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for IB

DP Biology
Comprehensive coverage of the 2023 subject guide

Use this course guide to:

• Explore the changes to the syllabus and assessment
• Look inside both the print and digital components
• Discover Oxford’s innovative digital offer for DP Biology
• Find out how to evaluate and order
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Exploring the changes to
the DP Biology subject guide
From Andrew Allott and David Mindorff

Why has the guide changed?

Biology is a fast-moving science and our understanding of the living world is continuously
improving. The current subject guide was introduced in 2014 and nearly a decade later
it is time to move on. The new guide reflects changes in understanding and discoveries
from biological research in recent years. The change to a new guide has also been used to
strengthen the educational value for students of the biology program.

What are the changes?

• Four Levels of Organization have been defined: Molecules, Cells, Organisms and
Ecosystems. Each topic is placed in one of these levels.
• Four Themes have been selected that underpin biology and these are explored at all of the
Levels of Organization. For example, the topic of Reproduction is at Organism level and
is studied as part of the theme of Continuity and Change, because sexual reproduction
brings about change whereas asexual reproduction ensures continuity. The four themes
and four levels are shown in the matrix diagram. Each of the sixteen combinations of Level
and Theme has two or three topics.

A table showing how the Themes and Levels of Organization intersect to create
sixteen combinations, each containing two or three topics.

• Options are no longer part of the program. This change was made to simplify the structure
of the program and reduce content.
• Content statements have been rephrased, so they identify areas of study rather than
assertions.
• Guidance is now provided for each content statement, to make the expectations for
teaching and learning as clear as possible.
• The Nature of Science remains a major feature of the course but is now in sharper focus
with the introduction of eleven named aspects. These are shared between all the Group
4 sciences and include: observations, evidence and experiments, patterns and trends,
hypotheses, models, theories, falsification, science as a shared endeavour, and global
impact of science. Many of these have clear links to aspects of the IB learner profile.
• The methods, tools and techniques that characterize science are summarized in the ‘Skills
in the study of biology’ section of the guide. ‘Application of skills’ exercises are included
with specific content statements, with the intention that all students experience a range of
experimental and mathematical techniques and develop strong data literacy skills.
• The Approaches to Learning (ATL) framework is now an essential part of the IB diploma
biology program. A wealth of possibilities for ATL exercises are offered, to contribute to the
development of learner profile attributes in students and build the specific skills needed for

How to use this book

the successful study of biology.

Guiding and linking questions

At the beginning of of
The aim each
thistopic,
book isguiding questions
to develop provide
conceptual an overarching
understanding, aid framework
in skills for inquiry
into the content of that topic.
development and provide opportunities to cement knowledge and
understanding
At the end of through
each topic, two practice.
linking questions encourage students to recognize that topics can
be viewed through
Feature boxes and sectionsathroughout
lenses other than single Theme the or Level
book areofdesigned
Organization. Moreover,
to support these linking
questions invite
aims,students to apply
by signposting both broad,
content relatingintegrating
to particularconcepts,
ideas andasconcepts,
well as discipline-
as well as
specific ones from one topic
opportunities to another,
for practice. Thiswith
is anthe intended
overview outcome
of these of fostering networked
features:
knowledge.
Developing conceptual understanding
Guiding questions

At the start of every chapter, guiding questions are included to engage you
with some of the questions that might arise as they study the material.

Linking questions

At the end of each section, you will find examples of linking questions
followed by examples of extended-response questions. The linking
questions help you view the course content through a different lens from
the themes and levels of organization that guide the syllabus.

Nature of Science
Extracted from the preliminary pages of the Course Companion, describing guiding and linking questions to students

These illustrate NOS using issues from both modern science and science
history, and show how the ways of doing science have evolved over the
centuries. There is a detailed description of what is meant by NOS and the
different aspects of NOS on page iv.

Theory of knowledge
This is an important part of the IB Diploma course. It focuses on critical
thinking and understanding how we arrive at our knowledge of the world.
The TOK features in this book are modelled on the TOK Exhibition and pose
How has the
assessment changed?
To complete the International Baccalaureate DP Biology course, students must successfully
complete both an externally assessed exam and an internal assessment consisting of a self-
designed scientific inquiry.

External Assessment
Paper 1
Paper 1 is presented as two separate booklets:
• Paper 1A consists of 30 multiple-choice questions (SL) or 40 multiple-choice questions (HL).
• Paper 1B consists of four data-based questions related to familiar experiments, data, or
course content. These questions are organized around the themes set out in the syllabus.
Paper 2
Paper 2 is presented as a single booklet:
• Section A has two sections:
– It begins with data-based questions based on unfamiliar data. Syllabus content will not be
assessed in these questions, but the data literacy skills described within the syllabus is
– The second part of Section A consists of short-answer questions organized around the
levels of organization.
• Section B consists of extended free response questions. Each extended free response
question has three parts which are related to each other through a question stem,
framed around an overarching biology concept, such as
those encompassed by the linking questions.
Standard Level students will need to answer
one out of two extended-response
questions, while HL students will
have to answer two out of three. New features of the IA:
• Personal engagement is no longer included and
Communication is not now a separate criterion,
Internal Assessment so there are fewer criteria, but the mark total is
unchanged
(IA): The scientific • There is more emphasis on the Conclusion and
investigation Evaluation criteria, so critical thinking is given a
The Internal Assessment task higher profile
is assessed using four, equally • New safety, ethical and environmental impact
weighted criteria: guidelines are being developed
• Research design • Risk assessment is now mandatory, other than for
simulations and use of databases
• Data analysis
• There are clearly defined mathematical
• Conclusion requirements (skills) addressed in the syllabus that
• Evaluation can be called upon by students carrying out the IA
• Group work is possible with some restrictions
Assessment summary
Assessment Standard Level Higher Level

