Joining & Assembly

Chapter # 30 & 31

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FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
1. Overview of Welding Technology
2. The Weld Joint
3. Features of a Fusion Welded Joint

2
Joining and Assembly Distinguished
Joining - welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding
 These processes form a permanent joint between parts

Assembly - mechanical methods (usually) of fastening parts

together
 Some of these methods allow for easy disassembly, while
others do not

3
Welding
Joining process in which two (or more) parts are coalesced
at their contacting surfaces by application of heat and/or
pressure
 Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone,
with no pressure applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure ( explosion
welding)
 Still others by pressure alone with no external heat
( pressure welding)
 In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence

4
Why Welding is Important
 Provides a permanent joint
 Welded components become a single entity
 Usually the most economical way to join parts in terms of
material usage and fabrication costs
 Mechanical fastening usually requires additional hardware
components (e.g., screws and nuts) and geometric alterations
of the parts being assembled (e.g., holes)
 Not restricted to a factory environment
 Welding can be accomplished "in the field"

5
Fusion Welding
Joining processes that melt the base metals
 In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added
to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide
bulk and added strength to the welded joint
 A fusion welding operation in which no filler metal is
added is called an autogenous weld

6
Some Fusion Welding Processes
 Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is
accomplished by electric arc
 Resistance welding (RW) ‑ melting is accomplished by
heat from resistance to an electrical current between
faying surfaces held together under pressure
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) ‑ melting is accomplished by
an oxyfuel gas such as acetylene

7
The Weld Joint
The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been
joined by welding
 Two issues about weld joints:
 Types of joints
 Types of welds used to join the pieces that form the joints

8
Five Types of Joints
1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint

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Butt Joint

Parts lie in same plane and are joined at their

edges
Corner Joint

Parts in a corner joint

form a right angle
and are joined at the
corner of the angle
 Lap Joint
Consists of two
overlapping parts
 Tee Joint

One part is
perpendicular to the
other in the
approximate shape of
the letter "T"
 Edge Joint

Parts in an edge joint

are parallel with at
least one of their
edges in common,
and the joint is made
at the common
edge(s)
Types of Welds
 Each of the preceding joints can be made by welding
 Other joining processes can also be used for some of the
joint types
 There is a difference between joint type and the way it is
welded ‑ the weld type

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Fillet Weld
 Used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner, lap,
and tee joints
 Filler metal used to provide cross section in approximate
shape of a right triangle

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 Fillet Welds

Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet corner

joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double fillet
lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint. Dashed lines show
the original part edges.
Groove Welds
 Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a groove to
facilitate weld penetration
 Edge preparation increases cost of parts fabrication
 Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in
single or double sides
 Most closely associated with butt joints

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 Groove Welds
Some groove welds: (a) square groove weld, one side; (b) single
bevel groove weld; (c) single V‑groove weld; (d) single U‑groove
weld; (e) single J‑groove weld; (f) double V‑groove weld for
thicker sections. Dashed lines show original part edges.
Spot Weld

Fused section between surfaces of two plates

 Used for lap joints
 Closely associated with resistance welding
Physics of Welding
 Fusion is most common means of achieving coalescence in
welding
 To accomplish fusion, a source of high density heat energy
must be supplied to the faying surfaces, so the resulting
temperatures cause localized melting of base metals (and
filler metal, if used)
 For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt the metal
with minimum energy but high heat densities.
 Min power density required to melt most metal is 10
w/mm2.
 If heat density increases, melting time is reduced. If poweer
density too high (105) w/mm2, localized metal
vaporization of metal may occur
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Power Density
Power transferred to work per unit surface area, W/mm2
(Btu/sec‑in2)
 If power density is too low, heat is conducted into work,
so melting never occurs
 There is a practical range of values for heat density within
which welding can be performed
 For metallurgical reason, it is desirable to melt the metal
with min energy, but with high heat density
Comparisons Among Welding Processes
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) develops large amounts of
heat, but heat density is relatively low because heat is
spread over a large area
 Oxyacetylene gas, the hottest of the OFW fuels, burns at a
top temperature of around 3500C (6300F)
 Arc welding produces high energy over a smaller area,
resulting in local temperatures of 5500 to 6600C
(10,000 to 12,000F)
Power Densities for Welding Processes

Welding process W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)

Oxyfuel 10 (6)
Arc 50 (30)
Resistance 1,000 (600)

Laser beam 9,000 (5,000)

Electron beam 10,000 (6,000)

