University of Bahrain

Course: Manufacturing Processes I (MENG 210)

Outline:
• Welding- defined
• Types of joints and welds
• Welding physics

Fundamentals of Welding

Instructor: Prof. Dr. G. Hussain

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Department of Mechanical Engineering
Joining and Assembly Distinguished

Joining – Coupling of parts through non-mechanical means.

welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding
 These processes form a permanent joint between parts
Assembly – Coupling of parts through mechanical means.
Usually done through fastening of parts together
 Some of these methods allow for easy disassembly, while
others do not

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Welding
Joining process in which two (or more) parts are
coalesced/merged at their contacting surfaces by
application of heat and/or pressure
 Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone,
with no pressure applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure
 Still others by pressure alone with no external heat
 In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence (merging)

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Why Welding is Important
 Provides a permanent joint
 Welded components become a single entity
 Usually the most economical way to join parts in terms of
material usage and fabrication costs
 Mechanical fastening usually requires additional hardware
components (e.g., screws and nuts) and geometric
alterations of the parts being assembled (e.g., holes)
 Not restricted to a factory environment
 Welding can be accomplished "in the field"

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Categories of Welding Processes
1. Fusion welding processes
Joining processes that melt the base metals
 In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to the
molten pool to facilitate coalescence and to provide bulk and added
strength to the welded joint
 A fusion welding operation in which no filler metal is added is called
an autogenous weld
2. Solid-state welding processes
Coalescence results from application of pressure alone or combination
of both pressure and heat, and material remains in solid state.
If heat is applied, temp must be below melting point

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The Weld Joint & Weld Type

Joint type is defined by shape of junction b/w plates

Weld type refers to the way junction is welded

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Five Types of Joints- a joint defines the shape
of junction

1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint

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Butt Joint

Parts lie in same plane and are joined at their

edges
Corner Joint

Parts in a corner
joint form a right
angle and are joined
at the corner of the
angle
 Lap Joint
Consists of two
overlapping parts
 Tee Joint

One part is
perpendicular to the
other in the
approximate shape of
the letter "T"
 Edge Joint

Parts in an edge joint

are parallel with at
least one of their
edges in common,
and the joint is made
at the common
edge(s)
Types of Welds
 Each of the preceding joints can be made by welding
 Other joining processes can also be used for some of the
joint types

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 Fillet Weld
Used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner, lap, and tee
joints
Filler metal used to provide cross section in approximate shape of a
right triangle

Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet corner

joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double fillet lap
joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint. Dashed lines show the
original part edges.
Groove Welds
 Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a groove to
facilitate weld penetration
 Edge preparation increases cost of parts fabrication
 Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in single
or double sides
 Most closely associated with butt joints

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 Groove Welds
Some groove welds: (a) square groove weld, one side; (b) single
bevel groove weld; (c) single V-groove weld; (d) single U-groove
weld; (e) single J-groove weld; (f) double V-groove weld for thicker
sections. Dashed lines show original part edges.
Spot Weld
Fused section between surfaces of two plates
 Used for lap joints
 Closely associated with resistance welding
Physics of Welding: power density
 Power density is defined as the power transferred to work
per unit surface area (W/mm^2). P/A---- (1)
 PD requirement: 10 to 10^5 W/mm^2. Less than 10 does not
cause melting and conducts away from metal as rapidly as it
transfers into metal. Higher than 10^5 causes vaporization of the
metal at local region.
 The PD is not as simple as shown in Eq 1. There is complication
regarding PD:
a) The power source in most of the cases is moving: which
results in preheating ahead of operation and post heating behind it.
b) As a result, Power density is not uniform throughout the
affected surface
Physics of Welding: Example

