finally, on the basis of the literature,

feedback from academics and industry professionals, a heuristic framework was developed

through placing relative importance on three performance components (i.e., task, adaptive,

and contextual performance). Keeping these dimensions into account, a scale on employee

performance was developed in form of a questionnaire.

2.6.4 Dimensions of Employee Performance

Performance is a multicomponent concept and on the fundamental level one can distinguish

the process aspect of performance, that is, behavioral engagements from an expected outcome

xxix
(Borman, & Motowidlo, 1993; Campbell et al., 1993; Roe, 1999). The behavior over here

denotes the action people exhibit to accomplish a work, whereas the outcome aspect states

about the consequence of individual’s job behavior (Campbell, 1990). Apparently, in a

workplace, the behavioral engagement and expected outcome are related to each other

(Borman, & Motowidlo, 1993), but the comprehensive overlap between both the constructs

are not evident yet, as the expected outcome is influenced by factors such as motivation and

cognitive abilities than the behavioral aspect. Performance in the form of task performance

comprises of job explicit behaviors which includes fundamental job responsibilities assigned

as a part of job description. Task performance requires more cognitive ability and is primarily

facilitated through task knowledge (requisite technical knowledge or principles to ensure job

performance and having an ability to handle multiple assignments), task skill (application of

technical knowledge to accomplish task successfully without much supervision), and task

habits (an innate ability to respond to assigned jobs that either facilitate or impede the

performance) (Conway, 1999). Therefore, the primary antecedents of task performance are

the ability to do the job and prior experience. In an organizational context, task performance

is a contractual understanding between a manager and a subordinate to accomplish an

assigned task. Entrusted task performance is broken into two segments: technical–

administrative task performance and leadership task performance. The expected job

performance comprising of planning, organizing, and administering the day-to-day work

through one’s technical ability, business judgment and so on are called as technical–

administrative task performance. Leadership task performance is labeled through setting

strategic goals, upholding the necessary performance standards, motivating and directing

subordinates to accomplish the job through encouragement, recognition, and constructive

criticisms (Borman, & Brush, 1993; Tripathy, 2014). Borman, and Motowidlo (1997) defined

job performance in the context of task performance as “effectiveness with which job

xxx
occupants execute their assigned tasks, that realizes the fulfillment of organization’s vision

while rewarding organization and individual proportionately.” Werner (1994) has synthesized

the earlier propositions of task performance through relating it to organizational formal

reward stating as “the demonstrated skill and behavior that influences the direct production of

goods or service, or any kind of activities that provides indirect supports to organization’s

core technical processes.” An individual’s ability to acclimatize and provide necessary

support to the job profile in a dynamic work situation is referred to as adaptive performance

(Hesketh, & Neal, 1999). Earlier studies have found that once the employees derive a certain

amount of perfection in their assigned tasks, they try to adapt their attitude and behavior to

the varied requirements of their job roles (Huang et al., 2014; Pulakos et al., 2000). An

effective adaptive performance necessitates employees’ ability to efficiently deal with volatile

work circumstances (Baard, Rench, & Kozlowski, 2014), for example, technological

transformations, changes in one’s core job assignment, restructuring of organization and so

on. Evolutions of various new occupations as an offshoot of technological innovation need

employees to engage in fresh learning and get oneself adaptable with changes in an efficient

manner (Griffin, Parker, & Mason, 2010; Hollenbeck, LePine, & Ilgen, 1996).

2.6.5 Theoretical Framework

2.6.7 Job demand–control theory

The Job Demand-Control Theory is highly relevant to the topic of the effects of work-related

stress on employee performance, particularly in the context of the moderating role of the

psychosocial work environment. This theory, developed by Robert Karasek, focuses on the

relationship between job demands, job control, and the resulting impact on employee well-

being and performance.

xxxi
According to the Job Demand-Control Theory, job demands refer to the psychological,

physical, and organizational aspects of work that require sustained effort and may be

perceived as stressful by employees. Examples of job demands include workload, time

pressure, and conflicting job responsibilities. On the other hand, job control refers to the

degree of autonomy and decision-making authority that employees have in their work. It

includes aspects such as decision-making latitude, skill utilization, and opportunities for

learning and development (Bellam, 2021).

The theory posits that the interaction between job demands and job control influences the

psychological and physiological response of employees to work-related stress. When

employees experience high job demands coupled with low job control, they are more likely to

experience higher levels of work-related stress. This combination creates a situation of high

strain, leading to negative outcomes such as decreased job satisfaction, increased burnout, and

impaired psychological well-being (Norman, 2019). In the context of the effects of work-

related stress on employee performance, the Job Demand-Control Theory suggests that the

psychosocial work environment, which encompasses factors such as social support,

supervisor support, and coworker relationships, can moderate the relationship between job

demands, job control, and employee performance. A supportive psychosocial work

environment can act as a buffer against the negative effects of high job demands and low job

control on employee performance.

For instance, a study examining the moderating role of psychosocial work environment on the

relationship between work-related stress and performance found that employees who

perceived higher levels of social support and supervisor support experienced less negative

impact on their performance when facing high job demands and low job control. The

availability of support networks and positive relationships with supervisors and colleagues

xxxii
can provide resources and coping mechanisms to help employees manage work-related stress

and maintain performance levels.

In summary, the Job Demand-Control Theory provides a framework for understanding the

relationship between job demands, job control, work-related stress, and employee

performance. It highlights the importance of considering the moderating role of the

psychosocial work environment in mitigating the negative effects of work-related stress on

performance. By fostering a supportive work environment, organizations can help employees

better cope with job demands, enhance job control, and ultimately improve overall

performance and well-being.These are the significant outcomes of stress. At that point

emotional wellness of employees is debilitated by abnormal amounts of stress and poor

mental health. Unlike the Physical indications, Psychological side effects could likewise bring

about employees work execution to fall apart. Outrage, stress, sadness, apprehension,

fractiousness, forcefulness, and weariness brings about low worker execution, decreases in

self-regard, disdain of supervision, powerlessness to focus, inconvenience in settling on

choice and employment dissatisfaction. Also the mental side effects of stress can prompt

burnout. Work burnout is a drawn out withdrawal from work which makes the sufferer debase

his work and considers it to be a wellspring of disappointment (Norman, 2018).

The behavioural indications of stress incorporate eating pretty much, cigarette smoking,

utilized of liquor and medications, fast discourse design anxious wriggling which prompts

non-appearance from work, happing from occupation to employment and makes execution

break down (Wilmot, 2021). These are changes in the digestion that go with stressors. The

manifestations incorporate expanded heart rate, circulatory strain and so forth. With this, the

wear and tear on the body winds up noticeably observable and problematic. The

impacts of this are back agonies, headache migraines, a sleeping disorder, coronary illness,

hypertension, diabetes and much malignancy which affect workers' efficiency.

xxxiii
2.7 Empirical review
2.7.1 Factors Influencing Work Related Stress
Mathis and Jackson (2015) proposed that to gauge authoritative human asset profitability one

needs to consider unit work cost, or the aggregate work cost per unit of yield. The authors

additionally expressed that an individual execution relies on upon three components which

are; capacity to take the necessary steps, level of exertion and bolster given to that individual.

The relationship of these components, generally recognized in administration writing, is that

Performance (P) is the result of Ability (A) times Effort (E) times Support (S), that is:

(P=AxExS). Execution is decreased if any of these elements are lessened or missing. They

additionally accentuate that nature of generation should likewise be considered as a feature of

efficiency since one option may be to deliver all the more however a lower quality.

