MMA CONDITIONING

SPECIALIST
COURSE MANUAL
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 MMA CONDITIONING SPECIALIST
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction to the Training Camp Program 1
Chapter 2. MMA Sciences 7
Chapter 3. Human Performance Testing and Evaluation 17
Chapter 4. Integrated Program Design for MMA Training 40
AUTHORS Chapter 5. Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques 51
Brian Sutton, MS, MA, PES, CES, NASM-CPT
Fitness Education Program Manager
National Academy of Sports Medicine Chapter 6. Injury Prevention and Movement Prep Programs 60
Scott Ramsdell CES, PES, NASM-CPT
Director of Workshops and Instructors
National Academy of Sports Medicine Chapter 7. Coaching and Program Implementation 66
Kat Barefield, MS, RD, ACSM-HFS, NASM-CPT, PES
Registered Dietician, R&D Manager
DotFIT Chapter 8. Nutrition and Supplementation 71
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Chapter 9. Business Development 82
Editors: Spring Lenox, Joey Berlin
Models: Annie Malaythong, Cindy Powell, Josh
Gonzalez, Dan White, Chip Huss, Monica Carlson,
Appendix A. NASM Literature Review 86
Mel Mueller, Monica Munson, Christine Silva,
Steven McDougal, Joey Metz, Rian Chab, Jessica
Kern, Geoff Etherson, Harold Spencer, Alexis Appendix B. One Rep Maximum (1RM) Conversion 91
Weatherspoon, Golden Goodwin, Sean Brown,
Allie Shira
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE
TRAINING CAMP PROGRAM
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter,
you should be able to:
• Understand the Training
Camp Program and its
goals and objectives.
• Understand the
physiologic, physical,
and performance
benefits of the Training
Camp Program.
• Identify the four key
components of the
Training Camp Program.
Welcome to the Training Camp Program. This program is designed to teach health and fitness
professionals how to effectively deliver an integrated (multifaceted) training program to diverse clientele in multiple arenas.
The conditioning program employs an easy-to-use, scientifically valid, and clinically proven training model for individuals
looking to improve their fitness and sports performance levels. The Training Camp Program teaches health and fitness
professionals innovative approaches to fitness programming used by some of the world’s most elite athletes and mixed
martial artists.
There has never been a better time than the present to consider a career in fitness training. According to the U.S. Department
of Labor, the demand for fitness professionals is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations (1). The goal of
this program is to educate, train, and develop a one-of-a-kind health and fitness professional who has the knowledge, skills, and
abilities to effectively promote and implement the Training Camp Program. With the ability to effectively implement these
programs to individual clients, as well as small groups, the health and fitness professional will act as a coach, motivator, and leader.
The key element the health and fitness professional provides is a results-driven exercise program to help participants meet
their fitness and sports performance goals, while simultaneously increasing client retention and revenue. The key outcomes
of this course are to establish a specialized health and fitness professional who can lead individuals or small groups through a
unique, results-focused, and service-oriented experience.

WHAT IS THE TRAINING
CAMP PROGRAM?
Regardless of best efforts, many fitness
programs have become old and stale. In
the past, fitness programs were developed
by bodybuilders, athletes, and fitness
enthusiasts with little formal education
in anatomy, exercise physiology, or
biomechanics. These fitness programs
primarily focus on absolute or maximum
strength gains in isolated muscles (chiefly
the prime movers) throughout single
planes of motion (2). As such, fitness
programs have become very similar using
a “gym science” approach. Consequences
of this approach include boredom, fitness
plateaus, and musculoskeletal injury (3).
The Training Camp Program breaks the
mold of traditional exercise programming.
The goal of the Training Camp Program is to
prepare health and fitness professionals to
FIGURE 1.1
Training Camp combines mixed martial arts with NASM’s OPT model.
­
employ innovative training and conditioning
strategies used within mixed martial arts
communities to create a nontraditional
fitness experience geared toward improving
the fitness levels, retention, and experience
of every participant regardless of goal or
ability. Upon completion of the Training
Camp Program, health and fitness
professionals will be able to implement
a unique conditioning program that
engages, motivates, and retains clients with
progressive, high-intensity, and integrated
functional training.
◆ ◆ TRAINING CAMP
The needs of mixed martial artists are
specific to their sport. Typically, their
training programs are divided into two
components: MMA skills, and strength and
conditioning. The Training Camp Program
will not address the techniques or skills
required to become a master of martial
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Training Camp Program   /2
arts or combat sports. This program will,
however, address the other side of mixed The Training Camp Program
martial arts training and provide the is build on a foundation of
participant with the strength, conditioning,
principles that progressively
and overall performance elements that
a MMA competitor needs to train and
and systematically
compete at the highest level possible. allows participants to
achieve optimum levels of
The Training Camp Program combines physiologic, physical, and
the uniqueness and innovation of
performance adaptations.
mixed martial arts with the scientific
rationale and key principles of human
movement science and NASM’s Optimum $$ Increases metabolic efficiency
Performance Training™ (OPT™) model (metabolism)
into a progressive system (Figure 1.1). $$ Increases tissue tensile strength
(muscles, tendons, ligaments)
Each workout builds upon the last, $$ Increases bone density
improving the client’s endurance, strength, ⦁⦁ Physical benefits
and power capabilities. The workouts are $$ Decreases body fat
designed to be easily implemented in a $$ Increases lean body mass (muscle)
small group setting or individually with ⦁⦁ Performance benefits
personal training clients. The Training $$ Strength
Camp Program is built on a foundation $$ Power
of principles that progressively and $$ Endurance
systematically allows participants to $$ Flexibility
achieve optimum levels of physiologic, $$ Quickness
physical, and performance adaptations, $$ Core strength
including the following: $$ Balance and coordination
⦁⦁ Physiologic benefits
$$ Improves cardiorespiratory MMA competitors are some of the
efficiency (work capacity) strongest, most powerful, and best-
$$ Enhances beneficial endocrine conditioned athletes in the world. When
(hormone) and serum lipid they compete, they are working at extremely
(cholesterol) adaptations high intensity levels for prolonged periods

of time. Their strength and conditioning
programs must prepare them for these
demands in order to give them the best
chance of success.
Often, the training programs are more
intense than the matches themselves.
This program uses the same principles,
techniques, and intensity levels used
by many of today’s greatest MMA stars,
allowing your clients to train like their
favorite MMA fighter and get great results.
COMPONENTS OF THE
TRAINING CAMP PROGRAM
The Training Camp Program consists of
four key components:
1. Human Performance Testing
2. Program Design
3. Coaching and Implementation
4. Nutrition and Supplementation
The Movement Prep
programs are specifically
designed to help participants
mentally and physically
prepare for intense activity,
correct faulty movement
patterns and poor posture,
and reduce the risk of injury.
◆ ◆ HUMAN PERFORMANCE TESTING
The first component of the Training
Camp Program is the implementation of
a systematic human performance testing
process (i.e., fitness assessments). The
fitness assessment is a problem-solving
method that provides fitness professionals
with a basis for making educated decisions
about exercise and acute variable selection
(e.g., sets, reps, rest periods).
This is an essential first step to help
determine a client’s starting point with
regards to exercise recommendations and
program design. Assessments provide an
ongoing gathering of information, allowing
the health and fitness professional to tailor
fitness programs to match the needs of
each client.
Fitness assessments also allow continuous
monitoring of a client’s needs and
functional capacity, and the physiologic
effects of exercise, enabling the client to
realize the full benefits of the exercise
program. Through the measurement
and tracking of initial assessments and
reassessments, the health and fitness
professional can track a client’s progress
and provide extra motivation as the client
sees his goals becoming a reality.
The fitness assessment process discussed
in this manual includes specific
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Training Camp Program   /3
recommendations for participants with FIGURE 1.2
the goals of weight loss, increased muscle,
Training Camp consists of four parts: Movement
or improved athletic performance. Prep, Round 1, Round 2, and Round 3.
The fitness assessment process
integrates the analysis and evaluation
of dynamic posture, body composition,
cardiorespiratory efficiency, and
performance.
◆ ◆ PROGRAM DESIGN
The Training Camp Program consists of
four parts (Figure 1.2):
1. Movement Prep programs
2. Round 1 Training
3. Round 2 Training
4. Round 3 Training
­
Each round training program consists of
eight workouts for a total of 24 workouts.
◆ ◆ MOVEMENT PREP
The Movement Prep programs are
intended for participants to perform
prior to each Training Camp workout.
The Movement Prep programs can also
be completed on off days to help the body
recover from vigorous activity.
The Movement Prep programs are
specifically designed to help participants
mentally and physically prepare for intense
activity, correct faulty movement patterns
and poor posture, and reduce the risk
of injury.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Training Camp Program   /4

Movement Prep programs follow a
systematic process of identifying a
neuromusculoskeletal dysfunction,
developing a plan of action, and
implementing an integrated corrective
strategy to reduce injury risk and
maximize recovery.
◆ ◆ ROUND 1 TRAINING
The main focus of Round 1 is to increase
aerobic capacity, muscular endurance,
and stability while developing optimal
neuromuscular efficiency (muscular
coordination). Round 1 follows many of
the same training strategies seen in the
stabilization level of NASM’s OPT model.
Participants can only obtain stabilization
and neuromuscular efficiency by having
the appropriate combination of proper
alignment (posture) of the human
movement system (kinetic chain) and
the stabilization strength necessary to
maintain that alignment (4-6). Round 1
provides the client the needed stimuli to
improve joint stabilization and maintain
optimal posture.
Research has shown that inefficient
stabilization can negatively affect the way
the muscles produce force, increase stress
at the joints, overload the soft tissues, and,
eventually, cause injury (7-10).
Therefore, it must be noted that the client
must do this form of training before
entering the more aggressive forms
of strength training and conditioning
experienced in Rounds 2 and 3.
The goals of Round 1 Training include
the following:
⦁⦁ Improve muscular endurance
⦁⦁ Improve aerobic capacity
⦁⦁ Enhance joint stability
⦁⦁ Increase flexibility
⦁⦁ Enhance control of posture
⦁⦁ Improve neuromuscular efficiency
◆ ◆ ROUND 2 TRAINING
The emphasis of Round 2 is to maintain
stabilization endurance while increasing
prime mover strength, muscular
hypertrophy (muscle size), and work
capacity. This is accomplished by adding
intensity and volume to the overall
program while reducing rest periods.
Round 2 follows many of the same training
strategies seen in the strength level of
NASM’s OPT model.
The goals of Round 2 Training include
the following:
⦁⦁ Improve stabilization endurance and
increase prime mover strength
⦁⦁ Improve overall work capacity
⦁⦁ Enhance muscular endurance
⦁⦁ Increase lean body mass
◆ ◆ ROUND 3 TRAINING
The client should only enter Round 3
after successful completion of Rounds 1
and 2. This level of training emphasizes
the development of power, quickness, and
metabolic conditioning and simulates the
intensity of being in the octagon during an
MMA match. Round 3 follows many of the
same training strategies seen in the power
level of NASM’s OPT model.
The premise behind Round 3 is to
enhance prime mover strength while also
improving the rate of force production
(power) and anaerobic fitness by using
a variety of high-intensity, multijoint
strength training exercises combined
with intense cardiovascular training
methods. Total volume of training is
increased while using relatively short
rest periods.
The goals of Round 3 Training include
the following:
⦁⦁ Enhance prime mover strength
⦁⦁ Increase rate of force production
⦁⦁ Enhance reaction time (quickness)
⦁⦁ Improve metabolic conditioning