Paper 1A 30 marks 40 marks

Multiple choice questions
Paper 1B 25 marks 35 marks
Four data-based questions
Paper 2A 34 marks 48 marks
Data-based questions
Paper 2B 16 marks 32 marks
Extended-response questions
Internal Assessment 24 marks 24 marks

What will students gain from

the updated subject guide?
Both the SL and HL courses will encourage:
• Deep and lasting understanding of biological concepts
that can be applied in a wide range of contexts
• Up-to date knowledge across a broad range of
important biological topics
• Ability to think as a scientist and conduct research using
scientific methods
• Flexibility in thinking skills so strategies ranging from a
systems approach to reductionism can be applied
• Strong skills in communication and collaboration.
 Provide comprehensive and engaging coverage
of all topics on the new syllabus with Oxford’s
2023 DP Biology print and digital offer

Contents
3(b): Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock; p64:

Each of the forty chapters begins with

deaux Cell and Molecular Imaging Service; p65: Eric
6-67: Wolfgang Bettighofer, www.protisten.de; p69:
General de México; p70(a): Biophoto Associates /
croscape / Science Photo Library; p70(c): Don W.
70(d): Biophoto Associates / Science Photo Library;
Photo Library; p71(a): Dr Gopal Murti / Science Photo

guiding questions that promote an

ages/Alamy Stock Photo; p71(c): Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
roscape / Science Photo Library; p71(e): Don W. 1 Molecules 2 1 Molecules 338
72(t): Heiti Paves/Alamy Stock Photo; P72(m): Dr A1.1 Water 3 C1.1 Enzymes and metabolism 339
y; p72(b): Dr Gary Gaugler / Science Photo Library;
x/Science Photo Library; p76: Han, X., Zhou, Z., Fei, L.
A1.2 Nucleic acids 16 C1.2 Cell respiration 361
Theory of knowledge 32 C1.3 Photosynthesis 384

inquiry approach
andscape at single-cell level. Nature 581, 303–309
s41586-020-2157-4; p77(l): Eye of Science/Science End of chapter questions 34
f/Science Photo Library; p78: Wolfgang Bettighofer, Theory of knowledge 410
Gschmeissner/Science Photo Library; p80(b): Tumor End of chapter questions 411
brary; p81: Xiao C, Kuznetsov YG, Sun S, Hafenstein SL, 2 Cells 36
C BY 2.5 /Wikimedia Commons; p86: Sergio Azenha/ A2.1 Origins of cells 37
or Disease Control and Prevention; p92(t): The 2 Cells 412
to; p92(b): Science Source / Science Photo Library; A2.2 Cell structure 49
nce Photo Library; p94(t): Herve Conge, ISM / Science A2.3 Viruses 80 C2.1 Chemical signalling 413
/Science Photo Library; p95: Bob Blaylock, CC BY-SA Theory of knowledge 92 C2.2 Neural signalling 428
C Interaction and interdependence

Kaj R. Svensson/Science Photo Library; p97(tl):

dia Commons; p97(tr): Ron Singer, Public domain / End of chapter questions 94 Theory of knowledge 447
. Michael Mares/Sam Noble Museum; p97(br): Brian End of chapter questions 448
efotostock/Alamy Stock Photo; p98(b): Timothy
Andrew Allott; p100: RGB Ventures SuperStock/Alamy
3 Organisms 96
A3.1 Diversity of organisms 97 3 Organisms 450
A Unity and diversity

Alamy Stock Photo; p101(tr): EyeLoveBirds from

/ Wikimedia Commons; p101(b): Corbis; p103: Dept. A3.2 Classification and cladistics 116 C3.1 Integration of body systems 451
ookes Hospital / Science Photo Library; p104: The
hoto; p109: Mauro Fermariello/Science Photo Library; Theory of knowledge 132 C3.2 Defence against disease 481
Andrea Izzotti/Shutterstock; p115(t): Melissa Lutz End of chapter questions 134
ock Photo; p116(t): NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program, Theory of knowledge 497
e Marianas, Leg 3; p116(b): Jen Guyton/Nature Picture End of chapter questions 498

A2.1 Origins of cells

tock Photo; p117(b): World Meteorological 4 Ecosystems 136
ure Library/Alamy Stock Photo; p118(tr): Auscape A4.1 Evolution and speciation 137
4 Ecosystems 500