Basically put by Chase and Aquilano (2015), profitability is measured as far as yields per

work hour. However this estimation does not guarantee that the firm will profit (for instance

when additional yield is not sold but rather amasses as stock). To test whether profitability

has expanded, the accompanying inquiries ought to be asked: 'has the move made expanded

yield or has it diminished stock?' 'Has the move made diminished operational cost?' This

would then prompt another definition which is: Performance is every one of the activities that

convey an organization nearer to its objectives. Mathis and Jackson (2015) characterized

profitability as a measure of the amount and nature of work done considering the cost of the

asset it took to take every necessary step. Steers (2011) is of the sentiment that it is helpful

from an managerial point of view to consider a few types of counter-beneficial conduct that

are known to come about because of delayed stress. Thompson and Mc Hugh (2015) are of

the sentiment that when particularly with respect to stress in the work environment,

contemporary records of the stress "prepare" frequently take after the idea of stress as coming

about because of a rebel between an individual and their specific environment, where internal

or outside variables stress the people versatile limits past his or her point of confinement. In

xxxiv
any case, no two individuals respond to a similar occupation in the extremely same way, since

individual variables likewise impact stress. For instance, type A personalities; individuals

who are obsessive workers and who feel headed to be dependably on time and meet due

dates, regularly put themselves under more noteworthy stress than do others (Desseler 2015).

This is additionally repeated by Bowin and Harvey (2015) who accentuated that individuals

can't totally isolate their work and individual lives, the way individuals respond and handle

stress at work is an intricate issue.

As indicated by Blumenthal (2016) an upset U-sort bend has been utilized to portray the

impact stress has on performance. It can be demonstrated that, as stress builds, so does the

performance. Be that as it may if stress keeps on expanding past an ideal point, performance

will top and begin to decay. This demonstrates stress is important to upgrade performance yet

once it achieves a level of intense distress, it is unsafe and counterproductive. Blumenthal

(2016) went ahead to contend that overabundance stress is unsafe, ruinous and negative to

human prosperity and efficiency. Stress can affect an individual's prosperity by bringing

about brokenness or interruption in numerous territories. This brokenness reaches out into the

authoritative world and prompts diminished profitability.

As indicated by Garrison and Bly (2017) organizations have turned out to be intensely

mindful of the issues brought about by stress. The sicknesses related with stress are

expensive, and they can cripple a significant specialist. At the point when stress is not dealt

with well, non-appearance, turnover, and therapeutic remuneration increment and profitability

diminishes. Army and Bly (2017) additionally expressed that the working environment is

extraordinary simply because such a large amount of our time is spent at work. To

accomplish a pinnacle of performance, stress ought to be overseen adequately, with the

negative impacts of stress limited. It is therefore hypothesized that:

xxxv
Work stress is influenced by work and personal related factors

2.7.2 The Impact of Stress on Performance

Mathis and Jackson (2015) proposed that to gauge authoritative human asset profitability one

needs to consider unit work cost, or the aggregate work cost per unit of yield. The authors

additionally expressed that an individual execution relies on upon three components which

are; capacity to take the necessary steps, level of exertion and bolster given to that individual.

The relationship of these components, generally recognized in administration writing, is that

Performance (P) is the result of Ability (A) times Effort (E) times Support (S), that is:

(P=AxExS). Execution is decreased if any of these elements are lessened or missing. They

additionally accentuate that nature of generation should likewise be considered as a feature of

efficiency since one option may be to deliver all the more however a lower quality.

Basically put by Chase and Aquilano (2015), profitability is measured as far as yields per

work hour. However this estimation does not guarantee that the firm will profit (for instance

when additional yield is not sold but rather amasses as stock). To test whether profitability

has expanded, the accompanying inquiries ought to be asked: 'has the move made expanded

yield or has it diminished stock?' 'Has the move made diminished operational cost?' This

would then prompt another definition which is: Performance is every one of the activities that

convey an organization nearer to its objectives. Mathis and Jackson (2015) characterized

profitability as a measure of the amount and nature of work done considering the cost of the

asset it took to take every necessary step. Steers (2011) is of the sentiment that it is helpful

from an managerial point of view to consider a few types of counter-beneficial conduct that

are known to come about because of delayed stress.

xxxvi
Thompson and Mc Hugh (2015) are of the sentiment that when particularly with respect to

stress in the work environment, contemporary records of the stress "prepare" frequently take

after the idea of stress as coming about because of a rebel between an individual and their

specific environment, where internal or outside variables stress the people versatile limits past

his or her point of confinement. In any case, no two individuals respond to a similar

occupation in the extremely same way, since individual variables likewise impact stress. For

instance, type A personalities; individuals who are obsessive workers and who feel headed to

be dependably on time and meet due dates, regularly put themselves under more noteworthy

stress than do others (Desseler 2015). This is additionally repeated by Bowin and Harvey

(2015) who accentuated that individuals can't totally isolate their work and individual lives,

the way individuals respond and handle stress at work is an intricate issue. Tune and Walton

(2017) additionally characterized business related stress as the mental express that speaks to

an unevenness or bungle between individuals' view of the request on them and their capacity

to adapt to these requests. As per the DCSgaumail (2016) the new political administration of

South Africa has unfolded. Associations presented to the modified flow of their environment

should roll out appropriations and improvements in order to proceed with the way of

aggressiveness, effectives and survival. The stressors of South African professional

workplace request the workings of a more incorporated workforce, viable clash taking care

of, worldwide rivalry, surviving time and gathering weight and accomplishing more

noteworthy financial development.

DCS gaumail (2016) additionally underlined that no individual or gathering can be removed

from social setting. Ethnicity, political and monetary environments are imperative precursor

calculates that could add to an individual's ordeal of stress. In South Africa, the politically-

sanctioned racial segregation legacy still negatively affects large portions of those groups

xxxvii
who have been generally burdened. Both frameworks and circumstances should be

considered while tending to the subject of stress.

As per Frost (2016) the recurrence with which dedicated, profitable employees have negative

encounters in the working environment or hear terrible news that leaves their expectations

dashed, their objectives wrecked, or their certainty undermined. The wellsprings of the

torment fluctuate, however quite a bit of it originates from oppressive directors, outlandish

organization approaches, troublesome collaborators or customers, or from inadequately

oversaw change. It is a by-result of authoritative life that can have genuine negative

consequences for people and their associations, unless it is recognized and taken care of in

solid and valuable ways.

Frost (2016) is of the assessment that this sort of agony appears in individuals' reduced

feeling of self-esteem and lost certainty and expectation. It is ruinous to execution and spirit.

The unmistakable outcomes incorporate lost benefits coming about because of things like

reduced profitability or more terrible mass departure. Frost (2016) is likewise of the feeling

that separated from stopping, which conveys its own arrangement of expenses to the

organization, demonstrations of requital, damage, burglary, vandalism, withdrawal practices,

spreading tattle or for the most part acting negative or hesitant can all speak to immediate or

circuitous expenses to the association.

As per Thompson and Mc Hugh (2010) expenses are inspected socially as far as rates of

coronary illness, mental turmoil and social brokenness and in work environment through

impacts on occupation fulfilment, execution and non-attendance rates, and all the more as of

late in the expenses of pay cases and medical coverage. These authors are likewise of the

sentiment that typologies of wellsprings of stressors and the types of obsessive end-state to be

experienced, represent a significant part of the present day stress writing. This has a tendency

xxxviii
to accentuate the measure of profitability lost because of stress, its certainty and the

advantages for the venture of overseeing stress. Taking everything into account, Frost (2016)

trusted that when authoritative pioneers perceive enthusiastic torment when it happens and act

to mediate, conceivably deadly circumstances in the working environment could be switched.

As indicated by Robbins (2016), stress can be overseen in two methodologies; the individual

and authoritative methodologies.