Power Density
Power entering surface divided by corresponding surface
area:
P
PD 
A
where PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/sec‑in2); P = power
entering surface, W (Btu/sec); and A = surface area over
which energy is entering, mm2 (in2)
 Unit Energy for Melting
Quantity of heat required to melt a unit volume of metal
starting from room temp.
 Symbolized Um
 It is the sum of:
 Heat to raise temperature of solid metal to melting point
 Depends on volumetric specific heat
 Heat to transform metal from solid to liquid phase at
melting point
 Depends on heat of fusion

Um = KTm2
Where K = 3.33 X 10-6 for Kelvin scale; Tm is melting point
on absolute scale
Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Welding
 Not all of the input energy is used to melt the weld metal
1. Heat transfer efficiency f1 - actual heat received by
workpiece divided by total heat generated at the source
2. Melting efficiency f2 - proportion of heat received at work
surface used for melting; the rest is conducted into work
metal
Heat Available for Welding

Hw = f1 f2 H

where Hw = net heat available for welding; f1 =

heat transfer efficiency; f2 = melting
efficiency( depends on welding process,
thermal properties of metal, joint configuration,
also on work thickness) and H = Total heat
generated by welding process
Heat Transfer Efficiency f1
Proportion of heat received at work surface relative to total
heat generated at source
 Oxyfuel gas welding processes are relatively inefficient
 Arc welding processes are relatively efficient
Melting Efficiency f2
Proportion of heat received at work surface used for
melting; the rest is conducted into the work
 Depends on welding process but also influenced by
thermal properties of metal, joint configuration, and work
thickness
 Metals with high thermal conductivity, such as aluminum
and copper, present a problem in welding because of the
rapid dissipation of heat away from the heat contact area
Energy Balance Equation
Net heat energy into welding operation equals heat energy
required to melt the volume of metal welded
Hw = Um V
where Hw = net heat energy delivered to operation, J (Btu);
Um = unit energy required to melt the metal, J/mm3 (Btu/in3);
and V = volume of metal melted, mm3 (in3)
The form of rate balance equation
HRw = Um W V R
Whre HRw = rate of heat energy delivered
W V R = volume rate of metal welded mm3/s
HRw = f1 f2 HR =Um Aw v
v =travel velocity HR = rate of input energy generated by
power welding source and Aw = weld cross sec area
32
 Problem 30-8
 A fillet weld has a cross-sectional area Aw = 20.0mm2 and is 200
mm long. (a) What quantity of heat (in J) is required to
accomplish the weld, if the metal to be welded is austenitic S.S.?
(b) How much heat must be generated at the welding source, if
the heat transfer efficiency = 0.8 and the melting efficiency =
0.6? Tm for austenitic stainless steel = 1670 K
Solution: (a) For SI units: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 Tm2
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(1670)2 = 9.29 J/mm3
Volume of metal melted: V = 20(200) = 4000 mm 3
Hw = Um V = 9.29(4000) = 37,148 J at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.8 and f2 = 0.6.
H = Hw /f1 f2 = 237,148/(0.8 x 0.6) = 77,392 J at source.
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 Problem 30-11
 Compute the unit melting energy for aluminum as the sum of:
(1) the heat required to raise the temperature of the metal from
room temperature to its melting point, which is the product of
the volumetric specific heat and the temperature rise; and (2)
the heat of fusion, so that this value can be compared to the
unit melting energy calculated by Eq. [Um = KTm2]. Use the
SI. Are the values close enough to validate [Um = KTm2].
Aluminum properties: heat of fusion Hf = 395,390 J/kg,
melting temperature Tm = 660°C, density ρ = 2700 kg/m3,
specific heat C = 900 J/kg-°C.

34
Problem 30-11
Solution: In SI,
Um = ρC(Tm - 20) + ρHf
Um = (2.7 x 10-6 kg/mm3)(900 J/kg-C))(660 - 20) + (2.7 x 10-6
kg/mm3)(395390 J/kg)
Um = 2.62 J/mm3
This compares with the equation: Um = KTm2
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (660 + 273)2 = 2.90 J/mm3
This is about a 10% difference. These values for aluminum
show good agreement.

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Problem 30-14
 In a certain welding operation to make a groove weld, Aw
= 22.0 mm2 and v = 5 mm/sec. If f1 = 0.95, f2 = 0.5, and Tm
= 1000°C for the metal to be welded, determine the rate of
heat generation required at the welding source to
accomplish this weld.
Solution:
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(1000 + 273)2 = 5.40 J/mm3
f1 f2 HR = UmAwv
HR = Um Aw v/f1 f2 = 5.40(22)(5)/(0.95 x 0.5) = 1250 J/s =
1250 W.