Unity and
Photo; p118(bl): Alan Jeffery/Shutterstock; p118(br):
or Csorba, Hungarian Natural History Museum (or G.
A4.2 Conservation of biodiversity 156
w Allott; p122(t): Andrew Allott; p122(bl): Basic Local Theory of knowledge 173 C4.1 Populations and communities 501
End of chapter questions 175 C4.2 Transfers of energy and matter 529

A
: Ken Griffiths/Shutterstock; p122(br): Edwin Verin/
; p127(l): Matteo Omied / Alamy Stock Photo; p127(r):
p128: Koepfli, KP., Deere, K.A., Slater, G.J. et al. Theory of knowledge 554
End of chapter questions 555

diversity
lidae: Resolving relationships, tempo and biogeo- 1 Molecules 178
aptive radiation . BMC Biol 6, 10 (2008). https://doi. What plausible hypothesis could account for the origin of life?
9: Ger Bosma/Alamy Stock Photo; p132(tl): Didier B1.1 Carbohydrates and lipids 179
p132(tr): Peter Cairns/Nature Picture Library/ Science
C BY-SA 3.0 / Wikimedia Commons; p132(br): Nature
B1.2 Proteins 195 1 Molecules 556
o; p133(t): Sandy Rae, CC BY-SA 3.0 / Wikimedia Theory of knowledge 208 D1.1 DNA replication 557 Is there a consensus view of the conditions that existed on the
wych/Oxford University Press; p136: Lauren
End of chapter questions 209 D1.2 Protein synthesis 572 pre-biotic earth? If there is one, what were these conditions? How
PAUL D STEWART / Science Photo Library; p137(b):
ary; p138: Andrew Allott; p141: Dora Zett/ D1.3 Mutation and gene editing 592 do they differ from the conditions that exist today? In what ways

2 Cells
ey, Ph.D.; p142(tr): www.opencage photographer, CC 2 Cells 210 Theory of knowledge 606 did living things cause some of the changes to conditions on the
klmsta/Wikimedia; p142(br): photowind/
to Agency/Alamy Stock Photo; p145(b): Cyril Ruoso / B2.1 Membranes and membrane transport 211 End of chapter questions 607 early earth?
oto Library; p146: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0 /
oster/Alamy Stock Photo; p148: George Turner; p149:
B2.2 Organelles and compartmentalization 229
hoto; p150(t): Ailurus~frwiki, CC BY-SA 4.0 / B2.3 Cell specialization 240 2 Cells 608 Figure 1 shows a cross-section through a fossilized stromatolite,
azilPhotos/Alamy Stock Photo; p151: Lee Dalton/
Theory of knowledge 252 D2.1 Cell and nuclear division 609 showing concentric layers of rock (white) and coal-like organic
Photo Agency/Alamy Stock Photo; p153: Science
o; p155(t): Andrew Allott; p155(b): Tanya C Smith/ End of chapter questions 253 D2.2 Gene expression 636 Common ancestry has given living organisms many shared material (black). The layers of organic material were laid down by
ohnston_MA/Alamy Stock Photo; p156(b): Nick Upton D2.3 Water potential 648 cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). How far back can such layers
Photo Library; p157: Mannion PD, Upchurch P, Benson
diversity gradient through deep time. Trends Ecol Evol. 3 Organisms 254 Theory of knowledge 662
features while evolution has resulted in the rich biodiversity of be found? Do they offer conclusive proof of life?
/j.tree.2013.09.012. Epub 2013 Oct 17. PMID:
BY-SA 3.0 / Wikimedia Commons; p158(r): Jim
B3.1 Gas exchange 255 End of chapter questions 663 life on Earth.
n / Wikimedia Commons; p160(l): Frederick William B3.2 Transport 270
dia Commons; p160(r): Natural History Museum, B3.3 Muscle and motility 293 3 Organisms 664 The fundamental unit of life is the cell. All cells come from ▴ Figure 1 Cross-section through a fossilized stromatolite
ommons; p161(t): Science History Images/Alamy Stock
B Form and function

a.com; p163(t): Minden Pictures/Alamy Stock Photo; Theory of knowledge 305 D3.1 Reproduction 665 pre-existing cells. These are the two main propositions of the
cercunningham., Public domain / Wikimedia End of chapter questions 306 D3.2 Inheritance 692 What intermediate stages could there have been between non-living matter and the first
cell theory.
D Continuity and change

; p166: Phil Marsh; pp169-170: Andrew Allott;