Observation: PD is high enough for melting the inner surface,

but probably not sufficient for melting the surface outside the
inner ring
 Heat Balance in Fusion Welding
The amount of heat required to melt a given volume of metal depends
on:
a. Heat to raise temp of solid metal to its m.p (depend on specific heat capacity)
b. Heat to transform the metal from solid to liquid phase at m.p (depends on
metal’s heat of fusion)
c. m.p of the metal
Energy needed for melting unit vol= Um= KTm^2 (1)
Um is the heat required to melt unit volume of material from room temp; Tm is the
mp of metal in kelvin; K is constant (3.33*10^-6)
Net heat available for welding (source) = Hw = f1f2H (2)
f1= heat transfer factor (ratio of actual heat received by the w/p at surface divided by
total heat generated at the source)
f2= melting factor (heat used in melting divided by heat received at work surface)
H= total heat generated by welding process (or at source)
Heat Balance in Fusion Welding
Heat balance between energy input and energy needed for welding:
From Eqs 1 & 2:
Hw = f1f2H = Um xV (3) V is vol of metal melted
As net heat energy Hw is delivered at given rate, and the weld bead is made
at a certain travel velocity, hence it is appropriate to write above Eq in rate
form:

f1f2RH = UmAwv (4)

RH is the rate of input energy generated by welding power source ( in W);
Aw is x-section area of weld, and v is the welding speed (in mm/sec)
Heat Balance: Example

Um= KTm^2

f1f2RH = UmAwv
Physics of Welding
 Fusion is the most common means of achieving
coalescence in welding
 To accomplish fusion, a source of high-density heat energy
must be supplied to the faying surfaces, so the resulting
temperatures cause localized melting of base metals (and
filler metal, if used)
 For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt the metal
with minimum energy but high heat densities

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 Typical Fusion Welded Joint
Metal cooling in weld is similar to cooling in casting mold
Fusion Zone: Base metal and filler metal melt homogeneously.
Structure is Columnar. Loss of original composition during melting and
due to addition of filler metal that has addition of elements with
better weld ability
Weld interface: A boundary (thin layer) that separates fusion zone
and HAZ. It has chemical composition same as that of base metal.

Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint: (a) principal

zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain structure.
 Heat Affected Zone
Zone in which metal experiences temperatures below melting point,
but high enough to cause microstructural changes in the solid
metal
 Chemical composition same as base metal, but this region has
been heat treated so that its properties and structure have been
altered
 Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually negative, and it is here that
welding failures often occur
 The base metal beyond HAZ does not undergo structural
change. However has thermal stresses because of temp gradient
during cooling of weld pool

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Two Categories of Welding Processes
 Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by melting
the two parts to be joined, in some cases adding filler
metal to the joint
 Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding, oxyfuel gas
welding
 Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used to
achieve coalescence, but no melting of base metals occurs
and no filler metal is added
 Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction welding

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Arc Welding (AW)
A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the
metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume
and strength of weld joint

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 Fusion Welding

Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal is formed near
electrode tip, and as electrode is moved along
joint, molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

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 Fusion Welding

Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes

 Consumable – consumed during welding process
 Source of filler metal in arc welding
 Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding process
 Filler metal must be added separately

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 Fusion Welding

Arc Shielding
 At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically
reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously degraded by
these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding
air in AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
 Flux

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 Fusion Welding

Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other
contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and facilitates
removal
It melts into slag to cover the surface of weld. Solidifies onto the
weld and is broken into chips on cooling
 Provides protective atmosphere for welding
 Stabilizes arc
 Reduces spattering
 Reduces cooling rate to improve weld toughness
Application methods:
- In the form of grains
- In coating form on the consumable electrode
- In the core of consumable electrode

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 Fusion Welding

Power source in AW
AC- mostly used for ferrous metals (less conductive)
DC- used for all types of metals, and offer better arc stability and
energy input; expensive than AC sources
CE processes has higher f1 (because 1st heat is used in melting
electrode & later molten metal transfers same heat into metal)
Tungsten Arc Welding has least f1 (0.7)

Example:

f1f2RH = UmAwv

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 Fusion Welding

Homework (from Ed 3 or 4)

Solve 30.10, 30.18, 30.5, 30.11. 30.16, 30.21

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