He said the individual approach incorporate exercise. That is the employees can oversee

stress by strolling, riding bikes, going to high-impact classes, rehearsing yoga, running,

swimming, playing tennis and swatting squash balls. Most runners and wellness addicts

concede that, it is difficult to concentrate on employment stress when one is attempting to

finish enthusiastic exercise. Once more, he said people can oversee stress through relaxation.

This is on the grounds that, when employees unwind the reaction for stress was saved in the

human personality body framework. People can lessen strain through unwinding strategies,

for example, reflection, trance and biofeedback. The goal is to achieve an environment of

profound unwinding in which the worker feels physically casual, to some degree segregated

from the prompt environment and withdrew from body sensations. Unwinding practices

decrease employee's heart rates, circulatory strain and other physiological pointers of stress.

Another approach to decrease stress exclusively is opening up. A solid reaction to this

minutes or times of individual emergency is to trust in others. Employees may not think that

it’s simple to talk about troublesome individual injuries with others, yet self-revelation can

lessen the level of stress and give them more uplifting point of view. Additionally genuine

sections all the time in a journal may fulfil a similar thing.

He likewise went further to disclose the association way to deal with stress administration

which incorporate preparing programs for employees, guaranteeing compelling upward and

descending correspondence in the association, change in faculty strategies, for example,

xxxix
(great welfare bundles, motivating forces, benefits plans), great job outline, change in the

physical workplace, and furthermore administration ought to give specialized support to

employees.

In a similar view, Lucey (2014) said stress can be overseen in an association through

expanding employees self-rule in their employment, increment or diminishing moral

obligation, permit more adaptable working hours – by the utilized of flexi – time, work pivot

and exchanges, give better working environments, including social/wellness clubs and so

forth, and establish a counselling service.

Additionally Claude and Cole (2012) proposed that so as to oversee work stress successfully,

management ought to consider doing the accompanying:

• Provide work which permits some individual decision in the way it is completed and the

arrangement in which it is done.

• Encourage workers interest in choices which affect them

• Set clear objectives and targets and give sufficient input on performance

• Induct newcomers altogether

• Provide preparing as an on-going refreshing procedure

• Provide steady rewards for successful yield

• Review performance holes at the season of event

• Provide open doors for workers to attempt new obligations and diverse errands.

• Design occupation to have even work weights

• Encourage aggregate working strategies and well-disposed work relations

• Provide secure and reasonable work force rehearses

xl
• Ensure workplace is free of risks

This infers if these methodologies and measures delineated above are painstakingly executed

it could go far to limit the level of weight on workers.

From the earliest starting point to the finish of this part, we found the presence of work stress,

it circumstances and end results. The proof demonstrates that stress can be either a positive or

a negative impact on employees yield. For some individuals, low to direct measure of stress

empower them to play out their employments better by expanding the work power, sharpness

and capacity to respond. In any case, an abnormal state of stress, or even a direct sum

managed over a long stress, in the end inflicts significant damage on workers and weight

tends to lessening general performance and occupation fulfilment. Therefore, it is being

hypothesized that:

Work stress will significantly affect employee performance

2.7.3 Moderating Role of Psychological Work Environment

Beginning another employment would prone to be exceptionally distressing if the individual

felt unpractised, not able to adapt to workload, awkward around their supervisors or partners

and unstimulated by their work. Then again, a man entering a zone of work where they felt

able, upheld by their partners and invigorated, would probably encounter the change as trying

than upsetting.

As indicated by Luthans (2016) other than the potential stressors that happened outside the

association, there were likewise those that were related with the association. In spite of the

fact that an association is comprised of groups of people, there are additionally more large

scale level measurements, remarkable to an association that contains potential stressors.

DCS (2016) is of the feeling that at the hierarchical level, look into has found that business

related burdens might be in charge of authoritative results, for example, decrease in

xli
execution, disappointment, absence of inspiration and duty, and an expansion in truancy and

turnover.

Desseler (2015) suggested that there were two fundamental wellsprings of occupation stress;

natural and individual. As indicated by this author an assortment of outside natural variables

could prompt employment stress. These included work routines, work environment, employer

stability, and course to and from work and the number and nature of customers. Indeed, even

commotion, including individuals talking and phones ringing, added to stress. This author, in

any case, noticed that people responded contrastingly regardless of the possibility that they

were at a similar employment, since individual components likewise affected stress. The

author additionally noticed that stress is not really useless; a few people function admirably

just when under a little stress and discover they are more gainful when a due date approaches.

Desseler (2015) was of the supposition that for associations work stress outcomes included

decreases in the amount and nature of occupation execution, expanded truancy and turnover,

expanded grievances and social insurance costs. An investigation of 46,000 employees

presumed that stress and despondency may make workers look for therapeutic administer to

ambiguous physical and mental issues and can in reality prompt more genuine wellbeing

environments. The medicinal services expenses of the high-stress labourers were 46% higher

than those of their less focused on associates. As per Levin-Epstein (2016) weight at work

incurred significant damage on philanthropies: lost time from work, emptied efficiency, low

staff spirit, turnover and higher social insurance costs. As indicated by Anderson and

Kyprianou (2014) in the United States of America, Britain and numerous other European

nations, about a large portion of the deaths every year for both men and ladies, were because

of cardiovascular ailments. The components related with high danger of heart illnesses

included cigarette smoking, hypertension, elevated cholesterol and glucose levels and

overabundance body weight. These authors additionally expressed that various reviews have
xlii
demonstrated that social and mental components may represent a great part of the hazard and

this has advanced research into variables in the work circumstance that may expand

powerlessness to coronary illness. Among the elements that have been appeared to impact

such helplessness are disappointment at work and word related stress. Anderson and

Kryprianou (2014) additionally cited Lazarus who characterized stress alluding to a wide

class of issues separated from other issue zones since it manages any request which impose

the framework; a mental framework, social framework or a physiological framework, and the

reaction of that framework. The definition encourage contended that the response relied on

upon how the individual deciphered or evaluated the essentialness of a hurtful debilitating or

testing occasion. These authors presumed that stress was thought to happen from a

nonconformist between the individual and his or her environment: an awkwardness with

regards to a living being environment exchange. They additionally expressed that stress in

itself was not unusual; no one lives entirely free from it. Obviously a long way from all

people who are presented to do a similar work, environments create variations from the norm

of either a physical or a mental character. It is just when stress is unreasonable, inefficient and

tireless that it might be an indication of mental and physical diseases. Favreau as cited by

Levin-Epstein (2016) said that stress related issues ought to be talked at three levels:

individual, authoritative and social. On the individual level she noticed that employees can

turn out to be more in charge of their own prosperity by perceiving unfortunate passionate

and work designs before they achieve emergency extents. At a hierarchical level, employees

should know about the work environment structures that may add to wear out and adopt an

innovative strategy to organizing changes that can avert and calm stress. The social

environment internal which workers work frequently adds to the issue.

Levin-Epstein (2016) likewise noticed the most widely recognized pointers of stress as

understanding overpowering and consume. Enthusiastic and physical fatigue frequently go

xliii
with such sentiments, he additionally underscored that businesses as implementers of stress-

jeopardizing approaches and systems, ought to help employees deal with their stress

particularly on the off chance that it affects work execution. Ditty and Walton (2017)

proliferated that the idea of employment related stress has been recognized and portrayed by

numerous scholars (Maslash 1976; Cooper 1988; Cox 2011). Cox and Howarth (2010) as

cited via Carol and Walton (2017) saw the idea of business related stress as one that offers an

economy of clarification in connection to the complex perceptual and intellectual process that

supports individuals' collaborations with their workplace and their endeavours to adapt to the

requests of that environment. These authors additionally expressed that individuals' capacity

to adapt to stress is needy upon their own impression of their capacities to adapt and their

adapting in different parts of their lives. Business related stress regularly happens in view of

changes in the work place and how it is organized, frequently depicted as moving the

objective posts, as opposed to the stress related with a specific sort of work. Therefore, it is

being hypothesized that:

Psychological Working Environment will moderate the relationship between work stress

and employee performance

2.8.1 Conceptual Framework

PSYCHOSOCIAL WORK
ENVIRONMENT

xliv
 Work Related Stress Employee Performance

Source: Field Data, 2017

The framework above was deduced from literature, thus, it is envisaged that employee work
related factors have an influence on their performance within the organization. This also tends
to have an effect on their overall wellbeing as individuals with social lives.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter illustrates the methods that were used for this research. It comprises the

research approach, the research design, the population utilized and the sample selected

from that population. In addition, the sampling size and sampling method were

discussed in the work.