D3.3 Homeostasis 721
Andrew Allott; p171(b): B. Bartel/USFWS & Jitze
dia Commons; p174(t): Mauro Fermariello/Science 4 Ecosystems 308 living cells?
Theory of knowledge 738
tes Department of Agriculture; p178: ibreakstock/
amy Stock Photo; p185: BGSmith/Shutterstock; p188: B4.1 Adaptation to environment 309 End of chapter questions 739 Most living organisms are single cells and most of the Figure 2 shows a “white smoker” which is a hydrothermal vent. It
hutterstock; p190(r): Jiri Hera/Shutterstock; p191: Papa
dia Commons; p193: Fuse/Getty Images; p195: RCSB
B4.2 Ecological niches 321 biomass on Earth is formed from single-celled organisms. is not known when or where life on Earth began. However, some
Theory of knowledge 336 4 Ecosystems 740
Shutterstock; p199(b): February 2001, David Goodsell,
01_2; p200(t): Glow Images/Getty Images; p200(b): End of chapter questions 337 D4.1 Natural selection 741
Even complex multicellular organisms begin their life cycles of the earliest habitable environments may have been submarine
ze, CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikimedia Commons; p204:
D4.2 Stability and change 757 as single cells: the whole organism is generated by cell hydrothermal vents. The oldest known fossils providing evidence
oi:10.2210/rcsb_pdb/mom_2011_2; p206: Mark A.
D4.3 Climate change 777 of microbial life have been found in precipitates associated with
y reaches atomic resolution. Nature 587, 39-40 (2020).
586-020-02924-y; p207(t): April 2000, David
Internal assessment: The scientific investigation 796
divisions from a single cell. This cell includes the machinery seafloor hydrothermal vents. For the first living cells to have
/mom_2000_4/; p207(b): Science Photo Library / Theory of knowledge 792
Birdsall Social Issues Photo Library / Science Photo
Index 802
End of chapter questions 794 to gather raw materials from the environment and to use appeared, catalysis would have to have occurred. What were
Shutterstock; p210: Biophoto Associates / Science
/Shutterstock; p211(b): fotofeel/Shutterstock; p212: these materials to construct a new cell in its own image, some of the some of the necessary developments that would
o Library / Alamy Stock Photo; p219: Andrew Allott, Answers: www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-science-support need to have occurred for the first life to emerge? How might
Vink; complete with a new copy of its hereditary information. hydrothermal events provided the correct conditions for this
iii emergence?
All cells store their hereditary information using the same
linear chemical code: DNA. The genetic code is described ▴ Figure 2 A "white smoker" hydrothermal vent
as universal because the same code is used across nearly all
forms of life. AHL only
A2.1.1 Conditions on early Earth and the pre-biotic formation of carbon
All cells function as biochemical “factories”, utilizing the same compounds
basic molecular building blocks. All cells use proteins called A2.1.2 Cells as the smallest units of self-sustaining life
enzymes as catalysts. Each protein is coded for by a specific A2.1.3 Challenge of explaining the spontaneous origin of cells

Comprehensive coverage of the gene or set of genes. All cells copy their hereditary information
through templated polymerization, transcribing portions of
A2.1.4 Evidence for the origin of carbon compounds
A2.1.5 Spontaneous formation of vesicles by coalescence of fatty acids into
spherical bilayers

syllabus, with chapters structured to their hereditary information into the same intermediary form A2.1.6 RNA as a presumed first genetic material
A2.1.7 Evidence for a last universal common ancestor
(RNA). All cells translate RNA into protein in the same way. A2.1.8 Approaches used to estimate dates of the first living cells and the last

match, which makes this book the

universal common ancestor
A2.1.9 Evidence for the evolution of the last universal common ancestor in the
vicinity of hydrothermal vents

primary reference for any topic of 37

the course material, facilitating class

work and supporting students in
preparing for their examinations Colourful images abound

Reliable, detailed content has been

illustrated with revised examples

Unity and diversity Cells

A2.1.6 RNA as a presumed first genetic

AHL content is
AHL
AHL

ammonia
water vapour (NH3) material
methane (CH4) electrode

clearly marked
Living organisms today have genes made of DNA and use enzymes as catalysts.
hydrogen To replicate DNA and pass genes to offspring, living organisms need enzymes.
(H2)
However, to make enzymes, they need genes! At an earlier phase in evolution,
RNA may have been the genetic material. RNA can store information in the same
way as DNA but it is self-replicating and it can act as a catalyst.
condenser
Some viruses (usually considered to be non-living) use RNA as their genetic
material. This supports the theory that RNA could have been used before genes
made of DNA evolved. Viruses with RNA as their genetic material (for example,
cold coronaviruses) tend to have a very high mutation rate, because the polymerase
water in enzyme that copies the base sequence is much less accurate than the equivalent
enzyme used to copy DNA. This does not matter much in a virus with only a few
cooled water containing genes and a high reproduction rate. It may even be an advantage in helping
organic compounds the virus to evade the host’s immune system. However, in a living organism with
thousands of genes, genetic stability is much more important so a change to
using DNA as the genetic material would have been beneficial.