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Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint: (a) principal

zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain structure.
Features of Fusion Welded Joint
Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has been
added consists of:
 Fusion zone
 Weld interface
 Heat affected zone (HAZ)
 Unaffected base metal zone

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Heat Affected Zone
Metal has experienced temperatures below melting point,
but high enough to cause microstructural changes in the
solid metal
 Chemical composition same as base metal, but this region
has been heat treated so that its properties and structure
have been altered
 Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually negative,
and it is here that welding failures often occur

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WELDING PROCESSES
1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Weld Quality
5. Weldability

40
Two Categories of Welding Processes
 Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by melting
the two parts to be joined, in some cases adding filler
metal to the joint
 Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding, oxyfuel gas
welding
 Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used to
achieve coalescence, but no melting of base metals occurs
and no filler metal is added
 Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction welding

41
Arc Welding (AW)
A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the
metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume
and strength of weld joint

42
 Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip,
and as electrode is moved along joint, molten
weld pool solidifies in its wake

Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

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Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes
 Consumable – consumed during welding process
 Source of filler metal in arc welding
 Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding process
 Filler metal must be added separately

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Arc Shielding
 At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically
reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously degraded by
these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding
air in AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
 Flux

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Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other
contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and facilitates
removal
 Provides protective atmosphere for welding
 Stabilizes arc
 Reduces spattering

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Consumable Electrode AW Processes
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (with filler of consumable
electrode coated with chemical for flux and shielding)
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
 Flux‑Cored Arc Welding (with continuous filler wire)
 Submerged Arc Welding (with continuous filler wire)

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod
coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding
 Sometimes called "stick welding"
 Power supply, connecting cables, and electrode holder
available for a few thousand dollars

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

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Welding Stick in SMAW
 Composition of filler metal usually close to
base metal
 Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with
oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients, held
together by a silicate binder
 Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder
connected to power source

50
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded metal arc

welding (stick welding)
performed by a (human)
welder (photo courtesy
of Hobart Brothers Co.).

51
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode
and shielding accomplished by flooding arc
with a gas
 Wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun
 Shielding gases include inert gases such as
argon and helium
 Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead - no need for
manual grinding and cleaning of slag

52
 Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

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Flux‑Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome

limitations of stick electrodes
 Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in coils)
containing flux and other ingredients (e.g., alloying
elements) in its core

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 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Flux‑cored arc welding. Presence or absence of externally supplied shielding

gas distinguishes the two types: (1) self‑shielded, in which core provides
ingredients for shielding, and (2) gas‑shielded, which uses external
shielding gases.

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Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding provided by a
cover of granular flux
 Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil

 Completely submerges operation, preventing

sparks, spatter, and radiation

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 Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding.

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 Nonconsumable Electrode Processes
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding

58
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and
an inert gas for arc shielding
 Melting point of tungsten = 3410C
 Used with or without a filler metal
 When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool
from separate rod or wire
 Applications: aluminum and stainless steel
most common

59
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas tungsten arc welding.

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc is
directed at weld area
 Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a
high velocity stream of inert gas (argon) into arc region to
form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
 Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F), due to
constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet of small
diameter and very high energy density

61
 Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma arc welding (PAW).

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Resistance Welding (RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a combination
of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence
 Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at
junction to be welded
 Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW)

63
 Resistance Welding

Resistance welding,
showing the components
in spot welding, the main
process in the RW group.

64
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Resistance welding process in which fusion of
faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes
 Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of
spot welds
 Widely used in mass production of automobiles,
appliances, metal furniture, and other products
made of sheet metal
 Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
 Annual production of automobiles in the world is
measured in tens of millions of units

65
Oxy-fuel Gas Welding (OFW)
Group of fusion welding operations that burn various fuels
mixed with oxygen
 OFW employs several types of gases, which is the
primary distinction among the members of this group
 Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut
and separate metal plates and other parts
 Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding

66
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from
combustion of acetylene and oxygen
 Flame is directed by a welding torch
 Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal
 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and prevent
oxidation

67
 Oxyacetylene Welding

A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

68
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is
provided by a highly‑focused, high‑intensity stream of
electrons striking work surface
 Electron beam gun operates at:
 High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to accelerate
electrons
 Beam currents are low (measured in milliamps)