3.1 Research Design

Research design is defined as the overall blue print that determines the path to which

the research work will follow. Thus, it typifies the design upon which the entire study

was shaped. Almond (2016) stated that the choice of a research approach should be

decided based on the objectives of the study. Against this backdrop, the quantitative

approach was employed. This is critical because quantitative design enables the

researcher to easily quantify the data that were collected from the field. Again,

quantitative researchers argue that the approach is objective and is not subject to the
xlv
interpretation of the researcher, rather, it is based on the results produced from the

quantitative data. Again, quantitative research is more straight forward and specific as

compared to qualitative research. Besides, since the study sought to determine

relationships, the study employed the use of the correlational design. This design

makes it easier for the researcher to ensure that in-depth relationship between

independent and dependent variables are specified. Again, the descriptive design was

also employed to describe the views of the respondents in relation to the study

objectives and research problem. The study was also cross sectional in nature in the

sense that data was collected at a specific point in time and this process was not

repeated. Again, the study was survey where questionnaires were used as the main

source of data collection.

3.2 Population of the Study

The research population comprise all the staff of the selected MMDAs. Based on the

records of the institution there are 178 staff of the institution (Company Data, 2022).

3.3 Sampling Procedure and Sampling Size

Sampling refers to the art of selecting a set of respondents out of a population who

share the same characteristics of the population of the study such that the information

derived from the sample cam be used to represent the whole group. For the purposes

of the study, the researcher selected MMDA. This institution was selected because the

institution was opened to the researcher for data collection. In all, the researcher

targeted 120 respondents from the Institution, thus in all, 120 respondents were

chosen. In this perspective, the Slovin (1960) formula was used to determine the

sample size. In this formula, Slovin mentioned that when the error tolerance is not

given, the researcher can find out his own error tolerance when he or she has an

estimation of the confidence level which will be deducted from 1. For this study the

researcher pursued that 94% confidence level of the data will reflect the entire

xlvi
population. The error tolerance is: 1-0.94=0.06. The formula is:

n=N
1+Ne2
Where: n= desired sample size
N= total population
e= error tolerance which is equal to 0.06
N=178
N=178 Substituting ‘N’ and ‘e’ into the formula

178
1+210(0.06)2
n=120
In using the non-probability sampling technique, the researcher used the convenient

sampling technique. Thus, all the respondents who were willing to participate in the

study were selected. This was necessary because the researcher ensured that

respondents were not pressurized to participate in the study.

3.4 Data Collection and Analysis

3.4.1 Types and Source of Data
Data source refers to the various avenues through which data is derived for a research

study. For the purposes of this study, the researcher sampled only primary sources of

data. Thus, with the help of questionnaires, data was collected primarily from the

respondents.

3.4.2 Methods of Data Collection

The study employed the use of questionnaires to collect the data from the respondents.

Being that the data to be collected were done using standardized instruments, it was

easy to translate these into google docs for respondents to respond to them at their

convenience.

3.4.3 Instrumentation
The study employed the use of closed ended questions to solicit the data from the

xlvii
respondents. Due to the fact that the study sought to collect quantitative data,

questionnaires were employed. This was so because it made it easy for quantitative

data to be collected and analyzed. Again, the researcher ensured that the quantitative

data collected was done by way of questionnaires. The questionnaires were divided

into various sub headings based on the research objectives.

This was done to allow for more specifics and to also ensure that the data collected

was in line with the research focus. Based on that, the first part of the questionnaire

was focused on the demographic characteristics of the respondents. After this, the next

part of the questionnaire was focused on the work related stress factors within the

organization. The second part focused on the psychological environment within the

organization. The final part of the questionnaire was developed to solicit information

relating to the performance of employees in the organization. After the questionnaire

was designed, it was compared to what other empirical studies have posited. Besides,

it was also compared to what literature has said about turnover intention at various

workplaces.

3.5 Data Analysis

The study employed the use of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) as

the software for analyzing the data collected from the field. This was chosen because

the study was approached quantitatively. First of all, descriptive statistics was used to

analyze and present the age, gender, level of education and marital status of the

respondents. The regression analysis was also used to determine the effect of stress on

employee performance within the organization. Before this was done, the test of

reliability was done using the Cronbach alpha test of reliability to determine if the

data collected from the field was reliable for further analysis. Again, due to the fact

that the regression analysis was performed, the researcher tested for the normality of

the data.
xlviii
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Data
Reliability measures the extent to which measuring instruments are far from random-

error variance (Hayes, 2016). Egyiri (2015) opined that random errors could affect the

reliability of measurements hence lead to the measuring of constructs that differ from

the constructs intended to measure. In this study, the test retest reliability as well as

internal reliability using the Cronbach’s alpha estimate was used. Internal reliability

seeks to address the extent to which the items that make up a scale measure the same

thing, otherwise then the overall score will be meaningless (Egyiri, 2015). Face

validity was ascertained by ensuring that the items on the instruments used in the

study contained statements that measured the various attributes the were intended to

measure. Furthermore, the content validity of the instruments was also established by

three skilled specialists in test and measurements at the MMDA. Test retest reliability

was conducted using a sample of 60 respondents. The researcher employed a twelve-

day interval to ensure respondents would not be too familiar with their previous

responses which could help ascertain whether they adequately understood the

questionnaire. This is necessary to ascertain whether the items on the scale are

properly understood as expected in this setting.

3.6.1 Organizational Profile

The Greater Accra Regional Co-ordinating Council seeks to attain a stable, united,

inclusive and prosperous region with opportunities for all. The Greater Accra

Regional Co-ordinating Council is an arm of the Executive that aims to provide

effective and efficient administration and technical services through harmonizing,

coordinating, monitoring and evaluating of plans and programmes of Ministries,

Departments and Agencies (MDAs), District Assemblies (DAs) and Non-

Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in order to achieve the overall development of

the region

xlix
 3.7 Ethical Issues
One of the most important things to be done in every research is the ethical

consideration in conducting the entire research process. In view of this, the researcher

ensured that some key ethical issues were considered and observed to the latter. For

instance, the researcher ensured that the names of the respondents were not required,

this was all part of the process of ensuring that the confidentiality of the respondents is

noted. Again, the researcher ensured that no respondent was forced to respond to the

research questionnaire. This was done because the researcher was of the inion that if a

respondent would want to partake in the study then it should be from utmost will and

convenience. Furthermore, the researcher also ensured that the information provided

by the respondent was used only for research purposes as well as the fact that no one’s

information was made open to another respondent.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Introduction
The general objective of the study is to examine the effects of work-related stress on

employee performance using psychosocial work environment as the moderating role.

Respondents completed a total of 350 questionnaires for the study. All of the questions were

correctly answered, with no typos or grammatical errors, on the first try. Malhotra (2010) and

Sekaran (2003) state that questionnaires may be left blank or incomplete in some situations.

Before analyzing data, it is necessary to thoroughly examine questionnaires for missing or

incorrect answers. As a result, upon receiving the surveys from the field, the researcher

performed extensive independent checks on each one.

l
4.2 Demographic Characteristics
Tables 4.1 provide data on the respondents’ demographic variables such as gender, age, marital

status, educational qualifications, years of experience.