▴ Figure 8 Phospholipids naturally
form spherical bilayers in water, with the
hydrophilic heads (blue) facing out from the
bilayer and the hydrophobic tails (green)
forming the core
▴ Figure 9 Butterfat droplets
sample taken for
chemical analysis
▴ Figure 7 Miller and Urey’s apparatus
A2.1.5 Spontaneous formation of vesicles
by coalescence of fatty acids into spherical
bilayers
Vesicles are small droplets of fluid, enclosed in a membrane. They are very
common structures inside cells. Some cells also produce extracellular vesicles,
called exosomes. Vesicles probably played a part in the early evolution of cells.
The membrane of vesicles is mainly composed of phospholipids. One end of
a phospholipid molecule is attracted to water (the hydrophilic head) because
it is polar. The remainder is non-polar (two hydrophobic tails). These tails are
more attracted to non-polar substances than to water. A molecule with both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts is called amphipathic.
When mixed with water, phospholipids naturally assemble into bilayers.
The hydrophilic heads face outwards so they are in contact with water. The
hydrophobic tails face inwards, away from water. Experiments have shown that
these bilayers spontaneously form stable spherical structures; such structures are
the basis of vesicles.
If phospholipids or other amphipathic molecules were part of the “soup”
of carbon compounds on pre-biotic Earth, they would have self-assembled
into bilayers and vesicles would very likely have formed. Movement of polar
molecules into and out of these spherical structures would have been limited by
the hydrophobic membrane core. As a result, the vesicles could have developed
their own internal chemistry, different from that of the surroundings. They would
have been cell-like even though they were not yet proper cells.
Living cells produce hundreds or even thousands of enzymes, all of which are
proteins. At one time it was thought that proteins were the only molecules
whose three-dimensional structure was complex enough to act as a catalyst.
However, a small number of processes in cells have been found to be catalysed
by RNA. Consider the synthesis of polypeptides in ribosomes. The core of the
large subunit of the ribosome is composed of two RNA molecules. Together,
these molecules catalyse the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids. ▴ Figure 10 RNA can form complex three-
This process is repeated many times to produce a polypeptide. RNA can act as
a catalyst because it can form complex three-dimensional structures that can
dimensional shapes, as in this hammerhead
ribozyme which has two loops and three
undergo precise interactions with other molecules. helices
Data-based questions: Protocells
A protocell is a compartment enclosed in a phospholipid 1. Protocells lacking RNA were radioactively labelled
membrane. Protocells are used to model how more and mixed with unlabelled vesicles that contained
complex biological cells or components of cellular RNA (lower curve in Figure 11) or did not contain RNA
organization may have originated. It is likely that (upper curve in Figure 11).
protocells existed on pre-biotic Earth, with self-replicating a. Compare and contrast changes in the size of
molecules encapsulated by a membrane. It is also the radioactively labelled protocells when they
thought that such structures could grow and divide. are mixed with vesicles containing RNA and not
In an experiment, researchers used a simple protocell containing RNA.
consisting of a self-replicating RNA molecule encapsulated
b. Suggest what might have happened to make the
by a membrane. For growth to occur, new membrane
radioactively labelled protocells become smaller.
material is needed. However, there were no cellular
mechanisms to manufacture new membrane material. It has
been hypothesized that protocells containing RNA can grow
by capturing new membrane material from the environment.

42 43

Frequent practice data based questions have been included

within the chapters and at the end of each chapter
Worked examples of the application of
mathematical skills are included

Interaction and interdependence Molecules

The following example describes one experiment to investigate the rate of an

enzyme-catalysed reaction. However, there are many other enzymes and ways of Data-based questions: Calculating rates of reaction
measuring reaction rate.
1. 10 cm3 of 1% starch solution was mixed with 1 cm3 of 2. Ten drops of a commercial catalase solution were
0.1% amylase solution. The reaction mixture was kept added to four reaction vessels containing a 1.5%
at 40°C. A test for starch was done every 30 seconds, hydrogen peroxide solution. Each of the solutions had
Collecting and processing data: Measuring
using iodine solution. The first test that showed no been kept at a different temperature. The % oxygen in
catalase activity starch was present after 8 minutes. the reaction vessel was determined using a data
logger in a set-up similar to Figure 20.
The apparatus shown in Figure 19 can be used to investigate the activity a. Calculate the mass of starch in the reaction
of catalase. Yeast cells contain catalase. Yeast mixed with water is injected mixture in grams. [2] a. Explain the variation in oxygen percentage
into the test tube to start the reaction. Catalase catalyses the conversion of at time zero. [1]
b. Convert this mass to milligrams. [1]
hydrogen peroxide, a toxic by-product of metabolism, into water and oxygen. b. Use the graph to determine the rate of
Catalase is one of the most widespread enzymes and other sources of the c. Calculate the mass of starch digested
reaction at each temperature. [4]
enzyme could be used (for example, liver tissue, kidney tissue or germinating per minute by the amylase. [1]
seeds). These sources would have to be macerated and then mixed with c. Plot a graph of reaction rate against
d. Convert this rate of reaction from “per minute”
water before being injected. temperature. [3]
to “per second”. [1]
d. Discuss whether a logarithmic scale for the
y-axis should be used instead of a linear scale. [2]
oxygen
22.0 51°C 4°C
21.5 21°C 34°C
yeast measuring cylinder
21.0
three-way tap 20.5