The main focus of Round 1 is to The emphasis of Round 2 is to Round 3 emphasizes the
increase aerobic capacity, muscular maintain stabilization endurance development of power, quickness,
endurance, and stability while while increasing prime mover and metabolic conditioning and
developing optimal neuromuscular strength, muscular hypertrophy simulates the intensity of being in
efficiency (muscular coordination). (muscle size), and work capacity. the octagon during an MMA match.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Training Camp Program   /5

◆ ◆ COMPONENTS OF EACH ⦁⦁ Performance prep. A variety of core,

INDIVIDUAL WORKOUT balance, plyometric, and cardiovascular In a time when fad diets are escalating and appearance
Rounds 1, 2, and 3 follow a similar format exercises to develop total-body is more important than ever, it is vital for health and
and structure. Within each individual optimum performance.
fitness professionals to arm themselves with hard
exercise session, the participant will be ⦁⦁ Ultimate performance. A highly
required to complete each of the following charged simulation of a MMA
facts about nutrition and the human body.
components: competitor’s training regimen in
⦁⦁ Pre-workout stretch. Prepare the body a dynamic working environment.
for training by using specific flexibility Implementation of a series of functional With any training system, it is important professional must be able to perform,
exercises that address correcting strength and conditioning exercises to understand the system and master the communicate, and demonstrate each
muscle length and improve joint range that simulates the energy requirements elements that make it unique. The exercises element of the entire Training Camp
of motion. and intensity of a MMA match. and equipment provided in the Training Program to ensure optimal results
⦁⦁ Cardio warm-up. Increase heart and Camp Program can be manipulated and and the best experience possible for
breathing rates and prepare the body for During the program, participants will exchanged if there are other exercises or each participant.
training through the progressive warm- be introduced to an array of total- modalities that are preferred based on the
up process. The Training Camp Program body, multijoint exercises designed facility, or participants’ requests. NUTRITION AND
primarily uses jump ropes, treadmills, to improve neuromuscular efficiency SUPPLEMENTATION
and other cardiorespiratory machines (coordination), dynamic joint stability, COACHING AND PROGRAM Proper nutritional information is an
accomplish these tasks. and core strength (in addition to overall IMPLEMENTATION essential component to being a well-
Successful health and fitness professionals rounded health and fitness professional.
have not only mastered exercise science; In a time when fad diets are escalating
they also have the knowledge, skills, and appearance is more important than
During the program, participants will be introduced
and abilities to effectively coach and ever, it is vital for health and fitness
to an array of total-body multijoint exercises implement exercise programs for a variety professionals to arm themselves with hard
designed to improve neuromuscular efficiency, of clientele. Coaching skills are an essential facts about nutrition and the human body.
dynamic joint stability, and core strength. part of becoming a successful health and The Training Camp Program addresses
fitness professional and implementing the important nutrition and supplementation
Training Camp Program. strategies for weight loss, muscle gain,
⦁⦁ Dynamic warm-up. Incorporation of strength, speed, and power). The and improved athletic performance.
dynamic flexibility for the final step in client will perform these exercises in Whether working with a single client or The information presented will further
preparing the body for intense training. a dynamic circuit fashion, challenging small groups, it is the responsibility of all enable health and fitness professionals to
⦁⦁ Quickness training. Enhance the ability the client’s aerobic and anaerobic health and fitness professionals to keep provide a scientific rationalization when
to react and change direction through a energy systems while improving overall clients safe, organized, and motivated providing nutritional recommendations
series of dynamic drills. cardiorespiratory efficiency (11‑16). with each workout. The health and fitness or guidance to their clients.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Training Camp Program   /6

10. Edgerton VR, Wolf S, Roy RR. Theoretical basis for patterning

SUMMARY
The Training Camp Program is designed to
create a nontraditional fitness experience
to overcome the staleness and boredom
with modern fitness programs. The
Training Camp Program combines the
uniqueness and innovation of mixed
martial arts with the scientific rationale
and key principles of NASM’s OPT model
into a progressive, systematic program
helping clients to achieve optimum levels
EMG amplitudes to assess muscle dysfunction. Med Sci Sports Exerc
1996;28(6)744–51.
11. Kaikkonen H, Yrlama M, Siljander E, et al. The effect of heart
rate controlled low resistance circuit weight training and endurance
training on maximal aerobic power in sedentary adults. Scand J Med
Sci Sports 2000;10(4):211–5.
12. Jurimae T, Jurimae J, Pihl E. Circulatory response to single circuit
weight and walking training sessions of similar energy cost in middle-
aged overweight females. Clin Physiol 2000;20(2):143–9.
13. Burleson MA, O’Bryant HS, Stone MH, et al. Effect of weight
training exercise and treadmill exercise on post-exercise oxygen
consumption. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998;30(4):518–22.
14. Gillette CA, Bullough RC, Melby CL. Postexercise energy
expenditure in response to acute aerobic or resistive exercise. Int J
Sport Nutr 1994;4(4):347–60.
15. Weltman A, Seip RL, Snead D, et al. Exercise training at and above
the lactate threshold in previously untrained women. Int J Sports Med
1992;13:257–63.

of physiologic, physical, and performance 16. Da Silva RL, Brentano MA, Kruel LF. Effects of different strength
training methods on postexercise energetic expenditure. J Strength
adaptations. This program integrates Cond Res. 2010 Aug;24(8):2255-60.

assessments, integrated program design,

coaching, and nutrition into a complete
package to deliver safe, high-intensity
training for maximum results.

REFERENCES
1. Bureau of Labor Statistics US Department of Labor. Occupational
Outlook Handbook, 2010–11 Edition. http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos296.
htm. Accessed December 21, 2011.

2. Clark MA, Lucett SC, Sutton BG. NASM Essentials of Personal

Fitness Training. 4th edition. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams&
Wilkins; 2012.

3. Jones BH, Cowan DN, Knapik J. Exercise, training, and injuries.

Sports Med 1994;18(3):202–14.

4. Powers CM. The influence of altered lower-extremity kinematics on

patellofemoral joint dysfunction: a theoretical perspective. J Orthop
Sports Phys Ther 2003;33(11):639–46.

5. Comerford MJ, Mottram SL. Movement and stability dysfunction—

contemporary developments. Man Ther 2001;6(1):15–26.

6. Panjabi MM. The stabilizing system of the spine. Part I: Function,

dysfunction, adaptation, and enhancement. J Spinal Disord
1992;5(4):383–9.

7. Barr KP, Griggs M, Cadby T. Lumbar stabilization: core concepts and

current literature, Part 1. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2005;84(6):473–80.

8. Paterno MV, Myer GD, Ford KR, et al. Neuromuscular training

improves single-limb stability in young female athletes. J Orthop
Sports Phys Ther 2004;34(6):305–16.

9. Hungerford B; Gilleard W, Hodges P. Evidence of altered

lumbopelvic muscle recruitment in the presence of sacroiliac joint
pain. Spine 2003;28(14):1593–600.
CHAPTER 2
MMA SCIENCES
Health and fitness professionals need to follow a comprehensive,
systematic, and integrated training approach to help their clients achieve
OBJECTIVES their desired health, fitness, and sports performance goals. The health and fitness
After studying this chapter, professional needs a full understanding of the structure and function of the human body to bridge the ever-widening gap
you should be able to:
between science and practical application.
• Define integrated training
and how it relates
to MMA training. Function is integrated, multiplanar movement involving acceleration, deceleration, and stabilization (1). Integrated training

• Describe the principles is a comprehensive approach that attempts to improve all components necessary for an individual to perform at the highest
of integrated training and level and prevent injury. Integrated training does this by focusing on developing functional strength and neuromuscular
how they are used in an efficiency. Functional strength is the ability of the neuromusculoskeletal system to efficiently and effectively produce force,
MMA training program.
reduce force, and stabilize the entire body during functional movements (2-4). Neuromuscular efficiency is the ability of the
• Define the components,
central nervous system (CNS) to enable all muscles to work together as a cohesive unit during dynamic activities (2,4-6).
scientific rationale, and
evidence for integrated Functional strength and neuromuscular efficiency are extremely important for MMA athletes. Without functional strength
training, as well as its and neuromuscular efficiency, MMA athletes would not be able to develop the necessary performance traits (i,e., balance,
use when designing and
speed, power) to compete at the highest level possible.
implementing MMA
training programs.
Traditional strength and conditioning programs primarily focus on absolute or maximum strength gains in isolated muscles
(chiefly the prime movers), throughout single planes of motion (1). Functional athletic activities such as those performed in
MMA are, however, multidirectional and require acceleration, deceleration, and dynamic stabilization (1,7-13). While some

movements may appear to be single-plane
dominant (e.g., sprinting, jab, front kick),
dynamic stabilization in other planes
is required for optimal neuromuscular
efficiency and performance (8,11).
Health and fitness professionals must
make a fundamental paradigm shift
when they recognize that functional
athletic movements require a highly
complex and integrated training system.
Integrated training incorporates all
forms of training as part of a progressive
system. To accomplish this, the Training
Camp Program integrates flexibility;
core; balance; plyometric; speed, agility,
and quickness (SAQ); resistance; and
cardiorespiratory training (1,14-16).
INTEGRATED TRAINING PRINCIPLES
◆ ◆ THE STRETCH-SHORTENING CYCLE
An important factor in athletic
performance is explosive force. Sports
such as boxing, Muay Thai kickboxing,
karate, and MMA rely heavily on
integrating speed, strength, and power (16-
20). Specific exercises can increase power
output and explosiveness by training
muscles to do more work in a shorter
amount of time (21-24).
This occurs by using the stretch-
shortening cycle, which occurs when
an activated muscle transitions from
Chapter 2: MMA Sciences   /8
an eccentric action (deceleration) action and the concentric contraction (1). ◆ ◆ THE INTEGRATED TRAINING CONTINUUM
to a rapid concentric contraction When eccentric strength, neuromuscular Most strength and conditioning programs
(acceleration) (25‑28). The rapid eccentric efficiency, and stabilization strength are focus on isolated, uniplanar exercises to
muscle action creates a stretch reflex, optimized, your clients will realize greater maximize absolute strength gains and
storing potential energy. This produces concentric force production even without muscular hypertrophy. However, the CNS
a concentric contraction more forceful an increase in muscular hypertrophy is designed to optimize the selection of
than could otherwise be generated by (increased muscle size) (32,33). For this muscle synergies (groups of muscles) to
the resting muscle, much like stretching reason, the Training Camp Program perform complex movement patterns in all
a rubber band before letting it go integrates exercises that maximize the three planes of motion (4,7,9-11). Therefore,
(Figure 2.1) (29). The shorter the amount stretch-shortening cycle, and these if the human body is designed to move in
of time between the eccentric muscle exercises make up a significant portion of all three planes of motion using multiple
action and the concentric contraction, the training program (8,14,15,32,34-36). muscle groups simultaneously, isolated
the greater the potential energy stored
and used for more concentric force
production (25-27,30,31).
FIGURE 2.1
These types of explosive muscular Stretch-shortening cycle
contractions can be seen in practical
instances such as performing a jump kick
or attempting a takedown. Watch an MMA
athlete as they prepare to jump or shoot,
and you will see them prepare by lowering
their body slightly by flexing at the ankles,
knees, and hips. At a fairly shallow point,
the athlete will reverse this downward
motion and rapidly project themselves
from the ground, extending his ankles,
knees, and hips, propelling him into the
air ( jump kick) or toward his opponent’s
legs (shooting for a takedown).
Stabilization strength, core strength, and
neuromuscular efficiency may help to
control the time between the eccentric ­