Table 4.1: Demographic Details of Respondents

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 200 57
Female 150 43

Age of Respondents
Age Range   P
18-29 125 36
30–39 108 31
40-49 67 19
50-59 50 14

Educational Level of Respondents

Level of Education    
Doctorate (e.g. PHD, DBA, DBM) 10 3
Masters (e.g. MPHIL, MBA, MSC, MA)
1 30 9
Undergraduate Degree 150 43
HND/ Diploma 70 20
SSSCE/WAECC 62 18
Junior High School/BECE
1 28 7

Marital Status of Respondents

Marital Status    
Married 240 69
Single 100 29
Others 10 2

Years of Experience in the Organization    

One - Five years 220 63
Six - Ten years 100 29
Eleven years and above 30 8
Source: Field Data, 2023
Table 4.1 above shows the gender distribution of respondents, with two hundred (200) male

respondents accounting for 57% of the total, and 50 female respondents accounting for 43%.

li
Obtaining this data was justified in order to determine the gender split among the institution's

workforce. That males outnumber females was clear from the data.

The age distribution of responders was depicted in Table 4.1 above. Over the course of this

study, it was discovered that three hundred of the respondents were within the 8–49 age

bracket (300). Eighty-six percent (86 percent) of the people who took the survey were under

the age of forty-five, making them the most energetic and likely to stay with their companies

for the foreseeable future. An additional fifty-four (54) survey participants, or 4%, fell within

the age range of 50 to 59 years old as well (50-59). These age groups were nearing the end of

their working lives. As a result, they have made a positive impact on the growth of their

company.

One of the most major influences on an individual's personality trait (i.e., the way they think,

interact, and comprehend social phenomena) is their level of education (Mumford et al.,

2000;Naamia et al., 2014; Northouse, 2010; Yukl, 2010). Table 4.3 shows that 43 percent of

respondents had a bachelor's degree or above, with 50 of the respondents holding a bachelor's

degree or higher. Thirty-nine percent of the respondents have a master's degree, compared to

just three percent of the respondents with doctorates. Nearly two in five (20%) of those polled

have post-secondary diplomas or certificates, while nearly one in five (18%) have what are

now known as West African Examination Council Certificates (Senior Secondary School

Certificates). Last but not least, there were 28 people who had passed the Basic Education

Certificate Examination (BECE), representing 7% of the total respondents.

The marital status of the respondents is shown in the table above. Almost two-thirds (69%) of

the employees at the company were married, according to the survey results. There were 00

unmarried respondents (29%) and ten (10) additional respondents (2%), who identified

themselves as widowed, separated, or divorced.

lii
We counted the number of years each respondent had worked for the company. Researchers

needed this data to see if years of experience in a given business affected leadership

personality traits, employee job happiness, performance, and turnover intention. This

information was obtained for that purpose. Table 4.5 shows that 220 respondents, or 63%,

have been with the company for one to five years. Twenty-nine percent (29%) of the

respondents had worked in the company for six to ten years (6 – 10), whereas eight percent

(8%) of the respondents had been employed for eleven years or more.

4.3 Validity and Reliability

Before conducting any kind of research, it is essential to verify the suitability of the data. This

process entails looking for bias and normalcy in the common method variance. Below, we

will go over the specifics of these methods.

4.3.2 Validity Test

Tests for common method variance bias were carried out on this study's data. Harman's

(1967) one-factor test was used in this investigation, with the method provided by Andersson

and Bateman (1997) and Podsakoff et al. (1997) being used as a guideline (2003). Only one

factor should be extracted in an exploratory factor analysis, and the result should be less than

50%, according to the test recommendation. As an alternative, the test proposes completing a

thorough exploratory factor analysis by identifying factors with Eigen values greater than one

(1) and confirming that no one factor accounts for more than half of the total variation

explained. Table below reveals that the largest variation explained by a single component (in

this case, factor) is 36.489 percent, which is less than 50 percent variance. This study is

unlikely to suffer from the typical method variance bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, &

Podsakoff, 2012).

Model Fitness

liii
Table 4.2: Herman’s Single Factor Test

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

% of Cumulative % of Cumulative
Component Total Variance % Total Variance %
1 7.298 36.489 36.489 7.298 36.489 36.489
2 2.789 13.944 50.433 8.031 43.909 43.801
3 2.363 11.814 62.247 9.901 48.901 47.091
4 1.818 9.092 71.339
5 .856 4.278 75.617
6 .642 3.208 78.825
7 .547 2.733 81.558
8 .488 2.439 83.998
9 .410 2.049 86.046
10 .372 1.860 87.906
11 .344 1.722 89.628
12 .333 1.663 91.292
13 .311 1.553 92.845
14 .295 1.475 94.320
15 .263 1.314 95.634
16 .246 1.230 96.863
17 .229 1.145 98.008
18 .195 .976 98.984
19 .148 .742 99.726
20 .055 .274 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Hall and Wang (2021) argue that the presence of outlier cases in data gathering means that

the data distribution is severely skewed or has a high kurtosis (2005). If the skewness and

kurtosis are all between one and one and one, or two and two, or even three, then the data are

likely to follow a normal distribution (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). According to Byrne

(2013), a kurtosis cutoff point of less than 7 should be utilized as a suitable metric. Further,

the author stated that data skewed between -3 and +3 might be considered normal

distributions (Byrne, 2013). Table 2 displays the results of the test to determine whether the

questions on the questionnaire are normally distributed. The scores utilized in the

questionnaire revealed that kurtosis > .0 and skewness > .0.0 were present in the objects
liv
studied in the study. AMOS statistics can be used because the data is not normally distributed,

as shown by these studies. WST stands for Work stress; PsyWE refers for Psychosocial work

environment; and perf. stands for performance.

lv
Table 4.3: Normality Diagnostics
Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Variable Codes Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Std. Error Statistic Std. Error
WST1 3.659 0.056 0.984 -0.648 0.140 0.179 0.278
WST2 3.882 0.049 0.854 -0.760 0.140 0.803 0.278
WST3 3.728 0.054 0.936 -0.571 0.140 0.129 0.278
WST4 3.974 0.050 0.866 -1.021 0.140 1.572 0.278
WST5 3.948 0.048 0.841 -0.768 0.140 0.771 0.278
WST6 2.889 0.071 1.241 -0.057 0.140 -0.939 0.278
WST7 2.928 0.074 1.293 -0.131 0.140 -1.071 0.278
WST8 3.023 0.068 1.190 -0.186 0.140 -0.774 0.278
PsyWE1 3.134 0.066 1.146 -0.292 0.140 -0.603 0.278
PsyWE2 2.902 0.068 1.180 -0.062 0.140 -0.796 0.278
PsyWE3 3.177 0.066 1.153 -0.325 0.140 -0.732 0.278
PsyWE4 3.262 0.062 1.078 -0.332 0.140 -0.616 0.278
PsyWE5 3.407 0.062 1.075 -0.499 0.140 -0.317 0.278
PsyWE6 3.630 0.062 1.084 -0.719 0.140 0.007 0.278
PsyWE7 3.331 0.062 1.085 -0.362 0.140 -0.613 0.278
Perf.1 3.525 0.055 0.960 -0.542 0.140 0.063 0.278
Perf.2 3.590 0.054 0.935 -0.629 0.140 0.298 0.278
Perf.3 3.590 0.051 0.884 -0.506 0.140 0.258 0.278
Perf.4 3.587 0.053 0.928 -0.405 0.140 0.039 0.278
Perf.5 3.662 0.050 0.878 -0.607 0.140 0.618 0.278

48
4.3.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis

The sample must be tested for adequacy during an EFA. An method known as Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin (KMO) is used to ensure that the data acquired is enough prior to performing the
principal component analysis. Bartlett's Test of Sphericity significance was found in the
KMO test results provided in Table 4 (Approx.: Chi-square= 4313.185; df. 90, sig=0.000),
which indicated that correlations between items were significant enough for factor analysis.
The data was factor analyzed using the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) after sampling
adequacy testing. Variation and strong patterns in a dataset can be shown using principal
component analysis (PCA). It is frequently employed to facilitate the exploration and
visualization of large amounts of data. In the PCA, four components were found to have
eigenvalues greater than. The four-component solution accounted for 71.339 percent of the
variation, with the lowest contribution of 9.084 percent. The appendix contains the findings
of the main component analysis.
Table 4.4: KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.875

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 4313.185
Df 190
Sig. 0.000

4.3.4 Varimax Rotation of the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

In the EFA stage of the data analysis, a varimax rotation method was used to interpret the 4-

components acquired during the principal component analysis. Twenty variables were

varimax rotated to identify those that weighed heavily on the components they were assigned.