oxygen / %
water
20.0
19.5
19.0
water 18.5
0.8 mol dm–3 ▴ Figure 20 18.0
hydrogen peroxide 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time / s
▴ Figure 19 Apparatus for measuring catalase activity ▴ Figure 21 Percentage of oxygen concentration over time at various
temperatures after adding catalase to a 1.5% hydrogen peroxide solution
To investigate the effect of substrate concentration, you could measure the
reaction rate repeatedly using the same concentration of yeast but different
hydrogen peroxide concentrations. Alternatively, you could investigate the
effect of varying catalase concentration.
ATL Thinking skills: Choosing a method to determine reaction rate
1. How can the activity of catalase be measured using the apparatus shown
in Figure 19? Include suitable SI units for the reaction rate. Data processing involves converting raw data into a form b. Lipase catalyses the breakdown of triglycerides to
2. What factors should be kept constant if investigating the effect of substrate that is easier to interpret. Reaction rate is measured as fatty acids and water. Fatty acids affect the pH of the
concentration? change in the amount of reactant or product per second. reaction as the reaction proceeds.
For each of these enzyme experiments, describe how the c. Gelatin cubes are digested by papain, which is a
3. How can the 0.8 mol dm−3 hydrogen peroxide solution be diluted to
rate of reaction can be determined: protease that can be extracted from papaya fruits.
make concentrations of 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 mol dm−3?
a. Paper discs soaked in the enzyme catalase are added
4. Why is it necessary to macerate other catalase sources such as liver tissue d. The enzyme catechol oxidase can be extracted from
to different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide. The
before measuring catalase activity in them? bananas. It converts catechol to a yellow pigment in
reaction produces oxygen bubbles.
cut fruit. The yellow pigment reacts with oxygen in the
Safety goggles must be worn if this experiment is performed. Care air to turn brown.
should be taken not to get hydrogen peroxide on the skin.

350 351

Approaches to Learning Skills are included in each chapter

16 ToK sections address the prompts

from the Theory of Knowledge
Internal Assessment list

Unity and diversity Form and function Cells Organisms

TOK 4.0% been observed directly. It is not possible

Two techniques
to knowcan thebe used. life in chemically and physically diverse environments.
biochemical features of life on other planets a posteriori. The interface between the compartment and the
1. A sample of epidermis is peeled off the leaf. This is easy with Commelina and
percentage by mass of water

A priori, we know that life on other planets is likely to be surrounding environment would need to be semi-
Tradescantia. Other species are worth trying. The leaf can be folded across

Are some things unknowable?

in air at saturation point

3.0% based on carbon, associated with water and cellular. This permeable to allow for exchange of waste and raw
to break all the tissues apart from the lower epidermis and then the epidermis
reasoning is based on the following key factors: materials as well as communication.
can be peeled off or the leaf can be torn in half obliquely which often
• Molecular diversity is essential forseparates
life’s functions and
areas of epidermis. Small areas of epidermis are then mounted in
In some cases, scientists have to struggle with hypotheses that self-replicating molecules, compartmentalization, 2.0%catalysis for the process of evolution, andwater
no other element can The strength of a theory comes from the observations it
on a microscope slide and are examined.
are difficult to test. Abiogenesis is the process by which life ▸ Figure 17Researchers
and polymerization. Graph showing have been able to achieve form as many different compounds or types of structure can explain and the predictions it can support. The theory
arose from non-life. It is impossible for researchers to replicate all of these
thesteps separately
maximum under laboratory conditions.
percentage, as carbon. 2. Another technique can be of endosymbiosis—used
used if the leaf is non-hairy toand
account
smooth.for the evolution of
the exact conditions on prebiotic Earth, because they are not by mass, of water vapour 1.0% eukaryotic
Colourless nail varnish is painted on tocells—accounts for a wide
a small area of upper range of
epidermis andobservations.
fully known and the first protocells did not fossilize. In the early For example, researchers
that air can hold at created
sea-level solutions of nitrogenous • The subunits of the four major categories of biological
lower epidermis. When it isThe
dry,theory
the nailthat mitochondria
varnish is peeledoriginated
off, mounted as intracellular
on
1950s, Stanley Miller demonstrated that it was possible to bases, then driedbetween
pressure the mixture
−60°Conandsilicon wafers. They placed molecule—including amino acids, nucleobases,
a microscope the and examined.
slide mutualistic Theprokaryotes
nail varnish isforms
supported
a cast ofbythe
theleaf
observation of
form amino acids from simple inorganic precursors. However, these samples
+40°C. inAta simulation chamber (shown0.0%
lower air pressures, in Figure 1) components of lipids, and sugarssurface,
— have with
all been found ofintracellular
the margins the cells and parasitic bacteria
the stomata clearly as Rickettsia, the cause
suchvisible.
and exposed them to wet-dry,
the percentages at each day-night and seasonal –60 –40 –20 0 20 40in carbon-rich meteorites.
in the 70 or so years since then, scientists have been unable to of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Within mitochondria,
cycles, astemperature would be higher
well as to moisture, high temperature, oxidizing temperature / °C The microscope slide should beprokaryotic moved until theribosomes,
field of viewa is filled by the
create a simple life form from non-living precursors—despite • No solvent dissolves a greater range of molecules type prokaryotic type single
significant efforts. environments, high levels of radiation and other conditions peeled epidermis or leaf cast. The number
circular of stomataand
chromosome candouble
then bemembranes
counted. all provide
than water. In addition, water is found throughout
that are thought to of
have Repeat counts should be carried out andevidence
a mean numberfor the of stomata calculated. If Since
The walls thebeen
spongy present on theinside
mesophyll prebiotic
a leafEarth.
are kept moist for gas exchange. the universe. When planets form around stars, there empirical theory of endosymbiosis.
To know something a priori is to know it through reason rather The purpose of these experiments is to investigate the area of the field of view is determined,
the original the stomatal
event occurreddensity can of
millions beyears
calculated.
ago, the
Some of this water will evaporate unless the air spaces are already saturated withis a tendency for them to contain large volumes of ▴ Figure 19 The lower epidermis can
than by observing it. Through reason, scientists agree that the emergence of self-catalytic
water vapour. Unless theRNA molecules. of water vapour in the air outside the
concentration condensed water, and water exists as a liquid over a phenomenon is not directly observable. However, because
mean number of stomata
abiogenesis occurred and that it involved the emergence of stomatal densitythe (mmtheory
−2
) = predicts and explains the usually be peeled more easily than the
leaf is as high
To know something as the concentration
a posteriori is to know it in the air spaces,
because it has water vapour will diffuse out relatively large temperature range. area of field of view (mm2) observations, we upper hold it
epidermis
through the stomata. This causes the humidity of the air spaces to drop below the to be a pragmatic truth—one that “works”.
• The compartmentalization that cells achieve is essential
saturation point, so more water evaporates from spongy mesophyll cell walls. The
to allow a living organism to maintain the conditions for
loss of water vapour from the leaves and stems of plants is called transpiration. Applying techniques: Using a potometer to measure rates of transpiration
Transpiration rates are affected by environmental factors. Mechanisms involved in water transport in the xylem can
• Temperature (positive correlation): at higher temperatures there is more be investigated using apparatus and materials that show
energy available for evaporation. Also warmer air can hold more water similarities in structure to plant tissues. Figure 20 shows
vapour before becoming saturated. a potometer. This is a device used to measure water
uptake in plants. The apparatus consists of a leafy shoot in
• Humidity (negative correlation): the higher the relative humidity of the air, the
a tube (right), a reservoir (left of shoot), and a graduated
smaller the concentration gradient of water vapour between the air spaces
capillary tube (horizontal). A bubble in the capillary tube
inside the leaf and the air outside, so the lower the rate of diffusion. There is
marks the zero point. As the plant takes up water through
no transpiration if the air outside the leaf is saturated with water vapour.
its roots, the bubble will move along the capillary tube.
Plants minimize water losses using guard cells. These cells are found in pairs, one The distance the bubble travels and the time taken are
on either side of a stoma. Guard cells control the aperture of the stoma and can measured. The tap below the reservoir allows the bubble
adjust from wide open to fully closed. Plants can prevent nearly all transpiration to be reset to carry out new measurements.
by◂closing 1 Thestomata.
Figuretheir planetaryMost
simulator at do this routinely at night when there is no
plants
McMaster University in Hamilton
photosynthesis. The disadvantage of closing the stomata in daylight is that little
or no carbon dioxide can be absorbed, so the rate of photosynthesis is limited. ▴ Figure 20 A potometer
Control mechanisms in the guard cells allow the aperture of the stomata to be
varied according to the carbon dioxide concentration inside the leaf. Rising
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations due to human activity are allowing
▴ Figure 18 Open and closed stomata plants to open stomata less widely, easing the problem of water loss a little. Measurement: Repeat measurements to improve reliability
It is standard practice in scientific research to repeat Repeating the counts has several advantages. It helps
measurements and replicate trials. In this case, samples avoid the danger of an outlier having a disproportionate
B3.1.10 Stomatal density should be taken from as many leaves on the plant and as effect on the conclusions. It increases reliability because
Stomatal density is the number of stomata per unit area of leaf surface. To find the many plants of the species as possible. For each leaf, as it allows a mean to be calculated which will be closer to
many areas as possible should be examined and a count the true stomatal density than a single count is likely to
density, the number of stomata in a known area must be counted. Guard cells ▴ Figure 3 The red cells in this micrograph are intracellular parasites in the cytoplasm of yolk sac cells
of the number of stomata taken in each area. The counts be. It also allows the reliability of the mean to be assessed
and stomata are too small to be seen with the naked eye but are easily visible with
a microscope. will not be the same, but if done carefully, each count will statistically. The less variation between the repeats, the
◂ Figure 2 Sugars have been detected on be correct. The variability is natural in biological material. more reliable the mean.
two different meteorites: NWA 801 and the
Murchison meteorite
92 264 93 265

Application of Skills sections include additional ‘Practicing

Techniques’ items to provide students with a greater choice
of protocols to choose from when designing procedures
for their internal assessment projects
A dedicated section has
been included that helps Internal assessment: The scientific investigation Internal assessment: The scientific investigation

Internal assessment: The scientific

who is less familiar with your topic can establish the importance of your study. So,

students prepare for the

include background theory of direct relevance that provides context for your research
question. This should be accompanied by correctly formatted citations. If web-based

investigation publications are cited, then the URL and date of access must be included.

Internal Assessment task

2. Methodological considerations associated with collecting relevant and sufficient data
Throughout the IB biology syllabus, the application of skills is intended to expose
you to a range of experimental and mathematical techniques as well as some
suggestions for how technology can support inquiry. A subset of these skills is
designated as “Practicing techniques”. This is intended to introduce you to a
range of protocols that can be modified and combined to carry out investigations
of your own design. A culminating experience as an IB biology student is an
open-ended inquiry called the Scientific investigation.
• A statement about what the scientific community currently has established and what
gap is filled by your experiment.
to answer the research question are explained.
You should ensure the following.
• The methods for measuring the dependent and independent variables are justified.
• If relevant, justification for the selection of a database or a model system is given.
• An explanation is provided of the process of collecting sample data.

▴ Figure 1 An ideal process for coming up
with a testable research question is to spend
some time “wandering and wondering”
observing the natural world
The Scientific Investigation involves production of a written report that mirrors the • Justification is given for decisions about the scope, quantity and quality of
components and style of a professional scientist’s research publication. It involves measurements. This should include specification of the number of repetitions and the
range, interval or values of the independent variable.
a three-stage inquiry process:
• exploring and designing • Decisions about the precision of measurements are explained.
• collecting and processing data • Identification of control variables and the choice of method of their control is given.
This might involve the inclusion of additional control experiments.
• concluding and evaluating.
• There is recognition and planning for any relevant safety, ethical or environmental
The written report of your investigation will be assessed by your teacher using issues.
four criteria:
3. The description of the methodology for collecting or selecting data allows for the
• Research design investigation to be reproduced.
• Data analysis • This means that a reader readily understands how the methodology was implemented
• Conclusion and could repeat the investigation based on the method description.

ATL Communication
skills: Responding
correctly to the
language in a rubric
The research design criterion in-
cludes these expectations:
• specific and appropriate
context
• relevant and sufficient data
• a methodology description
which enables the investigation
to be reproduced.
What evidence should be found
within your report to ensure that
it is accurately described by these
descriptions?
• Evaluation • If an organism is part of the investigation the scientific name should be included in the
research question, written using the correct combination of capitals and italics.
Samples of your teacher’s marking will be submitted to an IB-appointed • You should clearly indicate additional variables that could influence the dependent
moderator to ensure fair application of the criteria. variable if they are not held constant. Aim to address the most significant three or
four variables that need to be controlled. When describing the method, additional
Research design controls could be discussed. In some cases, variables are not controllable—for
example, in the case of fieldwork. In this case, these variables should be monitored.
The research design criterion assesses the extent to which you effectively
communicate: • In designing the method, you must ensure as far as possible that change in the
• the purpose of the study dependent variable is solely due to changes in the independent variable. You must
change only one thing and attempt to hold everything else constant.
• your methodology choices
Applications of skills: Designing and explaining a valid methodology
• a description of the intended execution of the methodology. ATL
This assessment criterion has three components. In a group of your classmates, choose one of the • To what extent does proximity to the Clifton Pier
1. The research question is described within a specific and appropriate following three research questions and collaboratively power station correlate with percentage algae cover
create a “Research design” section. on the ocean bed? (NB Clifton Pier burns oil for
context.
• Does an infusion of burned plant matter stimulate electricity production. Tanker delivery often leads to
You should include the following points. oil slicks.)
germination and post-germination growth of
• Identification of the dependent and independent variables or the Eucalyptus pilularis seeds compared with deionized • To what extent does body composition, as measured
variables which appear to be correlated. water? (NB wildfires in New South Wales were by bioelectric impedance on a bathroom scale,
• A description of the academic and natural systems in which the research extinguished by torrential rainfall.) correlate with the rate of dive tank gas consumption
question is embedded. You should provide some context so that a reader in a 30-minute scuba dive?

796 797

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They co-wrote books for the 2009 and 2014 versions of the syllabus, and have been
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They have also co-written a textbook for the MYP year 4 and 5 biology course. 

Andrew Allott
Andrew Allott has extensive high level examining experience for IB DP Biology.
He taught biology for nearly 40 years and was Head of Biology in Shrewsbury, at
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active conservationist, caring for wildlife in a ten hectare woodland in Shropshire
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David Mindorff
David is Principal of Lyford Cay International School, The Bahamas. He is the co-author
of several books written for MYP and DP Biology. David was the Online Curriculum
Centre faculty member for the IB for 13 years. He is an examiner for DP Biology and
has detailed Curriculum review experience, participating on committees for the past
three syllabus reviews, as well as for MYP eAssessment task creation for Biology and
Interdisciplinary Studies.
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