69
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Fusion welding process in which coalescence is achieved by
energy of a highly concentrated, coherent light beam
focused on joint
 Laser = "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation"
 LBW normally performed with shielding gases to prevent
oxidation
 Filler metal not usually added
 High power density in small area, so LBW often used for
small parts

70
Comparison: LBW vs. EBW
 No vacuum chamber required for LBW
 No x‑rays emitted in LBW
 Laser beams can be focused and directed by optical lenses
and mirrors
 LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth‑to‑width ratios of EBW
 Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in), whereas EBW
depths = 50 mm (2 in)

71
 Assignment # 3
 What is “Additive Manufacturing (A.M.)”? Describe the
classifications with working principles, benefits,
limitations, and distinctive applications of:
Thermal energy based AM processes (Regd. Nos. xx0-xx4)
Spray-binder based AM processes (Regd. Nos. xx5-xx9)

Submission deadline: 30-APR-14

Handwritten assignments only. Mutually copied

assignments will be cancelled.

72
 Problem 4
 A continuous weld is to be made around the circumference of a
round steel tube of diameter = 6.0ft, using a submerged arc welding
operation under automatic control at a voltage of 25V and current of
300A. The tube is slowly rotated under a stationary welding head.
The heat transfer efficiency for SAW is f1 = 0.95 and the assumed
melting efficiency f2 = 0.7. The cross-sectional area of the weld
bead is 0.12in2. If the unit melting energy for the steel = 150Btu/in3,
determine: (a) the rotational speed of tube and (b) the time required
to complete the weld. 1 Btu/sec = 1055 J/s
Solution: (a) f1f2VI = UmAwv => v = f1f2VI/UmAw
By conversion: 150 Btu/sec = 158,250 W
v = 0.95(0.7)(25)(300)/(158,250 x 0.120) = 0.263 in/sec=15.76 in/min.
Circumference C = πD = 12 x 6π = 226.2 in/rev.
N = (15.76 in/min)/(226.2 in/rev) = 0.06967 rev/min
(b) Time = C/v = 226.2/15.76 = 14.35 mins
73
 Problem 5
 An oxyacetylene torch supplies 10 ft3 of acetylene per hour and
an equal volume rate of O2 for an OAW operation on 3/16 in
steel. Heat generated by combustion is transferred to the work
surface with an efficiency f1 = 0.25. If 75% of the heat from the
flame is concentrated in a circular area on the work surface
whose diameter = 0.375 in, find: (a) rate of heat liberated during
combustion, (b) rate of heat transferred to the work surface, and
(c) average power density in the circular area. The heat
generation rate for OAW source is 1470 Btu/ft3
Solution: (a) Rate of heat generated by the torch HR = (10
ft3/hr)(1470 Btu/ft3) = 14,700 Btu/hr = 4.08 Btu/sec
(b) Rate of heat received at work surface = f1 HR = 0.25(4.08
Btu/sec) = 1.02 Btu/sec
74
Problem 5

(c) Area of circle in which 75% of heat is concentrated A =

πD2/4 = π(0.375)2/4 = 0.1104 in2
Power density PD = 0.75(1.02 Btu/sec)/(0.1104 in2) = 6.94
Btu/sec-in2

75
Problem 6
 An EBW operation is to be accomplished to butt weld two sheet
metal parts that are 3.0 mm thick. The unit melting energy = 5.0
J/mm3. The weld joint is to be 0.35 mm wide, so that the cross-
section of the fused metal is 0.35 mm by 3.0 mm. If
accelerating voltage = 25 kV, beam current = 30 mA, heat
transfer efficiency f1 = 0.85, and melting efficiency f2 = 0.75,
determine the travel speed at which this weld can be made
along the seam.
Solution: Available heat for welding
HRw = f1f2VI = UmAwv
Travel velocity v = f1f2VI/UmAw
Cross sectional area of weld seam Aw = (0.35)(3.0) = 1.05 mm2
v = 0.85(0.75)(25 x 103)(30 x 10-3)/(5.0 x 1.05) = 91.05 mm/s
76
Weld Quality

Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld

joint that is strong and absent of defects, and
the methods of inspecting and testing the
joint to assure its quality
 Topics:
 Residual stresses and distortion
 Welding defects
 Inspection and testing methods

77
Residual Stresses and Distortion
 Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during FW
result in thermal expansion and contraction that cause
residual stresses
 These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage
 Situation in welding is complicated because:
 Heating is very localized
 Melting of base metals in these regions
 Location of heating and melting is in motion (at least in AW)

78
Welding Defects
 Cracks
 Cavities
 Solid inclusions
 Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
 Incomplete fusion

79
Welding Cracks
Fracture‑type interruptions either in weld or in base metal
adjacent to weld
 Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal
that significantly reduces strength
 Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld and/or
base metal combined with high restraint during
contraction

80
 Welding Cracks

Various forms of welding cracks.

81
Cavities
Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:
1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by gases
entrapped during solidification
 Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in weld
metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage during
solidification

82
Solid Inclusions
 Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material entrapped in weld
metal
 Most common form is slag inclusions generated during
AW processes that use flux
 Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules of slag
become encased during solidification
 Metallic oxides that form during welding of certain metals
such as aluminum, which normally has a surface coating
of Al2O3

83
 Incomplete Fusion

Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld

bead in which fusion has not occurred throughout
entire cross section of joint

Several forms of incomplete fusion.

84
 Weld Defects in AW

Same joint but with several weld defects: (b) undercut, in which a portion of
the base metal part is melted away; (c) underfill, a depression in the weld
below the level of the adjacent base metal surface; and (d) overlap, in
which the weld metal spills beyond the joint onto the surface of the base
part but no fusion occurs.

85
Weldability
Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be welded
into a suitably designed structure, and for the resulting
weld joint(s) to possess the required metallurgical
properties to perform satisfactorily in intended service
 Good weldability characterized by:
 Ease with which welding process is accomplished
 Absence of weld defects
 Acceptable strength, ductility, and toughness in welded joint

86
Weldability Factors – Welding Process
 Some metals or metal combinations can be readily welded
by one process but are difficult to weld by others
 Example: stainless steel readily welded by most Arc
Welding and Resistance Welding processes, but difficult to
weld by Oxy Fuel Welding

87
Weldability Factors – Base Metal
 Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum
 Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer
heat away from weld, which causes problems;
e.g., copper
 High thermal expansion and contraction in
metal causes distortion problems
 Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding
when their physical and/or mechanical
properties are substantially different

88
Other Factors Affecting Weldability
 Filler metal
 Must be compatible with base metal(s)
 In general, elements mixed in liquid state that
form a solid solution upon solidification will not
cause a problem
 Surface conditions
 Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone
 Oxides and other films on metal surfaces can
prevent adequate contact and fusion

89
 Overview of Brazing and Soldering

 Both use filler metals to permanently join metal

parts, but there is no melting of base metals
 When to use brazing or soldering instead of
fusion welding:
 Metals have poor weldability
 Dissimilar metals are to be joined
 Intense heat of welding may damage components
being joined
 Geometry of joint not suitable for welding
 High strength is not required

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Brazing
Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and
distributed by capillary action between faying surfaces of
metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals occurs
 Only the filler melts
 Filler metal Tm greater than 450C (840F) but less than Tm
of base metal(s) to be joined

91
Brazing Compared to Welding
 Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals
 Can be performed quickly and consistently, permitting
high production rates
 Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
 Less heat and power required than Fusion Welding
 Problems with HAZ in base metal are reduced
 Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding
processes can be brazed; capillary action draws molten
filler metal into joint

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Desirable Brazing Metal Characteristics
 Melting temperature of filler metal is compatible with
base metal
 Low surface tension in liquid phase for good wettability
 High fluidity for penetration into interface
 Capable of being brazed into a joint of adequate strength
for application
 Avoid chemical and physical interactions with base metal
(e.g., galvanic reaction)

93
 Applying Filler Metal

Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing: (a) torch and filler
rod. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after.

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 Applying Filler Metal

Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing: (b) ring of filler
metal at entrance of gap. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after.
 Soldering

Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm

less than or equal to 450C (840F) is melted
and distributed by capillary action between
faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals, but filler metal
wets and combines with base metal to form
metallurgical bond
 Soldering similar to brazing, and many of the
same heating methods are used
 Filler metal called solder
 Most closely associated with electrical and
electronics assembly (wire soldering)
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 Soldering Advantages /
Disadvantages
Advantages:
 Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding
 Variety of heating methods available
 Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint
 Easy repair and rework

Disadvantages:
 Low joint strength unless reinforced by mechanically
means
 Possible weakening or melting of joint in elevated
temperature service

97
 Solders
Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Both
metals have low Tm
 Lead is poisonous and its percentage is
minimized in most solders
 Tin is chemically active at soldering
temperatures and promotes wetting action for
successful joining
 In soldering copper, copper and tin form
intermetallic compounds that strengthen bond
 Silver and antimony also used in soldering
alloys

98
MECHANICAL ASSEMBLY
1. Threaded Fasteners
2. Rivets
3. Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits

99
Mechanical Assembly Defined
Use of various fastening methods to mechanically attach
two or more parts together
 In most cases, discrete hardware components, called
fasteners, are added to the parts during assembly
 In other cases, fastening involves shaping or reshaping of
a component, and no separate fasteners are required

100
 Two Major Types of Mechanical
Assembly

1. Methods that allow for disassembly

 Example: threaded fasteners
2. Methods that create a permanent joint
 Example: rivets

101
Threaded Fasteners
Discrete hardware components that have external or internal
threads for assembly of parts
 Most important category of mechanical assembly
 In nearly all cases, threaded fasteners permit disassembly
 Common threaded fastener types are screws, bolts, and
nuts

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Screws, Bolts, and Nuts
Screw - externally threaded fastener generally assembled
into a blind threaded hole
Bolt - externally threaded fastener inserted into through
holes and "screwed" into a nut on the opposite side
Nut - internally threaded fastener having standard threads
that match those on bolts of the same diameter, pitch, and
thread form

103
 Screws, Bolts, and Nuts

Typical assemblies when screws and bolts are used.

Rivets

Unthreaded, headed pin used to join two or more

parts by passing pin through holes in parts and
forming a second head in the pin on the
opposite side
 Widely used fasteners for achieving a
permanent mechanically fastened joint
 Clearance hole into which rivet is inserted
must be close to the diameter of the rivet

105
What is a Rivet?
 A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. A rivet
is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it

 The cylindrical portion of the rivet is called shank

or body and lower portion of shank is known as tail
 Riveting

107
 Applications and Advantages of
Rivets
 Used primarily for lap joints
 A primary fastening method in aircraft and aerospace
industries
 Advantages:
 High production rates
 Simplicity
 Low cost

108
Fits
 The degree of tightness or looseness between the
two mating parts is known as a fit of the parts
 The clearance is the amount by which the actual
size of the shaft is less than the actual size of the
mating hole in an assembly
 The clearance is the difference between the sizes of
the hole and the shaft before assembly. The
difference must be positive
Fits
 The interference is the amount by which the actual size
of a shaft is larger than the actual finished size of the
mating hole in an assembly
 The interference is the arithmetical difference between
the sizes of the hole and the shaft, before assembly. The
difference must be negative.
 Types of
Fits
1. Clearance fit. In this type of fit,
the size limits for mating parts are
so selected that clearance between
them always occur
The tolerance zone of the hole is
entirely above the tolerance zone
of the shaft
The clearance fits may be slide fit,
easy sliding fit, running fit, slack
running fit and loose running fit
2. Interference fit. In this type of fit,
the size limits for the mating parts Types of Fits
are so selected that interference
between them always occur
The tolerance zone of the hole is entirely
below the tolerance zone of the shaft
The difference between the maximum size of
the hole and the minimum size of the shaft
is known as minimum interference,
whereas the difference between the
minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft is called
maximum interference
The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy
drive fit and light drive fit
Types of Fits

3. Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size

limits for the mating parts are so selected
that either a clearance or interference may
occur depending upon the actual size of the
mating parts
The tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap
The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit
and push fit
Interference Fits
Assembly methods based on mechanical interference
between two mating parts being joined
 The interference, either during assembly or after joining,
holds the parts together
 Interference fit methods include:
 Press fitting
 Shrink and expansion fits
 Snap fits
 Retaining rings

114
1. Press Fitting
 Typical case is where a pin (e.g., a straight cylindrical pin)
of a certain diameter is pressed into a hole of a slightly
smaller diameter

115
2. Shrink and Expansion Fits
Assembly of two parts (e.g., shaft in collar) that
have an interference fit at room temperature
 Shrink fitting - external part is enlarged by heating,
and internal part either stays at room temperature or
is contracted by cooling
 Expansion fitting - internal part is contracted by
cooling and inserted into mating component -
when at room temperature, expansion creates
interference
 Used to fit gears, pulleys, sleeves, and other
components onto solid and hollow shafts

116
3. Snap Fits
Joining of two parts in which mating elements
possess a temporary interference during
assembly, but once assembled they interlock
 During assembly, one or both parts elastically
deform to accommodate temporary interference
 Usually designed for slight interference after
assembly

117
 Snap Fit Assembly

Snap fit assembly, showing cross‑sections of two mating parts: (1)

before assembly, and (2) parts snapped together.

118