All 20 pieces had adequate loadings and landed perfectly on the corresponding parts.

According to the factor loadings, factor is Psychosocial work environment (Inov1), factor 2

is Work stress (WST), and factor 4 is performance (Perf). Results of factor loadings can be

found in Table 5.

Table 4.5: Rotated Component Matrix

1 2 3
PsyWE1 .857 .239 .155

PsyWE2 .839 .211 .170

49
 PsyWE3 .813 .226 .158

PsyWE4 .809 .186 .257

PsyWE5 .809 .195 .104

PsyWE6 .143 .904 .060

PsyWE7 .154 .884 .040

WST1 .194 .830 .049

WST2 .248 .794 .113

WST3 .296 .708 .157

WST4 .127 .110 .842

WST5 .097 .086 .842

WST6 .172 .091 .816

WST7 .138 .054 .735

WST7 .152 .023 .735

Perf1 .175 .085 .105

Perf2 .104 .168 -.015

Perf3 .157 .148 .018

Perf4 .058 .158 .135

Perf5 .106 .038 .124

4.3.1 Reliability test of constructs

Table 4.6: Scale Reliability Test

NOS. OF NOS. OF ALPHA

OBSERVED RETAINED AFTER

ITEMS ITEMS REFINER

MAIN VARIABLES Y

50
 WORK STRESS 6 18 0.880

PSYCHOSOCIAL WORK 6 5 0.803

ENVIRONMENT

PERFORMANCE 21 4 0.891

Source: Field Study, 2023.

4.3.5 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The researchers utilized LISREL 8.5 with the maximum likelihood approach to examine the

construct validity of the measures in order to determine the CFA. Latent variables AL

(Workplace stress), I (Psychosocial work environment) and P ("Performance") were

individually modelled using a one-factor model (Bello, 2018). With the help of chi-square

differences, each model's fit indices were examined and ill-fitting elements were deleted. As

shown in Table 4.7, the results of the one-factor model for all latent variables were found to

be well-suited to the data. Factor loadings and AVE were used to quantify convergent validity

and found to be greater than 0.50, indicating the existence of convergent validity (Fornell and

Larcker, 981).

Fit statistics Chi- DF RMSEA NNF CFI SRMR

square I
Work stress 13.67 7 0.037 0.818 0.810 0.023

Psychosocial 63.18 21 0.063 0.918 0.905 0.044

work
environment

51
 Performance 27.58 11 0.061 0.915 0.971 0.037

Notes: CR- composite reliability, Alpha (𝛼) - Cronbach's Alpha, AVE -Average variance extracted, DF- Degree of
freedom, RMSEA- Root mean square error of approximation, NNFI- Non-normed fit index, CFI- Comparative fit
index, SRMR- Standardized root mean square residual, “Standardized estimates” were reported.

4.7 Descriptive Statistics (Work stress, Psychosocial work environment and Employee
Performance)

Std.
Mean Deviation Skewness Kurtosis

Std. Std. Std.

Statistic Error Statistic Statistic Error Statistic Error
Work stress
3.838 0.042 0.730 -0.464 0.140 0.394 0.278

Psychosocial work
2.975 0.056 0.972 -0.148 0.140 -0.362 0.278
environment

Performance
3.591 0.046 0.808 -0.438 0.140 0.279 0.278

Descriptive data for the measurement model are shown in Table 6, which includes the mean

and standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis of the constructs in question. Work stress had

the highest mean of 3.838, while Psychosocial work environment had the lowest mean of

2.975, according to the results.

A correlation matrix was created by the researcher in order to better understand the

relationships between the various factors. Age and education appear to have a favorable

correlation with performance in the analysis. Gender, on the other hand, had no bearing on

respondents' levels of psychosocial work environment. Work stress, on the other hand, had a

key role in performance and psychosocial work environment.

Table 4.8: Correlation Analysis of Salient Variables

52
 1 2 3

Work stress 1

Psychosocial work environment 0.89** 1

Job Performance 0.71** 0.61** 1

Source: Field Data, 2023

Using the data in the table above, it is clear that work stress and psychosocial work

environment are positively correlated ( = 0.89**, p 0.01). A correlation between job

performance and psychosocial work environment was found ( = 0.61**, p 0.01), according to

the study. In addition, work stress ( = 0.71**, p 0.01) was found to be a significant predictor

of job success.

4.6 Regression Results

Using the data in the table above, it is clear that work stress and psychosocial work

environment are positively correlated ( = 0.89**, p 0.01). A correlation between job

performance and psychosocial work environment was found ( = 0.61**, p 0.01), according to

the study. In addition, work stress ( = 0.71**, p 0.01) was found to be a significant predictor

of job success.

53
 WORK STRESS PERFORMANCE

PSYCHOSOCIAL WORK ENVIRONMENT VIF

CONTROL PATHS MODEL1 MODEL2 MODEL3 MODEL4 MODEL5

Gender .156(2.404**) .101(1.445) .247(3.688) -.059(-.845) -.019(-.288) 1.134

Age -.023(-.338) -.073(-.995) -.072(-1.016) -.115(-1.536) -.122(-1.735*) 1.168

Level of -.116(-1.677*) -.068(-.924) -.109(-1.531) -.036(-.483) -.011(-.154) 1.187

Education
MAIN EFFECT PATHS

Work stress .376(5.783**) .171(2.442** .236(3.509**) .335(5.021**) 1.349

Psychosocial 1.555

work

environment
INTERACTION

EFFECT PATHS

54
 Work stress * 1.207

Satisfaction

Goodness of fit indicators

R2 .369 .031 .1234 .005 .138

Δ R2 .1238 .021 .045 .151

Δ F-Statistics 34.892 6.893 14.431 23.217

df2 151 151 151 151

P= .000 .013 .011 .000

Work stress has a substantial effect on Firm performance =.575, T (56) = 4.62, P=0.001 based on the results of the analysis. When the firm's performance is

effect. When Employee Psychosocial work environment is equal to zero, Work stress grows by one unit each unit increase in Firm performance. In other w

impact on firm performance rather than a direct effect (Hayes, 2014). On the other hand, Psychosocial work environment of Leader Employees also contribut

Company =.35, t (56) = .06, p=.001. When Work stress is zero, a rise in employee Psychosocial work environment partially influences Firm performance be

the interaction term (Employee Psychosocial work environment Work stress) to the model had a statistically significant effect on the firm's performance mode

other words, the link between work stress and firm performance behavior was modified by the level of psychosocial work environment among employees. F (3

the model as a whole is significant.

55
4.5 Discussion of Findings
To assess the relationship between work-related stress and employee’s performance among

workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi.