training does little to improve overall
athletic performance.
Individuals who apply an integrated
functional approach to training will
develop high levels of dynamic flexibility,
core strength, neuromuscular control
(coordination), power, speed, agility,
quickness, and strength (14-20,32-36,38‑47),
all required elements for an MMA athlete.
In addition, participants may develop
similar, or even greater, levels of muscular
hypertrophy following improved motor
unit recruitment (improved neural
activation of muscles).
Training that employs multidirectional
movement patterns targets synergistic
muscles to regulate isometric, concentric
and eccentric force while dynamically
stabilizing the entire body in all three
planes of motion. This creates maximal
motor unit recruitment and facilitates a
greater overall training response (44,47).
◆ ◆ TRAINING IN ALL PLANES OF MOTION
Every MMA event occurs in all three
planes of motion (Figure 2.2): sagittal
(front-to-back), frontal (side-to-side),
and transverse (rotational) (5,7,8,10-13).
The majority of traditional strength and
conditioning exercise programs occur
in the sagittal plane with the primary
emphasis on concentric force production.
Chapter 2: MMA Sciences   /9
However, many athletic injuries occur FIGURE 2.2
in the frontal and transverse planes Stretch-shortening cycle
(7,8,10,12,15,48,49). Therefore, even if a muscle
is dominant in primarily one plane (e.g.,
gluteus medius in the frontal plane,
quadriceps femoris in the sagittal plane,
and internal obliques in the transverse
plane), you still must develop a multiplanar
(multidirectional) training program. Only
then will you be able to efficiently and
effectively prepare your clients for their
athletic activities and help prevent injury.
Also, training only in the sagittal plane
will not effectively prepare your client’s
muscles that are dominant in the frontal
and transverse planes (8,9,50,51). For
example, techniques such as jabs and front
kicks primarily occur in the sagittal plane,
whereas side-kicks occur in the frontal
­
plane, and hooks and roundhouse kicks
occur in the transverse plane.
It is important to note that while some
techniques may be dominant in a single
plane, no striking technique occurs strictly
in one plane of motion. Therefore, a
multiplanar training program is an integral
component of a well-rounded MMA
conditioning program.
◆ ◆ TRAINING WITH OPTIMUM POSTURE
Posture is a dynamic controlling quality.
Maintaining optimum postural alignment

should be a cornerstone to any MMA
conditioning program. If one segment
( joint) of the body is out of alignment,
other segments will have to compensate,
decreasing neuromuscular efficiency
(coordinated movement) and increasing
the chance of injury (2,3,8,9,13,48,49,52-60). Poor
posture during training can lead to muscle
imbalances (altered muscle lengths),
joint dysfunctions, and impairment of
human movement (60).
Training with proper posture ensures
optimum results and decreases the risk of
developing tissue overload (Figure 2.3).
Allowing an individual to perform exercises
with poor lumbar (low-back) posture
may result in the development of muscle
FIGURE 2.3
Training with optimum posture
imbalances and possible injury (4,43,58,59,61).
A functional, integrated training program
ensures maintenance of structural integrity
(ideal body alignment) while requiring your
client to perform exercises correctly with
proper postural control.
◆ ◆ TRAINING
FOR OPTIMUM
MUSCLE BALANCE
Muscles function optimally from an ideal
predetermined length, thus an optimum
length-tension relationship (5). The classic
length-tension relationship is altered
when a muscle is stimulated at a length
less than or greater than this optimal
length, effectively altering force-couple
relationships (muscle firing patterns) and
joint kinematics (3,56,60).
Synergistic dominance is a neuromuscular
phenomenon that occurs when synergists take over
function for a weak or inhibited prime mover.
Subtle changes in posture, pattern
overload (overuse), injury, and decreased
neuromuscular efficiency can alter the
resting length of muscle that can lead to
muscle imbalances. Muscle overactivity,
adaptive muscle shortening, or both can
cause altered reciprocal inhibition and
synergistic dominance (2,8,9,54-56,62-64).
Altered reciprocal inhibition is caused
by a tight agonist (prime mover)
decreasing neural drive to its functional
antagonist (opposing muscle group). For
example, because of the high volume of
kicking required for MMA, the psoas
(hip flexors) can become tight. This can
lead to decreased neural drive to the
gluteus maximus (hip extensor). Altered
reciprocal inhibition results in decreased
force production by the prime mover
(gluteus maximus) and leads to increased
recruitment of synergists, known as
synergistic dominance (2,65).
Synergistic dominance is a neuromuscular
phenomenon that occurs when synergists
(muscles that assist prime movers) take
over function for a weak or inhibited
Chapter 2: MMA Sciences   /10
prime mover. Building on the earlier
example, if the psoas is tight, it leads
to altered reciprocal inhibition of
the gluteus maximus, which in turn
results in increased force output of the
synergists for hip extension (hamstring
complex) to compensate for the weakened
gluteus maximus.
The result of synergistic dominance is
faulty movement patterns, increased stress
to the synergistic muscles, arthrokinetic
dysfunction, and eventual injury (e.g.,
hamstring strains) (2,7,8,12,55,60). Therefore,
all MMA conditioning programs should
be well planned and executed to ensure
the development of optimum muscle
balance. Without optimal muscle balance,
MMA competitors may be susceptible to
lower extremity injuries and decreased
power output.
◆ ◆ TRAINING
FOR OPTIMUM
MUSCLE FUNCTION
It is imperative that today’s health and
fitness professionals understand human
movement science (e.g., biomechanics,
kinesiology, exercise physiology). The

greater your understanding of human
Integrated cardiorespiratory movement science, the more effective the
training is a way of MMA conditioning programs you design.
planning training programs
Muscles function eccentrically
that systematically (decelerate), isometrically (stabilize), and
progress clients through concentrically (accelerate) in all three
various stages to planes of motion (5). Movements such
achieve optimal levels of as striking, kicking, and grappling are a
complex event orchestrated by the CNS.
physiologic, physical, and
performance adaptations The CNS executes preprogrammed
by placing stress on the patterns of movements that can be
cardiorespiratory system. modified in response to gravity, ground
reaction forces, and momentum that must
be trained accordingly. For example, CNS
control allows the gluteus maximus muscle
to work:
⦁⦁ Eccentrically to decelerate hip flexion,
internal rotation, adduction, and
tibial internal rotation (through its
attachment to the iliotibial band).
⦁⦁ Isometrically to stabilize the
sacroiliac joint.
⦁⦁ Concentrically to extend and externally
rotate the hip (5).
The typical way to strengthen the gluteus
maximus is to have the athlete perform
sagittal plane hip flexion and extension
exercises (e.g., squats, lunges, step-ups)
with little attention to transverse plane,
eccentric function, or the stabilization
function of the gluteus maximus.
Remember that while muscles can have
some anatomical individuality, they lack
functional individuality.
An integrated functional training
program will focus on multidirectional
training, while activating the entire
spectrum of muscle contraction (i.e.,
eccentric, isometric, and concentric)
using multiple modalities (e.g., dumbbells,
barbells, cables, machines, tubing,
medicine balls) incorporating flexibility,
core, balance, plyometrics, SAQ, and
integrated resistance training, as well as
sport-specific metabolic conditioning
to efficiently and effectively prepare
individuals for optimal performance and
injury prevention.
COMPONENTS OF AN INTEGRATED
EXERCISE PROGRAM
◆ ◆ FLEXIBILITY TRAINING
To allow for optimal neuromuscular
efficiency, individuals must have proper
flexibility in all three planes of motion.
This allows for the freedom of movement
needed to perform athletic activities
effectively, such as kicking and grappling.
Muscle imbalances and poor flexibility
may decrease performance and increase
the risk of injury (33,46,52,61,66).
Because self-myofascial release (self-
massage) and static and dynamic
Chapter 2: MMA Sciences   /11
stretching can be effective for improving
range of motion, (39,67-70,77,78) this complete
continuum of flexibility training should
be incorporated into a comprehensive
training program in order to develop
optimum functional range of motion and
neuromuscular efficiency. As a result,
all three forms of flexibility training
mentioned are integrated into every
Training Camp workout.
◆ ◆ CARDIORESPIRATORY TRAINING
Of the various components that
comprise a physical fitness program,
cardiorespiratory training, while being
probably the most studied, is probably
the most misunderstood and underrated.
Integrated cardiorespiratory training is
a way of planning training programs that
systematically progress clients through
various stages to achieve optimal levels
of physiologic, physical, and performance
adaptations by placing stress on the
cardiorespiratory system.
One of the most common errors made by
health and fitness professionals during
the planning and implementation of
cardiorespiratory exercise programs is the
failure to consider rate of progression. Rate
of progression is critical to helping clients
achieve their personal fitness and sport
performance goals in the most efficient
and effective use of time and energy. In

addition, failure to carefully consider and
monitor rate of progression of each client
on an individual basis can also result in
injury if progression is too fast or in poor
exercise adherence if the progression is
too slow.
MMA matches exhaust all three metabolic
pathways: ATP-PC, glycolytic, and
oxidative (16‑20). Although an MMA match
Balance is a component of all movement no matter if strength, speed, skill, or flexibility dominates the
movement in question. Health and fitness professionals must understand balance and postural control and its
components to efficiently and effectively train clients and athletes to achieve optimum performance.
lasting for more than two minutes is
technically considered aerobic, most
matches consist of short high-intensity
anaerobic episodes (e.g., takedown
attempts, striking flurries).
Therefore, a cardiorespiratory training
program must be progressive and
systematic, involving aerobic and
anaerobic intervals to meet the energy
demands of the sport (16-20). Applying the
principles of the Training Camp Program
to the design of cardiorespiratory fitness
training programs will help ensure that
clients maximize their potential to achieve
optimal levels of physiologic, physical, and
performance adaptation.
◆ ◆ CORE TRAINING
Core training is the foundation from
which a progressive MMA conditioning
program is built. Many clients and athletes
have developed the strength, power, and
endurance in their prime movers (arms and
legs) but many neglect to develop adequate
neuromuscular control, strength, power,
and endurance in their core (abdomen,
pelvis, hips, low-back) (43,54,55,59,62‑64,71‑76).
Core training is a systematic and
progressive approach to develop muscle
balance, strength, power, and endurance in
the core musculature (1,50,73-76).
The core has to function optimally
to fully harness the strength and
power of the prime movers. The core
operates as a functional unit to produce
force concentrically, decelerate
force eccentrically, and stabilize
against compressive and shear forces
isometrically (78). A stable, strong, and
reactively efficient core should be a
cornerstone in all integrated MMA
conditioning and injury prevention
programs (73,74,76).
For example, most aspects of grappling
or wrestling involve extended periods of
pulling and squeezing motions to control
an opponent. In these situations, an
MMA athlete often has to isometrically
contract her core for an extended period.
Conversely, during strikes, kicks, and
takedowns, explosiveness of the core
is necessary to obtain optimal levels
of rotational power and explosiveness.
Therefore, high levels of muscular
endurance, strength, and power of the core
are integral for an MMA competitor.
◆ ◆ BALANCE TRAINING
Balance training is the systematic and
progressive training process designed
to develop neuromuscular efficiency.
Balance training, in a proprioceptively
enriched (unstable yet controlled)
environment (e.g., single-leg stance,
wobble board, BOSU ball, TRX) stimulates
neuromuscular adaptations (recruiting
the right muscles to work at the right time
with the right amount of force for the
desired outcome), leading to improved
muscular coordination.
Chapter 2: MMA Sciences   /12
Improved muscular coordination will
yield greater neural recruitment of the
agonist musculature (prime movers) and
less inhibition (interference) from the
antagonist musculature. This will result
in greater force production (38,45,80-82), and
injury prevention (8,14,15,32,34-36,40,83,84).
Balance is a component of all movement
no matter if strength, speed, skill, or
flexibility dominates the movement in
question. Health and fitness professionals
must understand balance and postural
control and its components to efficiently
and effectively train clients and athletes to
achieve optimum performance.
Maintaining an athletic position during
an MMA contest is a continuing process
of making small adjustments to keep the
individual’s center of gravity over her
base of support. The smaller the base of
support (e.g., on a single leg during kicks
or defending a single-leg takedown) the
more precise and accurate the postural
adjustments need to be to keep the center
of gravity over the base of support.

◆ ◆ PLYOMETRIC TRAINING
Physiologic components that are extremely
important to an MMA competitor include
speed and power (16‑20). The ability of
an MMA athlete to perform rapid and
powerful kicks and punches is critical to
success. Integrating plyometric exercises
(e.g., box jumps, squat jumps, jump rope) as
part of an overall MMA program can help a
client develop the speed and power needed
to perform these kicks and punches.
Enhanced athletic performance is
related to the rate of force production
regulated by the CNS. The demands of
training should occur at speeds that will
be encountered during real-life scenarios
(25) so that the system learns just how
rapidly force production will be required.
This means that the body will only move
within a defined range of speeds set by
the CNS (25).
Most human movement involves
the stretch-shortening cycle where
deceleration (stretch) transitions
to acceleration (shortening). The
body must react quickly following an
eccentric action to produce a concentric
contraction and impart the necessary
force and acceleration in the proper
direction (32). Plyometric training
overloads the stretch-shortening cycle to
enhance neuromuscular efficiency, rate
of force production (power), and reduce
neuromuscular inhibition (32).
◆ ◆ SPEED,
AGILITY AND QUICKNESS
(SAQ) TRAINING
As mentioned earlier, human movement
occurs in all planes of motion at varying
speeds and demands in response to
multiple stimuli. The ability to change
speed, direction of movement, and
appropriately react to all given stimuli
is often the difference between injury
and safety, and between success or
failure (42,61,84). Improving speed, change
of direction, and reaction time is possible
through proper training strategies (41).
Each of these abilities is an independent
quality, yet is related and dependent on
the other to optimize human function.
Speed, agility, and quickness are some of
the most important factors in an MMA
athlete’s success. A properly designed
SAQ program will improve the client’s
ability to punch and kick rapidly, react to
an opponent with minimal hesitation, and
redirect his force.
◆ ◆ INTEGRATED,
MULTIPLANAR
RESISTANCE TRAINING
The world of MMA is changing drastically.
Athletes are bigger, faster, stronger, and
leaner than ever before. Strength is one of
the most important training components
Chapter 2: MMA Sciences   /13
for continued success. Types of strength
include maximal strength, strength The ability of an MMA
endurance, speed strength, stabilization athlete to perform rapid
strength, and functional strength (1,86,87).
and powerful kicks and
Whether the goal is to increase strength,
punches is critical to
increase muscle mass, develop better success. Integrating
athletic performance, or reduce body plyometric exercises as
fat, the use of resistance training is part of an overall MMA
an important component of any MMA
program can help a client
conditioning program. This will help
ensure optimum athletic performance.
develop the speed and
power needed to perform
Planned variations in a resistance these kicks and punches.
training program are essential to
enable continuous adaptations over a
training period while preventing injury.
Periodized resistance training programs
lead to superior physical, physiological,
and performance improvements when
compared to a nonperiodized training
program (88-90). A planned training
program with progressive and systematic
variation, as seen in the Training Camp
Program, produces long-term, consistent
adaptations and prevents overtraining
and injury.
INTEGRATED MMA TRAINING
The goals of the Training Camp Program
are to prevent injury, decrease body
fat, increase lean muscle mass, and
increase athletic performance measures
that include flexibility, core function,
 Chapter 2: MMA Sciences   /14

balance, power, SAQ, strength, and
cardiovascular efficiency. Before jumping
into a conditioning program, the health
and fitness professional should perform
a comprehensive fitness assessment.
Fitness assessments will be discussed on
more detail in Chapter 3.
strength gains) in order to improve TABLE 2.1 TABLE 2.2
muscular coordination, core stability, Exercise selection criteria Exercise progression continuum
and muscle balance necessary for athletic Safe Slow ➟ Fast
success. Once the client achieves ideal Challenging Known ➟ Unknown
neural adaptations, higher intensities Progressive Stable ➟ Controlled ➟ Dynamic functional
Systematic (integrated functional continuum) movement
are introduced into the program to elicit Proprioceptively enriched Low force ➟ High force
further gains in strength, hypertrophy, Activity specific Correct execution ➟ Increased intensity
power, and work capacity (Table 2.3).
­ ­

MMA conditioning programs should,

above all, be safe. Choosing the TABLE 2.3
components of a program requires careful
Integrated training variables
selection of activities that meet specific
criteria (Table 2.1). A program should be Lower extremity Upper extremity External
Plane of motion Body position Base of support symmetry symmetry resistance Balance modality
progressive, employ body positions that
Sagittal Supine Bench 2 legs, stable 2 arms Barbell Floor
challenge postural control, stress multiple
Frontal Prone Stability ball Staggered stance, Alternate arms Dumbbell Sport beam
planes of motion, integrate multiple Transverse Side-lying Balance modality stable 1 arm Cable machines Half-foam roll
joints when possible, challenge the entire Combination Sitting Suspension trainers 1 leg, stable 1 arm with rotation Tubing Foam pad
Kneeling (TRX) 2-leg, unstable Medicine balls Balance disc
contraction velocity spectrum (slow,
Half-kneeling Other Staggered stance, Kettlebell Wobble board
fast, explosive), and be as sport-specific unstable
Double-leg standing Other BOSU ball
1-leg, unstable
as possible. Staggered stance Other
standing
Single-leg standing
Key patterns for proper exercise ­

progression include slow to fast, simple

to complex, known to unknown, low force
to high force, and static to dynamic, as
well as correct execution of increased
repetitions, sets, and intensity (Table 2.2).
The Training Camp Program develops
optimum levels of functional strength,
neuromuscular efficiency, and
The concept of quality before quantity
of training should be emphasized. The
health and fitness professionals must be
mindful of the sensory information that is
stimulating the client’s CNS. If individuals
train with poor technique and poor
neuromuscular control, they will develop
factors are the backbone of the Training
Camp Program.
SUMMARY
Health and fitness professionals need to
follow a comprehensive integrated training
approach to help their clients achieve their
TABLE 2.4
Functional continuum
Multiplanar (three planes of motion)
Use the entire muscle-contraction spectrum.
Use the entire contraction-velocity spectrum.
Manipulate all acute training variables (sets,
repetitions, intensity, rest intervals, frequency,
and duration).
­

cardiovascular fitness. Neural adaptations poor motor patterns and poor stabilization. desired fitness and sports performance
become a significant focus of the program A client’s program should focus on the goals. An integrated functional training
(prior to striving solely for absolute functional continuum (Table 2.4). These program will focus on multidirectional

training while activating the entire
spectrum of muscle contraction (eccentric,
isometric, and concentric) using multiple
modalities (dumbbells, barbells, cables,
machines, tubing, medicine balls). The
program will incorporate flexibility, core,
balance, plyometrics, SAQ, integrated
resistance training, and sport-specific
metabolic conditioning to efficiently
and effectively prepare individuals for
optimal performance.
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CHAPTER 3
HUMAN PERFORMANCE
TESTING AND EVALUATION
Designing an individualized MMA conditioning program depends on the
health and fitness professional’s understanding and assessment of the
OBJECTIVES client’s goals, needs, and abilities. This entails knowing what the individual wants to gain from a
After studying this chapter, training program, what the individual needs from this program to successfully accomplish personal goals, and the individual’s
you should be able to:
capability to perform the required tasks within an integrated MMA program.
• Explain the components
and function of an
integrated fitness The information necessary to create the right program for a specific individual or group comes through proper human
assessment as it performance testing. The remainder of this chapter will focus on specific health and sports performance tests specific for
relates to MMA.
MMA athletes and enthusiasts. Human performance testing and evaluation is a systematic approach to problem-solving that
• Ask appropriate general provides the health and fitness professional with a basis for making educated decisions about exercise and acute variable
and medical questions
to gather subjective selection (sets, reps, intensity, rest periods).
information from your
clients and athletes. A systematic schedule of assessments provides an ongoing source of information to modify training and take a client
• Perform a systematic through an integrated MMA conditioning program. Such assessments allow a continual monitor of individuals’ needs,
assessment to obtain
functional capabilities, and physiological effects of exercise, enabling the participant to realize the full benefit of an MMA
objective information
about your clients conditioning program. It is important to understand that human performance testing (i.e., fitness assessments) is not designed
and athletes. to diagnose any condition, but rather to observe each individual’s structural and functional status.
• Design an individualized
MMA training program
based upon the
information obtained
from your assessment.

Further, the fitness assessments presented
by NASM are not intended to replace
a medical examination. Clients who
exhibit extreme difficulty or pain with any
observation or exercise should be referred
to their personal physician or a qualified
health care provider to identify any
underlying cause.
INFORMATION PROVIDED BY
A FITNESS ASSESSMENT
A fitness assessment provides the
health and fitness professional with a
three-dimensional representation of a
client, offering insights into the client’s
past, present, and perhaps future. The
assessment covers information regarding
the client’s cardiorespiratory fitness,
strength, power, and movement abilities,
as well as past and present medical history.
Essentially, the assessment offers a view
of the current structure and function of
a client.
A health and fitness professional can use
a comprehensive fitness assessment to
create a fundamental representation of
a client’s goals, needs, and status. From
this profile of status, needs, and goals, an
integrated MMA conditioning program is
created specifically for each client.
When conducting these assessments, use
a variety of observation methods in order
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /18
to obtain a balanced overview of a client, FIGURE 3.1
including both subjective and objective Components of a fitness assessment
information (Figure 3.1).
SUBJECTIVE INFORMATION
PROVIDED IN A FITNESS
ASSESSMENT
The first step in the fitness assessment is
obtaining subjective information from a
client, which entails a preparticipation
health screening.
◆ ◆ PRELIMINARY
PREPARTICIPATION
HEALTH SCREENING
Before allowing a new client to participate
in any physical activity, including fitness
testing, the health and fitness professional
should conduct a preparticipation health
screening. A preparticipation health  
screening includes a medical history
questionnaire and a review of chronic TABLE 3.1
disease risk factors and the presence of Risk stratification
any signs or symptoms of disease. Once all Individuals who do not have any signs or symptoms of cardiovascular, pulmonary, or
Low risk
of the information has been collected, use metabolic disease and have ≤1 cardiovascular disease risk factor
the results to stratify the risk of all new Individuals who do not have any signs or symptoms of cardiovascular, pulmonary, or
Moderate risk metabolic disease but have ≥2 cardiovascular disease risk factors
clients according to the classifications in
Table 3.1 (1). High risk Individuals who have one or more signs or symptoms of cardiovascular, pulmonary, or
metabolic disease
◆ ◆ PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY READINESS
QUESTIONNAIRE (PAR-Q)
One of the easiest methods of gathering
this information is through the Physical
Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q)
(Figure 3.2), which helps determine

if a person is ready to undertake low-
to-moderate-to-high activity levels (2).
Furthermore, it aids in identifying people
for whom certain activities may not be
appropriate, or who may need further
medical attention.
The PAR-Q can indicate possible
cardiorespiratory dysfunction, such
as coronary heart disease, and is a
FIGURE 3.2
Sample Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q)
good beginning point for gathering
personal background information
concerning a prospective client’s
cardiorespiratory function.
However, it is only one component of
a thorough fitness assessment. While
completing a PAR-Q is important,
asking additional questions can provide
further information about a client. This
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /19
includes specific questions about a client’s
medical history.
◆ ◆ MEDICAL HISTORY
Obtaining medical history (Figure 3.3) of
a client is crucial. Not only does it provide
information about life-threatening
chronic diseases (e.g., coronary heart
disease, high blood pressure, and
diabetes), it also provides information
FIGURE 3.3
Sample questions regarding a client’s medical history
about the structure and function of
a client by uncovering important
information like past injuries, surgeries,
and medications.
◆ ◆ PAST INJURIES
Inquiring about a client’s past injuries can
illuminate possible dysfunctions. One of
the best predictors of future injury is past
injury (3). Beyond the risk of suffering the

same injury again or compensating for an
incompletely rehabilitated injury, a prior
injury can also have effects up and down
the kinetic chain (human body).
Ankle sprains. Ankle sprains decrease
the neural control to the gluteus medius
and gluteus maximus muscles. This, in
turn, can lead to poor control of the lower
extremities during many functional
activities, which can eventually lead to
injury (4-7). Poor activation of the gluteals
may have detrimental effects to MMA
athletes, including diminished strength
and power during strikes, kicks, and
takedowns, and a greater susceptibility to
future injury.
Knee injuries involving ligaments. A
knee injury can cause a decrease in the
neural control to muscles that stabilize the
patellofemoral and tibiofemoral joints and
lead to further injury. Noncontact knee
injuries are often the result of ankle or hip
dysfunctions. The knee is caught between
the ankle and the hip. If the ankle or hip
joint begins to function improperly, it
alters the movement and force distribution
of the knee. Over time, this can lead to
further injury (8-16).
Low-back injuries. Low-back injuries
can cause decreased neural control to
stabilizing muscles of the core, resulting
in poor stabilization of the spine. This can
lead to dysfunction of upper and lower
extremities (17-24).
Shoulder injuries. Shoulder injuries
cause altered neural control of the
rotator cuff muscles, which can lead to
instability of the shoulder joint during
athletic activities (25‑28), such as grappling
and striking.
Other injuries. Injuries that result
from muscle imbalances and poor joint
mechanics include repetitive hamstring
strains, groin strains, patellar tendonitis
( jumper’s knee), plantar fasciitis (pain
in the arch of the foot), posterior tibialis
tendonitis (shin splints), biceps tendonitis
(shoulder pain) and headaches, all of
which can be detrimental to the health and
longevity of an MMA athlete.
A health and fitness professional should
take all of the aforementioned past injuries
into consideration while assessing clients,
as these imbalances can manifest over time
unless the client has received proper care.
But remember, at most, a client can recall
only half their injury history, usually the
severe injuries. So a close examination
of imbalances by the health and fitness
professional can turn up areas of
potential risk.
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /20
◆ ◆ PAST SURGERIES
Surgical procedures create trauma for the But remember, at most, a
body and may have similar effects to those client can recall only half
of an injury. They can create dysfunction
their injury history, usually
unless properly rehabilitated. Some
common surgical procedures include:
the severe injuries. So a close
⦁⦁ Foot and ankle surgery examination of imbalances
⦁⦁ Knee surgery by the health and fitness
⦁⦁ Back surgery professional can turn up
⦁⦁ Shoulder surgery
areas of potential risk.
⦁⦁ Cesarean section for birth (cutting
through the abdominal wall to deliver
a baby)
⦁⦁ Appendectomy (cutting through
the abdominal wall to remove the
appendix)
In each case, surgery will cause pain and
inflammation that, if not rehabilitated
properly can alter neural control to the
affected muscles and joints.
◆ ◆ CHRONIC CONDITIONS
More than 75 percent of the adult
population in the United States does not
engage in at least 30 minutes of daily low-
to-moderate physical activity (29). The risk
of chronic disease goes up significantly in
individuals who do not meet this minimal
standard (29,30).
In all likelihood, health and fitness
professionals will work not only with
competitive MMA athletes, but also

with clients with any number of chronic
diseases, such as:
⦁⦁ Cardiovascular disease, coronary artery
disease, congenital heart disease, or
congestive heart failure
⦁⦁ Hypertension (high blood pressure)
⦁⦁ High cholesterol or other blood lipid
disorders
⦁⦁ Stroke or peripheral artery disease
⦁⦁ Lung or breathing problems from
smoking, asthma, obstructive
pulmonary diseases, or exposure to
inflammatory stimuli
⦁⦁ Obesity
⦁⦁ Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus
⦁⦁ Cancer
◆ ◆ MEDICATIONS
Some clients may be required to use
medications for medical reasons. It is not
the role of a fitness or sports performance
professional to administer, prescribe, or
educate on the usage and effects of any of
these medications.
The purpose of this section is to briefly
outline some of the primary classes of
drugs and their intended physiological
effects. Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 are
intended to present an overview of
medications. They are not intended to
serve as conclusive evidence regarding
the medications or their effects. For
more complete information regarding
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /21
medications, contact a health care TABLE 3.2
provider or refer to the Physician’s Common medications by classification
Desk Reference.
Medication Basic Function
OBJECTIVE INFORMATION Beta-blockers (ß-blockers) Generally used as antihypertensive; may also be prescribed for
arrhythmias (irregular heart rate)
PROVIDED IN THE FITNESS
ASSESSMENT Calcium-channel blockers Generally prescribed for hypertension and angina (chest pain)
Objective information provides Nitrates Generally prescribed for hypertension and congestive heart failure
quantifiable data for the health and fitness Generally prescribed for hypertension, congestive heart failure, and
Diuretics
professional. The professional can use this peripheral edema
information to compare where a client Bronchodilators Generally prescribed to correct or prevent bronchial smooth muscle
constriction in individuals with asthma and other pulmonary diseases
begins with data measured weeks, months,
or years later to look for improvement Vasodilators Used in the treatment of hypertension and congestive heart failure
or deterioration in performance, and Antidepressants Used in the treatment of various psychiatric and emotional disorders
to assess the effectiveness of the MMA
conditioning program.
TABLE 3.3
Basic categories of objective information
Effects of medication on heart rate and blood pressure
include the following:
⦁⦁ Physiological assessments Medication Heart rate Blood pressure
⦁⦁ Movement assessments Beta-blockers (ß-blockers)  
⦁⦁ Cardiorespiratory assessments
 
⦁⦁ Performance assessments Calcium-channel blockers
 or 
PHYSIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS Nitrates
 
Physiological assessments provide  
valuable information regarding the status
 
of the client’s overall health. Regular Diuretics

assessment of a client’s resting heart rate,
estimated maximal heart rate (HRmax) Bronchodilators  
body fat, circumferences, and body  
Vasodilators
mass index (BMI) provide constructive  or 
information when designing a client’s
Antidepressants  or   or 
conditioning program.

◆ ◆ HEART RATE
The resting heart rate can be taken at
the base of the thumb (radial pulse, the
preferred location) or on the neck to
the side of the windpipe (carotid pulse,
use with caution). Teach clients how to
measure their resting heart rate upon
rising in the morning. Instruct them
to test their resting heart rate (RHR)
three mornings in a row and average the
three readings.
◆ ◆ RADIAL PULSE
To find the radial pulse, the client should
lightly place two fingers along the arm in
line and just above the thumb (Figure 3.4).
Once the client feels the pulse, they should
count the pulses for 60 seconds, record the
pulse rate, and average over three days.
Things to remember:
⦁⦁ The health and fitness professional
should use a gentle touch.
⦁⦁ The test must be taken when the client
is calm.
⦁⦁ All three tests must be taken at the
same time and in the same surrounding
conditions to ensure accuracy.
◆ ◆ CAROTID PULSE
To find the carotid pulse, the client should
lightly place two fingers diagonally on
the neck, just to the side of the larynx
(Figure 3.5).
As with taking the radial pulse, the client
should count the pulses for 60 seconds,
record the pulse rate, and average over
three days.
Things to remember:
⦁⦁ The health and fitness professional
should use a gentle touch. Excessive
pressure can decrease the client’s heart
rate and blood pressure, causing an
inaccurate reading, possible dizziness,
and fainting.
⦁⦁ The test must be taken when the client
is calm.
⦁⦁ All three tests should be taken at the
same time and in the same surrounding
conditions to ensure accuracy.
Resting heart rates may vary between
individuals. However, on average, the
resting heart rate for a male is 70 bpm. For
a female, the average resting heart rate is
75 bpm. Resting pulse rates become lower
as fitness improves. Endurance athletes
often have low pulse rates.
Having a stable assessment of resting
heart rate may be helpful in monitoring
training status of an MMA athlete. If the
resting pulse rate continues to decline,
it might be safe to assume that fitness
is improving. A steady climb in pulse
rate may be indicative of overtraining
syndrome (31,32).
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /22
◆ ◆ ESTIMATING
MAXIMAL FIGURE 3.4
HEART RATE (HR MAX ) Radial pulse
Calculating a client’s maximal heart
rate (HRmax) is a method for establishing
training intensity during cardiorespiratory
exercise. Measuring a client’s actual
HRmax is impractical for most health and
fitness professionals, because it requires
testing clients at maximal capacity using
sophisticated equipment. However, there
are many formulas to estimate HRmax.
Arguably the most commonly used formula FIGURE 3.5
for estimating HRmax is to subtract the Carotid pulse
clien’s age from 220. However, this formula
was never intended to be used as an
instrument for designing cardiorespiratory
fitness programs, because maximal heart
rate varies significantly among individuals
of the same age.
Dr. William Haskell, the developer
of the aforementioned formula, said,
“The formula was never supposed to
be an absolute guide to rule people’s
training” (33). Estimating maximal heart
rate from mathematical formulas can
produce results that are 10 to 12 beats
per minute off the actual maximal
heart rate (34).
Health and fitness professionals should
never use this, or any other formula, as
an absolute. However, this equation is
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /23

very simple to use, and you can easily
implement it as a general starting
point for measuring cardiorespiratory
training intensity.
◆ ◆ HEART
RATE RESERVE
(KARVONEN) METHOD
Heart rate reserve (HRR), also known as
the Karvonen method, is another method
of establishing training intensity based on
very good), then the formula would be TABLE 3.4
solved as follows: Fat percentage recommendations for men and women
220 – 25 (age) = 195 HRmax Men Women
Essential body fat: 3-5% Essential body fat: 8-12%
195 – 40 (resting heart rate) = 155 Athletic: 5-13% Athletic: 12-22%
Recommended (34 years or less): 8-22% Recommended (34 years or less): 20-35%
155 × 85% = 132
Recommended (35–55 years): 10-25% Recommended (35–55 years): 23-38%
132 + 40 = 172 bpm Recommended (more than 56 years): 10-25% Recommended (more than 56 years): 25-38%

the difference between a client’s estimated

maximal heart rate and her resting Thus, 172 bpm is the athlete’s target
TABLE 3.5
heart rate. heart rate.
Fat percentage recommendations for active men and women
Because heart rate and oxygen uptake are ◆ ◆ BODY COMPOSITION Not
linearly related during dynamic exercise, Gathering body composition statistics Recommended Low Mid Upper
selecting a predetermined training or about a client provides a measure of Men
target heart rate (THR) based on a given a client’s starting point. Repeated Young adult <5 5 10 15
percentage of oxygen consumption is the measurements of weight, skinfold
Middle adult <7 7 11 18
most common and universally accepted thicknesses, circumferences, and body
Elderly <9 9 12 18
method of establishing exercise training mass index can be motivating for clients.
intensity. Women
Changes in the client’s body composition Young adult <16 16 23 28
The heart rate reserve method is (decreasing body fat, increasing lean body
Middle adult <20 20 27 33
defined as: mass) may also be required for MMA
Elderly <20 20 27 33
athletes to make a certain weight class.
[(HRmax – HRrest) × desired intensity] + In addition, it is a good indication of how
HRrest = THR well the MMA conditioning program has
been designed. athletic activities, so knowing a client’s composition studies show that body fat
Consider the following example of a body fat percentage can help determine an typically ranges from 10-20% for men and
25-year-old MMA athlete with a desired ◆ ◆ BODY FAT MEASUREMENTS estimate of the client’s lean body mass. 20-30% for women (35). Thus, body fat
training intensity of 85% of his heart rate An important piece of information is recommendations are 15% for men and
maximum. If this athlete has a resting the client’s starting body fat percentage. Currently, there are no accepted body fat 25% for women. This is discussed in more
heart rate of 40 bpm (which is considered Lean body mass is important for all MMA percentage standards for all ages. Body detail in Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 (35).

Body fat can be measured in a variety of
ways. The choice of method depends on
the available tools and expertise. The most
common methods are discussed below.
Skinfold calipers. Skinfold calipers are
used to measure the thickness of a client’s
subcutaneous fat (the fat beneath the skin)
at specific anatomical sites. This method
requires measuring the thickness of a
double layer of skin and the underlying fat.
The procedure looks simple, but requires
a lot of practice to be skilled and accurate.
Taking a measurement by as little as an
inch from the appropriate site can mean a
25% error of measurement. Don’t be fooled
because the procedure looks easy; this
requires a lot of practice.
Bioelectrical impedance. Bioelectrical
impedance involves using a portable
instrument to conduct a minute electrical
current through the body in order to
estimate fat percentages. This method is
based on the hypothesis that tissues high in
water content conduct electrical currents
with less resistance than those with little
water content (such as adipose tissue).
As such, this method is highly sensitive
to water content of the tissues and body.
Take readings before and after a workout to
see how much the results can change. The
devices come with very strict procedures
to ensure a valid measurement is obtained.
Underwater weighing. Underwater
weighing is a method of determining the
proportion of fat to lean tissue based on
the method of Archimedes. The procedure
compares the difference between dry, land
weight with underwater weight, correcting
for air in the lungs and water density. Lean
tissue is denser than fat, so the leaner
person will weigh more underwater and
sink more. Those with more fat sink
less. The results of underwater weighing
determine a person’s overall density
compared to the water and are a ratio of
body weight to body volume.
Because few people understand what it
means when they are told their density is
1.083 gm/cc, the density figure is converted
to a body fat percentage figure that is easier
to interpret, understand, and explain.
The process requires practice by both the
technician and the client.
Many people are uncomfortable going
underwater, completely exhaling after
entering the water, and then remaining
still for a few more seconds while the
scale is read. There are more elaborate
tanks with digital scales and closed
rebreathing systems that are more
comfortable, but these are found mostly
in research labs. For many, underwater
weighing is the gold standard of body
composition measurements.
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /24
◆ ◆ SKINFOLD CALIPER MEASUREMENTS
Most health and fitness professionals Skinfold calipers are used to
do not have an exercise physiology measure the thickness of a
laboratory at their disposal, so the skinfold
client’s subcutaneous fat at
caliper method will be emphasized in
this text. Skinfolds (SKF) are an indirect
specific anatomical sites…
measure of the thickness of subcutaneous The procedure looks simple,
adipose tissue. but requires a lot of practice
to be skilled and accurate.
The assumption is that the amount of fat
Taking a measurement by
present in the subcutaneous regions of the
body is proportional to overall body fat,
as little as an inch from the
and most of the time this is the case. appropriate site can mean a
25% error of measurement.
Recommendations for assessing body Don’t be fooled because the
composition using skinfolds include
procedure looks easy; this
the following:
⦁⦁ Train with an individual skilled in SKF requires a lot of practice.
assessment and frequently compare
your results.
⦁⦁ Take a minimum of two measurements
at each anatomical location. Each
measurement must be within 1 to 2 mm
before recording the average at each site.
⦁⦁ Open the jaw of the caliper before
removing from the site.
⦁⦁ Be meticulous when locating anatomic
landmarks.
⦁⦁ Do not measure SKFs immediately after
exercise.
⦁⦁ Instruct the clients ahead of time
regarding test protocol.
⦁⦁ Avoid performing SKFs on extremely
obese clients.

◆ ◆ CALCULATING BODY FAT PERCENTAGES
There are numerous equations for
determining body fat percentage from
skinfold thicknesses. NASM recommends
the Durnin-Womersley formula to
calculate a client’s percentage of
body fat (36).
This formula has a simple four-site upper
body measurement process. Figure 3.6
shows the Durnin-Womersley formula’s
four sites of skinfold measurement.
FIGURE 3.6
The Durnin-Womersley four sites of skinfold measurement
Biceps skinfold
A vertical fold on the front of the right arm over the
biceps muscle, halfway between the shoulder and the
elbow.
Take skinfold measurements on the right
side of the body. After measuring the four
sites, add the totals of the four sites, and
find the appropriate sex and age categories
for the body composition on the Durnin-
Womersley body fat percentage calculation
table (Table 3.6 on the following page).
For example, a 25-year-old male MMA
athlete with a skinfold sum of 40 has a body
fat percentage of 16.17% (or round down
to 16%).
Triceps skinfold
A vertical fold on the back of the upper arm, with the
arm relaxed and held freely at the side. This skinfold
should also be taken halfway between the shoulder
and the elbow. The midpoint is easiest to find with the
arm flexed. Once the site is found, the client lets the
extended arm hang while you keep your fingers on
the site.
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /25
Another benefit of assessing body
composition is the ability to determine
how much of an individual’s body weight
comes from fat and how much of it is lean
body mass (i.e., muscle, bones, organs).
The formula below outlines how to calculate
one’s fat mass and lean body mass:
body fat % × scale weight = fat mass
scale weight – fat mass = lean body mass
Subscapular skinfold
A 45-degree angle fold of 1-2 cm, below the inferior
angle of the scapula .
Take skinfold measurements
on the right side of the body.
After measuring the four sites,
add the totals of the four sites,
and find the appropriate sex
and age categories for the
body composition on the
Durnin-Womersley body fat
percentage calculation table.
Iliac crest skinfold
A 45-degree angle fold, taken just above the iliac
crest at the anterior axillary line.
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /26

TABLE 3.6
Durnin-Womersley body fat percentage calculation
Men Women Men Women
Sum Sum
of 20– 30– 40– 20– 30– 40– of 20– 30– 40– 20– 30– 40–
folds <19 29 39 49 >50 <19 29 39 49 >50 folds <19 29 39 49 >50 <19 29 39 49 >50
5 –7.23 –7.61 –1.70 –5.28 –6.87 –2.69 –3.97 0.77 3.91 4.84 105 28.42 28.09 29.54 35.05 38.14 36.74 37.69 37.90 40.29 43.51

10 0.41 0.04 5.05 3.30 2.63 5.72 4.88 8.72 11.71 13.10 110 29.00 28.68 30.05 35.72 38.90 37.40 38.39 38.51 40.89 44.15

15 5.00 4.64 9.09 8.47 8.38 10.78 10.22 13.50 16.40 18.07 115 29.57 29.25 30.54 36.37 39.63 38.03 39.06 39.10 41.47 44.76

20 8.32 7.96 12.00 12.22 12.55 14.44 14.08 16.95 19.78 21.67 120 30.11 29.79 31.01 36.99 40.33 38.63 39.70 39.66 42.02 45.36

25 10.92 10.57 14.29 15.16 15.84 17.33 17.13 19.66 22.44 24.49 125 30.63 30.31 31.46 37.58 41.00 39.21 40.32 40.21 42.55 45.92

30 13.07 12.73 16.17 17.60 18.56 19.71 19.64 21.90 24.64 26.83 130 31.13 30.82 31.89 38.15 41.65 39.77 40.91 40.73 43.06 46.47

35 14.91 14.56 17.77 19.68 20.88 21.74 21.79 23.81 26.51 28.82 135 31.62 31.30 32.31 38.71 42.27 40.31 41.48 41.24 43.56 47.00

40 16.51 16.17 19.17 21.49 22.92 23.51 23.67 25.48 28.14 30.56 140 32.08 31.77 32.71 39.24 42.87 40.83 42.04 41.72 44.03 47.51

45 17.93 17.59 20.41 23.11 24.72 25.09 25.34 26.96 29.59 32.10 145 32.53 32.22 33.11 39.76 43.46 41.34 42.57 42.19 44.49 48.00

50 19.21 18.87 21.53 24.56 26.35 26.51 26.84 28.30 30.90 33.49 150 32.97 32.66 33.48 40.26 44.02 41.82 43.09 42.65 44.94 48.47

55 20.37 20.04 22.54 25.88 27.83 27.80 28.21 29.51 32.09 34.75 155 33.39 33.08 33.85 40.74 44.57 42.29 43.59 43.09 45.37 48.93

60 21.44 21.11 23.47 27.09 29.20 28.98 29.46 30.62 33.17 35.91 160 33.80 33.49 34.20 41.21 45.10 42.75 44.08 43.52 45.79 49.38

65 22.42 22.09 24.33 28.22 30.45 30.08 30.62 31.65 34.18 36.99 165 34.20 33.89 34.55 41.67 45.62 43.20 44.55 43.94 46.20 49.82

70 23.34 23.01 25.13 29.26 31.63 31.10 31.70 32.60 35.11 37.98 170 34.59 34.28 34.88 42.11 46.12 43.63 45.01 44.34 46.59 50.24

75 24.20 23.87 25.87 30.23 32.72 32.05 32.71 33.49 35.99 38.91 175 34.97 34.66 35.21 42.54 46.61 44.05 45.46 44.73 46.97 50.65

80 25.00 24.67 26.57 31.15 33.75 32.94 33.66 34.33 36.81 39.79 180 35.33 35.02 35.53 42.96 47.08 44.46 45.89 45.12 47.35 51.05

85 25.76 25.43 27.23 32.01 34.72 33.78 34.55 35.12 37.58 40.61 185 35.69 35.38 35.83 43.37 47.54 44.86 46.32 45.49 47.71 51.44

90 26.47 26.15 27.85 32.83 35.64 34.58 35.40 35.87 38.31 41.39 190 36.04 35.73 36.13 43.77 48.00 45.25 46.73 45.85 48.07 51.82

95 27.15 26.83 28.44 33.61 36.52 35.34 36.20 36.58 39.00 42.13 195 36.38 36.07 36.43 44.16 48.44 45.63 47.14 46.21 48.41 52.19

100 27.80 27.48 29.00 34.34 37.35 36.06 36.97 37.25 39.66 42.84 200 36.71 36.40 36.71 44.54 48.87 46.00 47.53 46.55 48.75 52.55

For example, if the above 25-year-old
male MMA athlete weights 175 pounds,
his fat mass and lean body mass would be
calculated as such:
0.16 × 175 = 28 pounds of body fat
175 – 28 = 147 pounds of lean body mass
◆ ◆ CIRCUMFERENCE MEASUREMENTS
Circumference measurements can
also be another source of feedback for
clients or MMA athletes with the goal of
altering body composition or making a
certain weight class (Figure 3.7). They
are designed to assess girth changes in
the body.
The most important factor to consider
when taking circumference measurements
is consistency. Remember when taking
measurements to make sure the tape
measure is taut and horizontal around the
area that is being measured. Health and
fitness professionals must be consistent
in how taut the tape is pulled to avoid
compressing the underlying tissue. Take
measurements in front of a floor length
mirror to confirm the tape is horizontal.
◆ ◆ BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)
BMI is based on the concept that weight
should be proportional to height. A high
BMI is linked to increased risk of disease,
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /27
FIGURE 3.7
especially if associated with a large Circumference measurements
waist circumference.
Although this assessment is not designed
to assess body fat, BMI is a quick and easy
method to determine whether your client’s
weight is appropriate for her height.
Calculate BMI by either dividing the Neck: Level with the Adam’s apple Chest: Across the nipple line
weight in kilograms by the square of the
height in meters, or by dividing body
weight in pounds by the square of height in
inches and multiplying by 703.
BMI = weight in kg / height in m2
BMI = (weight in lbs / height inch2) × 703
Waist: Measure at the narrowest point of the waist, Hip: With feet together, measure circumference at the
below the rib cage and just above the iliac crest (top widest portion of the buttocks.
of the hipbones). If there is no apparent narrowing of
The lowest risk for disease lies within the waist, measure at the navel.
a BMI range of 22 to 24.9 (Table 3.7).
Scientific evidence indicates that the
risk for disease increases with a BMI of
25 or more. Even though research has
proven the risk for premature death and
illness increases with a high BMI score,
individuals who are underweight are also
at risk (37, 38).
A disadvantage in using BMI is that some
MMA athletes or fitness enthusiasts with
a lot of muscle mass and low body fat can
have a BMI greater than 25, mistakenly Thigh: Measured 10 inches above Calves: At the maximal calf Biceps: At the maximal
the top of the patella. circumference between the ankle circumference of the biceps,
placing them in the overweight or and the knee. measure with arm extended, palm
facing forward.
obese categories.
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /28

MOVEMENT ASSESSMENTS
Posture is often viewed as being static
(i.e., without movement). However,
everyday posture is constantly changing
to meet the demands placed on the
human body.
As such, a dynamic postural assessment
(looking at movements) is often
the quickest way for the health and
fitness professional to gain an overall
impression of a client’s functional
status. Because posture is a dynamic
quality, these observations show postural
distortion and potential overactive and
underactive muscles.
Movement observations should relate
to basic functions such as squatting,
pushing, pulling, and balancing, in
addition to providing crucial information
about muscle and joint interplay. The
observation process should search for
any imbalances in anatomy, physiology,
or biomechanics that may decrease
a client’s results and possibly lead
to injury.
The health and fitness professional will
then uses these assessment findings to
implement the client’s Movement Prep
Programs (Chapter 4), which the client
should perform prior to every MMA
conditioning session and may perform on
off-days as well.
Each assessment technique described
below contains key kinetic chain
checkpoints to observe. These checkpoints
include the following: Movement observations
⦁⦁ Feet should relate to basic
Knees
⦁⦁
functions such as squatting,
⦁⦁ Lumbo-pelvic-hip complex
⦁⦁ Shoulders
pushing, pulling, and
⦁⦁ Head (cervical spine) balancing, in addition to
providing crucial information
◆ ◆ OVERHEAD SQUAT TEST about muscle and joint
Purpose: This test is designed to assess
interplay. The observation
dynamic flexibility, core strength, balance,
and overall neuromuscular control.
process should search
There is evidence to support the use for any imbalances in
of transitional movement assessments anatomy, physiology, or
such as the overhead squat test (39). biomechanics that may
These assessments appear to be reliable
decrease a client’s results
and valid measures of lower extremity
movement patterns when standard and possibly lead to injury.
protocols are applied.

TABLE 3.7
Body mass index classifications
BMI Disease risk Classification
<18.5 Increased Underweight

18.6-21.99 Low Acceptable

22.0-24.99 Very low Acceptable

25.0-29.99 Increased Overweight

30-34.99 High Obese

35.0-39.99 Very high Obesity II

≥40 Extremely high Obesity III


The overhead squat test has been shown
to reflect lower extremity movement
patterns during jump landing tasks (40).
Knee valgus (knees caving inward) during
the overhead squat test is influenced by
decreased hip abductor and hip external
rotation strength (12), increased hip
adductor activity (41), and restricted ankle
dorsiflexion (41,42). These results suggest that
movement impairments observed during
the overhead squat test may help identify
individuals with an elevated injury risk.
FIGURE 3.8
Overhead squat test, start, anterior view
Procedure
Position
1. Client stands with the feet shoulder-
width apart and pointed straight ahead.
The foot and ankle complex should
be in a neutral position. Perform this
assessment with the shoes off to better
view the foot and ankle complex.
2. Have client raise his or her arms
overhead, with elbows fully extended.
The upper arms should bisect the torso
(Figures 3.8 and 3.9).
FIGURE 3.9
Overhead squat test, start, lateral view
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /29
Movement
1. Instruct the client to squat to roughly
the height of a chair seat and return to
the starting position.
2. Have the client repeat the movement
four times (5 repetitions total) as you
observe from each position (anterior
and lateral).
FIGURE 3.10
Overhead squat test, finish, anterior view
Views
1. View feet, ankles, and knees from the
front (Figure 3.10). The feet should
remain straight with the knees tracking
in line with the foot (second and
third toe).
2. View the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex,
shoulder, and cervical complex from
the side (Figure 3.11). The tibia should
remain inline with the torso while the
arms also stay inline with the torso.
FIGURE 3.11
Overhead squat test, finish, lateral view

FIGURE 3.12 Compensations: Anterior View
Overhead squat test, compensations, feet turn out 1. Feet: Do the feet turn out? (Figure 3.12)
2. Knees: Do the knees move inward (adduct
and internally rotate)? (Figure 3.13)
Compensations: Lateral View
1. Lumbo-pelvic-hip complex:
a. Does the low back arch? (Figure 3.14)
b. Does the torso lean forward
excessively? (Figure 3.15)
2. Shoulder: Do the arms fall forward?
(Figure 3.16)
FIGURE 3.13 FIGURE 3.14
Overhead squat test, compensations, knees Overhead squat test, compensations, low
move inward back arches
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /30
When performing the assessment,
record all of your findings. You can then
refer to Table 3.8 on the following page
to determine potential overactive and
underactive muscles that will need to be
addressed through corrective flexibility
(overactive muscles) and strengthening
techniques (underactive muscles).
This can improve the client’s quality of
movement, decreasing the risk for injury
and improving performance.
FIGURE 3.15
Overhead squat test, compensations,
forward lean
◆ ◆ SINGLE-LEG SQUAT ASSESSMENT
Purpose: This transitional movement
assessment also assesses dynamic
flexibility, core strength, balance, and
overall neuromuscular control. This
assessment appears to be a reliable
and valid measure of lower extremity
movement patterns when standard
application protocols are applied.
Knee valgus has been shown to be
influenced by decreased hip abductor and
FIGURE 3.16
Overhead squat test, compensations, arms
fall forward
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /31

hip external rotation strength (12), increased Procedure Movement FIGURE 3.17
hip adductor activity (41) and restricted Position 1. Have the client squat to a comfortable Single-leg squat assessment, start
ankle dorsiflexion (41,42). These results 1. Client stands with hands on hips and level and return to the starting position.
suggest that the movement impairments eyes focused on an object straight ahead. 2. Perform up to 5 repetitions before
observed during transitional movement 2. Foot should be pointed straight ahead switching sides.
assessments may be the result of alterations and the foot, ankle, knee, and the lumbo-
in available joint motion, muscle activation, pelvic-hip complex should be in a Views
and overall neuromuscular control. neutral position (Figure 3.17). 1. View the knee from the front. The
knee should track in line with the foot
(second and third toe).
TABLE 3.8
Checkpoints for the overhead squat test Compensation
1. Knee: Does the knee move inward
Probable overactive Probable underactive
View Checkpoint Compensation muscles muscles (adduct and internally rotate)?
Lateral LPHC Excessive Soleus Anterior tibialis (Figure 3.18)
forward lean Gastrocnemius Gluteus maximus
Hip flexor complex Erector spinae Like the overhead squat assessment,
Abdominal complex FIGURE 3.18
record your findings. You can then refer
Low-back arches Hip flexor complex Gluteus maximus to Table 3.9 on the following page to Single-leg squat assessment, compensation, knees
Erector spinae Hamstring complex move inward
determine potential overactive and
Latissimus dorsi Intrinsic core stabilizers
(transverse abdominis, underactive muscles that will need to be
multifidus, transversospinalis,
internal oblique pelvic floor) addressed through corrective flexibility
and strengthening techniques to improve
Upper body Arms fall forward Latissimus dorsi Mid/lower trapezius
Teres major Rhomboids the client’s quality of movement. This will
Pectoralis major/minor Rotator cuff decrease the risk for injury and improve
Anterior Feet Turn out Soleus Medial gastrocnemius performance.
Lateral gastrocnemius Medial hamstring complex
Biceps femoris (short
head)
Gracilis
Sartorius
CARDIORESPIRATORY
Popliteus ASSESSMENTS
Cardiorespiratory assessments help
Knees Move inward Adductor complex Gluteus medius/maximus
Biceps femoris (short Vastus medialis oblique
health and fitness professionals identify
head) safe and effective starting exercise
TFL
intensities, as well as appropriate modes of
Vastus lateralis
cardiorespiratory exercise for clients.

The most valid measurement for functional
capacity of the cardiopulmonary (heart and
lungs) system is cardiopulmonary exercise
testing (CPET), also known as maximal
oxygen uptake (VO2max ).
However, it is not always practical to
measure VO2max because of equipment
requirements, time involved, and
willingness of clients to perform at
maximal physical capacity. Therefore,
submaximal tests are often the preferred
method for determining cardiorespiratory
functional capacity and fitness.
Submaximal testing allows for the
prediction or estimation of VO2max. These
tests are similar to VO2max tests, but they
differ in that they are terminated at a
predetermined heart rate intensity or
time frame.
There are multiple submaximal tests that
have been shown to be valid and reliable
TABLE 3.9
Checkpoints for the single-leg squat test
Checkpoint Compensation
Knee Move inward
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /32
predictors of VO2max, and these tests are
often categorized by type (i.e., run/walk Submaximal testing allows for the prediction or
tests, cycle ergometer tests, and step tests). estimation of VO2max. These tests are similar to VO2max
Any of these tests can be used; however,
tests, but they differ in that they are terminated at a
the space or equipment constraints and
specific population (e.g., elderly or youth)
predetermined heart rate intensity or time frame.
to be tested should be considered.
◆ ◆ YMCA 3-MINUTE STEP TEST
This test is designed to estimate an
individual’s cardiorespiratory fitness level
on the basis of a submaximal bout of stair-
climbing at a set pace for 3 minutes.
Step one: Perform a 3-minute step test
FIGURE 3.19
by having a client perform 24 steps per
YMCA 3-minute step test
minute on a 12-inch step for a total of
3 minutes (roughly 96 steps total). Keep the
client stepping at the correct pace by using
a metronome or stating out loud, “Up, up,
down, down.” (Figure 3.19).
Step two: Within 5 seconds of completing
the exercise, the client’s resting heart rate
Probable overactive Probable underactive
muscles muscles
Adductor complex Gluteus medius/maximus
Biceps femoris (short head) Vastus medialis oblique
TFL
Vastus lateralis
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /33

is measured for a period of 60 seconds Procedure

and recorded as the recovery pulse
FIGURE 3.20 (Figure 3.20).
Record heart rate
Step three: Locate the recovery pulse
number in Table 3.10 to determine the
appropriate category.
◆ ◆ 1-MILE RUN TEST
Purpose: This test can be used to
determine a client’s cardiorespiratory
endurance. This assessment requires a
measured distance such as a mile track
and a stopwatch. A heart rate monitor
is optional.
Health and fitness professionals who do
not have access to a track can substitute
the YMCA step-test.
1. During this assessment, the client runs
a mile in the best time possible. At the
end of the run, record the time, heart
rate, and 1-minute active heart rate
recovery (walking).
2. The client’s time should improve when
reassessed.
◆ ◆ 12-MINUTE RUN TEST
Purpose: This assessment is designed to
measure maximal aerobic capacity (43). During the 1-mile run test, the
This assessment requires a track client runs a mile in the best
with clearly marked distances and a
stopwatch.
time possible. At the end of
the run, record the time, heart
Health and fitness professionals who do rate, and 1-minute active
not have access to a track can substitute heart rate recovery (walking).
the YMCA step-test.

TABLE 3.10
YMCA 3-minute step test
Men 18-25 yrs 26-35 yrs 36-45 yrs 46-55 yrs 56-65 yrs 65+ yrs Women 18-25 yrs 26-35 yrs 36-45 yrs 46-55 yrs 56-65 yrs 65+ yrs
Excellent 50-76 51-76 49-76 56-82 60-77 59-81 Excellent 52-81 58-80 51-84 63-91 60-92 70-92

Good 79-84 79-85 80-88 87-93 86-94 87-92 Good 85-93 85-92 89-96 95-101 97-103 96-101

Above average 88-93 88-94 92-88 95-101 97-100 94-102 Above average 96-102 95-101 100-104 104-110 106-111 104-111

Average 95-100 96-102 100-105 103-111 103-109 104-110 Average 104-110 104-110 107-112 113-118 113-118 116-121

Below average 102-107 104-110 108-113 113-119 111-117 114-118 Below average 113-120 113-119 115-120 120-124 119-127 123-126

Poor 111-119 114-121 116-124 121-126 119-128 121-126 Poor 122-131 122-129 124-132 126-132 129-135 128-133

Very poor 124-157 126-161 130-163 131-159 131-154 130-151 Very poor 135-169 134-171 137-169 137-171 141-174 135-155
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /34

Procedure: Following a comprehensive Care should be taken in scheduling tests. TABLE 3.11
warm-up, the client runs (or walks only Clients should be well rested and warmed
12-minute run test
if necessary) as far as possible within up. Testing too frequently can become
12 minutes. Have the client run around a monotonous and boring, with clients giving Above
Age Excellent average Average Below average Poor
track with clearly marked distances. less than a committed effort. Testing too
Male athletes
1. Record the distance traveled infrequently might miss important peaks
(e.g., 5.75 laps). and valleys of fitness or performance 13-14 >2,700m 2,400-2,700m 2,200-2,399m 2,100-2,199m <2,100m

2. Calculate the distance recorded into capabilities. The timing of testing will vary 15-16 >2,800m 2,500-2,800m 2,300-2,499m 2,200-2,299m <2,200m
meters (laps × 400 m). So, 5.75 laps × by age, gender, and competitive cycles and 17-19 >3,000m 2,700-3,000m 2,500-2,699m 2,300-2,499m <2,300m
400 m = 2,300 m. is best determined by personal experience.
20-29 >2,800m 2,400-2,800m 2,200-2,399m 1,600-2,199m <1,600m
3. Compare the results when reassessed.
4. Normative data can be found in ◆ ◆ PUSH-UP TEST 30-39 >2,700m 2,300-2,700m 1,900-2,299m 1,500-1,999m <1,500m

Table 3.11 (44). Purpose: This test measures muscular 40-49 >2,500m 2,100-2,500m 1,700-2,099m 1,400-1,699m <1,400m
endurance of the upper body, primarily the >50 >2,400m 2,000-2,400m 1,600-1,999m 1,300-1,599m <1,300m
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS pushing muscles.
Female athletes
Use performance assessments to
13-14 >2,000m 1,900-2,000m 1,600-1,899m 1,500-1,599m <1,500m
objectively assess your clients’ overall Procedure
athletic performance. These assessments Position 15-16 >2,100m 2,000-2,100m 1,700-1,999m 1,600-1,699m <1,600m

should measure muscular endurance, 1. In push-up position (ankles, knees, 17-20 >2,300m 2,100-2,300m 1,800-2,099m 1,700-1,799m <1,700m
stability, strength, power, and anaerobic hips, shoulders, and head in a straight 20-29 >2,700m 2,200-2,700m 1,800-2,199m 1,500-1,799m <1,500m
conditioning. While there are published line), the client lowers her body to touch
30-39 >2,500m 2,000-2,500m 1,700-1,999m 1,400-1,699m <1,400m
norms for most of these tests, norms are her partner’s closed fist placed under
very sample-dependent and may not be the client’s chest, and repeats for 60 40-49 >2,300m 1,900-2,300m 1,500-1,899m 1,200-1,499m <1,200m

applicable to any particular situation.
The most common application of
performance assessments is through
serial testing. With repeated testing, the
health and fitness professional can track
fitness and athletic performance changes,
both positive and negative, in response to
training cycles and injury. Training can be
modified to improve deficiencies based on
the results of serial fitness assessments.
seconds or until exhaustion, without >50 >2,200m 1,700-2,200m 1,400-1,699m 1,100-1,399m <1,100m
compensating (e.g., arching the low
back, extending the cervical spine). The FIGURE 3.21
client can also perform push-ups from Push-up test
a kneeling position. Additionally, this
assessment can be performed with the
participant required to touch the chest
to the floor, rather than to a partner’s
fist. Whichever method is performed, be
sure to use the same procedure during
the reassessment process (Figure 3.21).
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /35

2. Record the number of actual touches ◆ ◆ DAVIES TEST FIGURE 3.22

reported from the partner.
3. The client should be able to perform
more push-ups when reassessed.
◆ ◆ PULL-UP TEST
Purpose: This test measures muscular
endurance of the upper body, primarily the
pulling muscles.
Procedure
Position
1. The client grasps the bar with a
pronated grip (Figure 3.22).
Movement
1. The client performs the pull-up exercise
to exhaustion.
2. Record the total number of repetitions
without compensating with body
swings, kicking, or creating momentum.
3. The client should be able to perform
more pull-ups when reassessed.
Purpose: This assessment measures upper Pull-up test
extremity agility and stabilization (45). This
assessment may not be suitable for clients
who lack shoulder stability.
Procedure
Position
1. Placing two pieces of tape on the floor,
36 inches apart.
2. Have the client assume a push-up
position, with one hand on each piece of
tape (Figure 3.23).
Movement
3. Instruct the client to quickly move
his right hand to touch the left hand
(Figure 3.24).
4. Have the client perform alternating
touching on each side for 15 seconds.
FIGURE 3.23 FIGURE 3.24
Davies test, start Davies test, movement

The Davies test measures

upper extremity agility
and stabilization. This
assessment may not be
suitable for clients who
lack shoulder stability.
 Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /36

5. Repeat for three trials. Procedure

6. Reassess in the future to measure the Position
improvement in the number of touches. 1. Position client in the center box of a
7. Record the number of lines touched by grid, with hands on hips and standing on
both hands. one leg.

◆ ◆ SHARK SKILL TEST Movement FIGURE 3.25

Purpose: This is designed to assess lower 1. Instruct client to hop to each box in a Shark skill test
extremity agility and neuromuscular designated pattern, always returning to
control. It should be viewed as a the center box. Be consistent with the
progression from the single-leg squat test patterns. (Figure 3.25)
and may not be suitable for all individuals. 2. Perform one practice run through the
boxes with each foot.
This test is conducted in a small area 3. Perform test twice with each foot (four
requiring precise control of motion, which times total). Keep track of time.
is what MMA combat requires, as well as 4. Record the times. (Table 3.13)
executing rapid and forceful motions in a 5. Add 0.10 seconds for each of the
small area (e.g., striking a defined region of following faults:
the opponent’s body). The shark skill test a. Non-hopping leg touches ground
may examine elements specific to an MMA b. Hands come off hips
athlete’s agility. c. Foot goes into wrong square
d. Foot does not return to center square
TABLE 3.13
◆ ◆ UPPER
EXTREMITY STRENGTH Observation of findings for shark skill test
The shark skill test is ASSESSMENT: BENCH PRESS Time Deduction Total deducted (# Final total (time •
designed to assess lower Purpose: This assessment is designed to Trial Side (seconds) tally of faults × 0.1) total deduction)
extremity agility and estimate the one-repetition maximum Practice Right
(1RM) on overall upper body strength
neuromuscular control. Left
of the pressing musculature. This test
It should be viewed as a can also be used to determine training One Right
progression from the single- intensities of the bench press exercise. