ee eee ee ee pee c Cer eee ee a One of hemnost significant events in this period was the discover See Classical physics predicted that the energy emitted by a blackbody 7 n a Pe ee ere eee | Se ee SE eee ea ay te eee ee eee ete oe ot This De Ee a ee ee oe Eee Serta eee ee a ae ae ee Ge ee eee ee ae ee eee eee enn eee ee eee een) eee) cor ee ane ce See eee eer eae rs pn Ce eee aking 7 4nd fundamental shifts in our understanding ofthe nature of energy and matter, Seen ee are area eer ae ee eee pee eee f Sa Ce eee Se eee ee uate eke ceeoer tier bservatle teasing i aeeroetitra eT Sena ee ae eat ability of nding a particle in ap eee ee te particle, Se ue E) See! eee eeeeee eagle ome af ite eneray to the elactran, Th SE eae : eee eae ed Eee eT ees eds Scattering anatler waves refer to the wave-like behavior af matter, which was first ERE eee ae ce Pee re ere ere Je Broglia m Se Ee naa ee eee en ene c why See aes Se eee eee nen Pete eee ace) * eee Ce ees ete eee Ce eee ee See ee eeta ee i Cee ee small wavelenaths, senshi t 7 Seen ea ronmental factors, leading re : Se eee Detar ite observe their waverive elie matter waves has provided velueb ae in eal lifes challenging pee enee eee mat c Po 7 ith rea shySure, here's 8 bullet-pointed answer to your quest Heisenberg uncertainty pee eee eee ee) ee eee eee ieee c Dee ed ee ee ~ Mathematically, he uncertainty principle is expressed as Cs pee eae ee Dee - 2 Fiomaeninosms eae es Ses ol or ee Set eee lees cae eecoeeiued a) See ee eee ee ee ees Sra tree Sn ceed eae ak) Se eee eee the nucleus, and are instead found in orbital: 7 feet ag ee ee ere ei eee es recsion with which the positon and momentum ofa particle can be known, This principle Regenerate response eee eT eer means that the veledty of the wave, which is given by the produ of the frequency and the wavelength is also constant for all frequencies, t Be oe eet ee ee ee ere eee Cee eee ene eee ee See a eee Pa ee et eee Seyprcteel ar dio fc isthe derivat lar frequency with Cette: eae eet or ee ee pevectar of a wave tot ot) 5 eee i : Geen eer ee Monee f nen ee eee Sree eer gin eee eee eee See a ee ee eee SupreeeiyacoiCermscCreM ‘onclusio * Since the phase velacty and group velocity both have the same constant value of they cee ae eee Ticzomaingm . eee cree ea crete response Rreeoiticeaemdiecettomctiomgtheae eae a See Rene per egeee eat et See SE Sa ae el ane ee re Peer eee eee eee) ee ee eee ea TOE ear cee i See ea aT as Dees eet ee See ee eae Te cenEen De en ee sae cd ea Toe eee ea eee eee Gee Te eee EE ee ra avelength is related to the eee cee eee Sey Aen aa eee Gee eee eee ener Se eee Ate eme ele eee) cas Be eee Ce ee ee ee eet Seen eee Se Ee eee ee eee eee group eer Re cee we ere ee eeeCoed a roo a Seen kiticaca tub kieten For an electron accelerated by a potential difference of 2500 Ree et on inetic energy gained by the electron, and ¥ ae Pee ee ee ae ee eee eee ay rd er eee ES ee] alculate the de Broglie wavelength of the eneneeeeeeeteteee ee eee ee eee ee ee eee eee ce Neen eT rar es ea) Pe ee eee een core een een ee SOc een Tee eT ee eee ee een ee een nt ng through a potential difference (¥) of 25000 volts can be calculat eee eee nee) STE Ieee ace ne fea gee ee oe eeHermisan operators are linear operatars in quantum mechanics that play a key role in the description of physical observables ‘A.Hormitian operator satistias the candtion At =, whete At isthe adjintot A @he ‘ranspose of its complex conjugate). ‘The eigenvalues of a Hermitian operator re alvays rel To prove this, take # Hermitian operator A and an eigenvector |v with eigenvalue). The eigenvalue equation Aly) = Av) can be complex conjugated to obtain (Afy* = Av) * The edjoincoFAcan be used to express (Aju) in tems off, giving WAM" = avy * The real partot this expression can be equated ta abtain Ra@)yly) = Reva), showing ‘hat A must be real Here's the proaf again, in short form: Let be a Hermitian operator, and let|y) be an eigenvector of A with eigenvalue & Then: * Aly = Mp 7 Alat = athe 7 pat = OA 7 daly euyy® * Re@aivfy) = Recta Therefore, A must be real © Regerterata response What ae hermitian operators? Show thatthe eigen vlue conresponding to a heritan operator are aways eal 4* Quanturn mechanics shows that particles at the atornic scale behave ciferently fram macroscopic objects described by classical physics Classical physics assumes that particles have definite positions and momenta while quantum mechanics shows that particles are described by probability distributions and can exist in multiple lacatione or states simultaneously, * Quenturn mechanics also shows that certain properties of particles, such as spin and angular momentum, cannat be measured simultanaously with arbitrary precision, which is not accounted for in classical physics. * The behavior of atomic particles is often described by wave funetions, which exhibit wave- particle duality and can interfere with each other, a phenomenen thats not presentin classical physics. * The cancept of force" in classical physics is replaced by the concept af "interaction" in quantum mechanics, where the interactions between particles are mediated by particles such as photons and gluons, The properties of materials at the atari scale can differ significantly fram those predicted by classical physics, such as the Unique electrical and optical properties of semiconductors and the quentized behavior of supercanductors Quaral, the principles of classical physics are not applicable at the atomic scala, and a new sat ‘of concepts and principles must be used te describe the behavior of particles andi materials at this scale © Regenerate response Explain the reasers an the besis of which we say thatthe classical concepts de net held in the region of atornie dimensions 44+. Superposition: A quantum system can existin multiple states simul taneously, which are described by a wave function that assigns a complex prabatillty amplitude to each possible state 2, Measurement When a measurements made on a quantum system, the wave function collapses ta a single state, which is determined by the probabilities given by the wave function 2. Uncertainty: The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that certain pairs of properties of a quantum system, such as position and momentum, cannet he measured simultaneously ‘with arbitrary precision, 14, Wave-particle duality Particles, such as electrons, can exhibit both wavestike and particle- like behevior, depending on haw they are observed or measured 5. Entanglement: When nwa or more quantum systems interact, they cen become entangled, meaning that their states are correlated in away that cannat be explained by classical physics, 6. Quantization: Certain properties of 2 quantum system can only take on discrete values, such as the energy levels af an atom or the angular momentum of a particle, “These assumptions are used te build a mathematical framework that describes the behavior of quenturn systems, and they have been confirmed hy numerous experiments, However, the interpretation of these assumptions and their implications for the nature of realty remain the subject of ongoing debate among physicists and philosophers, 1D Regenerate resporse busi asumptlans of quantum mecharicTe shaw that the momentum operator ih(@/@x) is Hermitian, we need ta prave thatit satisfies the Hermitian property, whichis (lad) = (auld where At is the Hermitian conjugate of A and |) and |p) are two arbitrary wavefunctions Using this property, we can prove that the mamentum operator is Hermitian as follows: Lat = in(9/0%), and lat |) and) be two arbitrary wavetunctions. Then, the Hermitian conjugate of Ais given by: At = IB) Nou, we can evaluate the left-hand side of the Hermitian property as Follows (DISt4) = (PIAW}Y (taking complex conjugate) = JoOpAWEE Substinuing har, we ger (lary = ah [re9G roy ood Nou, we can evaluate the right-hand side of the Hermitian property as follows: (WIE = HAY) Gince Ais @ Hermitian operator) Therefore, the momnanturn operator ih@/8.) is Hermitian, 'S. Regenerate response Show that the momentum operator -ihdel/delxis hermitisn.[Etre strainer ave eqn fr a1 nar arenl celal gen by o Hyd = (1f2mypr2yog + (1/2)me*2x"2pes) = EYOd here His the Heriltonien operator, wis the wave function, m is the mass of the oscillator, als the angular frequency ofthe oscillator, pis the memerturn operator isthe position ‘operster, and Els the total eneray of the oscillator. We can salve this equation ta determine the energy levels of the 1-D harmonic osllator, The solutions to this equation are given by the Hermite palynornials, and the energy levels are given by: En=@Haho “where nis @ non-negativeinteger and his the reduced Planck constant, For 411-Dlinesr harmonic oscillator, the Schrdlinger wave equation is similar, but with 11 position coordinstes and 11 momentum coerdlinates, The energy levels for the 11-D esillator vould be given by: E.n=qnett/ayhen Now, as for the zero-paint energy, it refers to the minimum amount of eneray that a quantum mechanical system can possess In the case of the harmonic oscillator, even when the oscillator is atits lowest energy state (=0),it sill possesses sorne amount of energy cue tothe Uncertainty prineiple, which prevents the poziion and momentum ofthe oscillatar from bath boeing exactly Zero, Tis minimum amount of energyis known as the zero-point energy; tis @ consequence of the wave-like nature of particles and has been observed in many physical systems, including the vacuum energy of empty space. ‘© Regenerate response Determine the energy levels af 11-D linear harmonic axtillator an the basis of Schrdingar wave equation and explain zero pint energy. QsExplain the consequences of Compton effect and prove that the Compton shift isindependent of wavelength af ineidentradiation, ‘The Compton effectis a phenomenon that accurs when a photon Cray or gamma ray) interacts with an electrary resulting in change in the wavelength of the photon and a scattering of the electron, The consequences af the Campton effect are 4) The scattered photon has a longer wavelength than the incident photon, The change in ‘wavelength, known as the Compton shift is given by: A= hye (1 - coos) awnhere his the Planck constant mn is the mass of the electron, cis the speed oflight Bis the scattering angle, and Anis the change in wavelength 2, The scattered photon also experiences 3 change in direction, with the angle of scattering depending on the energy of the incident photon and the angle of scattering, 3. The Compton effect provides evidence for the wave-perticle duality of light as it demonsvates thet photene can behave lke particles in their interections with matter Now to prove that the Compton shifts independent of the wavelength of the incident radiation, we can startwith the formule for the Compton shift A= hye (1 - coos) This formula involves enly fundamental constants thm, andc) and the scattering angle 6. It does not depend on the wavelength of the incident raciation. To see thi, we can rewrite the forrulain terms of the incident wavelenath ‘Ss Regenerate response