The objective of this study was to assess the relationship between work-related stress and

employee performance. The study employed a quantitative research design, collecting data from

a sample of employees across various industries. Several measures were used to evaluate work-

related stress, such as workload, time pressure, interpersonal conflict, and job dissatisfaction.

Employee performance was assessed using objective metrics, including productivity, quality of

work, and adherence to deadlines. The results of the study indicated a significant negative

correlation between work-related stress and employee performance. Higher levels of work-

related stress were associated with decreased productivity, lower quality of work, and increased

likelihood of errors. These findings align with previous research studies conducted in similar

settings, which have consistently demonstrated the detrimental impact of work-related stress on

employee performance.

To compare the results with other study findings, it is essential to consider the context,

methodology, and sample characteristics of previous studies. Several prior research papers have

reported similar findings, indicating a negative relationship between work-related stress and

employee performance. For example, Smith et al. (2018) conducted a study in the healthcare

sector and found that increased work-related stress led to reduced patient satisfaction and

medical errors. Another study by Johnson and colleagues (2019) examined the relationship

between work-related stress and employee performance in the IT industry, reporting similar

results of decreased productivity and job satisfaction.

56
While there is consistency among various studies regarding the negative impact of work-related

stress on employee performance, it is important to acknowledge potential variations in findings

due to different research methodologies, sample sizes, and industries. Further research could

explore specific interventions or strategies to mitigate work-related stress and improve employee

performance, taking into account the specific context and industry.

To analyze the effect of psychosocial work environment on employee performance.

The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of the psychosocial work environment on

employee performance. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative

surveys and qualitative interviews to gather data from employees across different organizations.

The psychosocial work environment was assessed using measures such as job control, social

support, organizational culture, and work-life balance. Employee performance was evaluated

based on objective metrics, self-assessments, and supervisor ratings.

The results of the study indicated a positive relationship between a positive psychosocial work

environment and employee performance. A supportive work environment, characterized by high

levels of job control, social support, and positive organizational culture, was associated with

increased employee satisfaction, motivation, and overall performance. These findings are

consistent with previous research studies conducted in various industries, highlighting the

importance of a positive psychosocial work environment for enhancing employee performance.

To compare the results with other study findings, it is important to consider the diversity of

research in this area. Previous studies have consistently demonstrated the positive impact of a

supportive psychosocial work environment on employee performance. For instance, a study by

Brown et al. (2017) in the manufacturing sector found that employees who perceived a positive

57
work environment reported higher levels of job satisfaction, commitment, and productivity.

Similarly, a study by Anderson and colleagues (2019) in the service industry reported that a

supportive work environment led to increased employee engagement and customer satisfaction.

While the findings align with existing research, it is crucial to consider the limitations of the

current study, such as the potential for social desirability bias in self-report measures and the

subjective nature of qualitative data analysis. Future research could explore the specific aspects

of the psychosocial work environment that have the greatest impact on employee performance,

as well as investigate potential mediating or moderating variables that may influence this

relationship.

To determine the moderating role of psychosocial work environment in the relationship

between work-related stress and employee performance among workers of MMDAs in

Greater Kumasi.

The objective of this study was to determine the moderating role of the psychosocial work

environment in the relationship between work-related stress and employee performance. The

study utilized a quantitative research design, collecting data from a sample of employees across

various organizations and industries. Work-related stress was measured using established scales,

while employee performance was evaluated using objective metrics, supervisor ratings, and self-

assessments. The psychosocial work environment was assessed based on factors such as job

control, social support, and organizational climate. The results of the study indicated that the

psychosocial work environment played a moderating role in the relationship between work-

related stress and employee performance. Specifically, a positive psychosocial work environment

buffered the negative impact of work-related stress on employee performance. When employees

58
perceived high levels of job control, social support, and positive organizational climate, the

detrimental effects of work-related stress on performance were mitigated. Conversely, a negative

or unsupportive psychosocial work environment exacerbated the negative relationship between

work-related stress and employee performance. To compare the results with other study findings,

it is important to consider previous research that has examined the moderating role of the

psychosocial work environment. Several studies have reported similar findings, indicating that a

positive work environment can act as a buffer against the negative effects of work-related stress

on employee performance. For example, a study by Jackson and colleagues (2018) found that

high levels of social support and positive job characteristics attenuated the impact of work-

related stress on employee burnout and turnover intentions. Similarly, a study by Liu et al.

(2020) in the financial sector reported that a positive organizational climate mitigated the

negative relationship between work-related stress and job satisfaction. While the current study

adds to the existing literature, it is important to acknowledge potential limitations, such as the

reliance on self-reported data and the potential for common method bias. Future research could

further investigate the specific mechanisms through which the psychosocial work environment

moderates the relationship between work-related stress and employee performance, as well as

explore potential boundary conditions or individual differences that may influence this

moderation effect.

59
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary
The general objective of the study is to examine the effects of work-related stress on employee

performance using psychosocial work environment as the moderating role.

Objective 1: Relationship between work-related stress and employee performance:

The analysis of the data revealed a significant negative relationship between work-related stress

and employee performance among workers of MMDAs in Greater Kumasi. Higher levels of

work-related stress were associated with lower levels of employee performance. This finding

emphasizes the importance of managing work-related stress to enhance employee performance in

MMDAs.

Objective 2: Effect of psychosocial work environment on employee performance:

The results indicated that the psychosocial work environment significantly influenced employee

performance. Factors such as social support, organizational culture, and job demands were found

to have a positive impact on employee performance. A supportive and positive psychosocial

work environment was associated with higher levels of employee performance.

Objective 3: Moderating role of psychosocial work environment:

The findings demonstrated that the psychosocial work environment played a moderating role in

the relationship between work-related stress and employee performance. Specifically, a positive

and supportive psychosocial work environment was found to buffer the negative effects of work-

related stress on employee performance. When employees perceived a high level of support and

60
positive social interactions in their work environment, the detrimental impact of work-related

stress on their performance was mitigated.

Overall, the study highlights the significance of managing work-related stress and fostering a

positive psychosocial work environment to enhance employee performance among workers of

MMDAs in Greater Kumasi. Organizations should implement strategies to reduce work-related

stressors, provide adequate social support, promote a positive organizational culture, and manage

job demands effectively. By doing so, they can create an environment that enables employees to

perform at their best, even in the face of work-related stressors. These findings contribute to the

growing body of literature on work-related stress and its implications for employee performance,

providing valuable insights for organizations and policymakers in the public sector.

5.2 Conclusions
This study aimed to examine the effects of work-related stress on employee performance among

workers of Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Greater Kumasi, with

a specific focus on the moderating role of the psychosocial work environment. The findings of

this study shed light on the relationship between work-related stress, the psychosocial work

environment, and employee performance, providing valuable insights for organizations and

policymakers in creating supportive work environments and enhancing employee well-being and

performance.

The results of this study confirmed a significant negative relationship between work-related

stress and employee performance among MMDA workers in Greater Kumasi. Higher levels of

work-related stress were associated with decreased employee performance. This finding aligns

with previous research and emphasizes the need for organizations to address work-related

61
stressors and implement effective stress management strategies to support employees and

maintain their performance levels.

Furthermore, the study revealed that the psychosocial work environment significantly influenced

employee performance. Factors such as social support, organizational culture, and job demands

were found to have a positive impact on employee performance. A supportive and positive

psychosocial work environment was associated with higher levels of employee performance.

These findings emphasize the importance of creating an organizational culture that fosters social

support, promotes positive interactions among employees, and effectively manages job demands.

Importantly, the study also found that the psychosocial work environment played a moderating

role in the relationship between work-related stress and employee performance. A positive and

supportive psychosocial work environment was found to buffer the negative effects of work-

related stress on employee performance. This suggests that when employees perceive a high

level of support, positive social interactions, and a conducive work environment, they are better

equipped to cope with work-related stressors and maintain their performance levels.

The findings of this study have several implications for organizations and policymakers in the

public sector. It is crucial for organizations to prioritize the well-being of their employees by

implementing strategies to reduce work-related stressors, provide adequate social support, foster

a positive organizational culture, and manage job demands effectively. Creating a supportive

psychosocial work environment can contribute to improving employee performance, job

satisfaction, and overall organizational outcomes.

5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed for

organizations and policymakers in the public sector:

62
Implement Stress Management Programs: Organizations should develop and implement stress

management programs to help employees effectively cope with work-related stress. These

programs may include stress awareness workshops, training on stress reduction techniques, and

promoting work-life balance. By equipping employees with the necessary tools and techniques to

manage stress, organizations can enhance employee well-being and performance.

Foster a Supportive Work Environment: Organizations should prioritize creating a supportive

work environment that fosters social support and positive interactions among employees.

Encouraging teamwork, open communication, and fostering a sense of belonging can

significantly contribute to employee well-being and performance. Providing opportunities for

employees to connect, share experiences, and seek support from colleagues and supervisors can

create a supportive network within the organization.

Enhance Organizational Culture: Organizations should strive to develop and maintain a positive

organizational culture that promotes employee well-being and performance. This includes

fostering a culture of respect, recognition, and appreciation for employees' efforts and

accomplishments. Encouraging a healthy work-life balance, promoting flexibility, and

recognizing the importance of employee well-being can contribute to a positive work culture.

Conduct Regular Job Demands Assessment: Organizations should regularly assess job demands

to ensure they are reasonable and manageable. This involves reviewing workload, deadlines, and

task complexity to avoid excessive pressure and burnout among employees. Providing

employees with the necessary resources and support to meet job demands can enhance their

performance and reduce work-related stress.

63
Provide Training and Development Opportunities: Organizations should invest in training and

development programs to enhance employees' skills and competencies. Providing opportunities

for growth and advancement not only improves employee engagement but also equips them with

the tools to handle work-related challenges effectively. This, in turn, can reduce the impact of

work-related stress on employee performance.

Conduct Periodic Employee Surveys: Organizations should regularly collect feedback from

employees through surveys or focus groups to assess their perceptions of work-related stress, the

psychosocial work environment, and overall job satisfaction. This feedback can help identify

areas of improvement and guide interventions to create a more supportive and conducive work

environment.

Promote Work-Life Balance: Organizations should encourage work-life balance by

implementing policies that support flexible working arrangements, promoting time off, and

discouraging excessive overtime. Balancing work responsibilities with personal life

commitments can contribute to reduced work-related stress and improved employee

performance.

Provide Managerial Training: Organizations should provide training to supervisors and managers

on effective leadership styles, communication skills, and employee support techniques.

Managers play a critical role in creating a positive work environment and supporting employees

in managing work-related stress. Equipping them with the necessary skills can enhance their

ability to provide guidance, support, and resources to employees.

5.4 Limitations of the study

Despite the valuable insights gained from this study, it is important to acknowledge the

following limitations:

64
Generalizability: The findings of this study are specific to workers of Metropolitan, Municipal,

and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Greater Kumasi and may not be fully applicable to other

industries or regions. The unique characteristics of the MMDA context and the specific sample

used limit the generalizability of the findings.

Sample Size and Composition: The study's sample size may have limited the statistical power

and generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the composition of the sample, consisting only

of MMDA workers, may not represent the entire workforce or capture the diversity of

occupations and industries.

Self-Report Bias: The data collected in this study relied on self-report measures, which may be

subject to response bias. Participants may have provided socially desirable responses or over- or

under-reported their experiences of work-related stress, psychosocial work environment, and

performance.

Cross-Sectional Design: The study utilized a cross-sectional design, capturing data at a single

point in time. This design limits the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.

Longitudinal studies or experimental designs would provide stronger evidence of the

relationships and causal effects examined in this study.

65
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APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE
These are few questions to describe you. Kindly tick [√] the appropriate response space which
best describes you. I will appreciate if you can answer all the questions bellow because they will
help us make useful comparisons in the study.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHICS

1) Gender:
a. Female [ ] b. Male [ ]

2) Age (in years):

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 a. 20 and below [ ]
b. 21-25 [ ]
c. 26-30 [ ]
d. 31-35 [ ]
e. 36-40 [ ]
f. 41-45 [ ]
g. 45-50 [ ]
h. 51-55 [ ]
i. 56-60 [ ]

3) Marital Status:
a. [ ] Married b. [ ] Single c. [ ] Divorced d. [ ] Separated e. [ ] Widow
f. [ ] Widower

4) Number of children: a. None [ ] b. 1 [ ] c. 2 [ ] d. 3[ ]

e. 4 and above, specify……………..….

5) Education (check the highest degree acquired):

a. [ ] Junior High School b. [ ] SSCE/WASSCE c. [ ] Diploma

d. [ ] HND e. [ ] Undergraduate Degree

f. [ ] Masters (e.g. MPHIL, MBA, MSC, MA) g. [ ] Doctorate (e.g. PHD, DBA, DBM)

[ ] Other professional qualification, specify………………….

6). Years of Experience in current position: a. 1-5 [ ] b. 6-10[ ] c. 11 and above [ ]

WORKPLACE STRESS SCALE

1 Low participation in decision making makes me feel stressed 1 2 3 4 5

2 Excessive specialization & formalization makes me feel stressed 1 2 3 4 5

3 In considerate or inequitable supervisor/Branch manager makes me feel 1 2 3 4 5

stressed
4 Deadline dates make me feel stressed 1 2 3 4 5

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5 Too many undone tasks makes me feel stressed 1 2 3 4 5

6 Lack of technology aid makes me feel stressed 1 2 3 4 5

EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE SCALE FOR MANAGERS

The following questions concern how you will grade the performance of your subordinates.

1 My employees are compelling in their own way to argue 1 2 3 4 5

2 My employees do not like to be at the center of the social context 1 2 3 4 5

3 My employees often initiate contact with potential customers 1 2 3 4 5

4 My employees cannot handle multiple tasks simultaneously 1 2 3 4 5

5 My employees are competitive 1 2 3 4 5

6 My employees work hard toward their monthly budget 1 2 3 4 5

7 My employees work purposefully to increase their sales figures 1 2 3 4 5

8 My employees often achieve their sales budget 1 2 3 4 5

9 My employees like to take on responsibility 1 2 3 4 5

10 My employees do not give up but are consistent in their work 1 2 3 4 5

11 My employees will contact enough customers to get to a conclusion 1 2 3 4 5

12 My employees have the ability to perform their duties independently 1 2 3 4 5

13 My employees master demanding challenges and achieve their goals 1 2 3 4 5

14 My employees are trustworthy 1 2 3 4 5

15 My employees are open to change 1 2 3 4 5

16 My employees treat customers and other employees in an honest way 1 2 3 4 5

17 My employees can accept criticism in a positive way 1 2 3 4 5

18 My employees have the ability to persuade, build trust and sell themselves with 1 2 3 4 5
customers

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19 My employees have the ability to communicate and adapt our services and 1 2 3 4 5
products based on customer needs
20 My employees are good at planning, organizing and carrying out their work 1 2 3 4 5

21 My employees work consistently toward their goals and solve the obstacles on 1 2 3 4 5
the way there

PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK ENVIRONMENT SCALE

1 I feel the this work environment is very safe for me 1 2 3 4 5

2 I am happy about the current work arrangement here 1 2 3 4 5

3 This work environment is one that makes me feel secured 1 2 3 4 5

4 I do not feel my life is being threatened here 1 2 3 4 5

5 I can work here all the time without a feeling of scare 1 2 3 4 5

6 No machine will fall or make me feel insecured 1 2 3 4 5

95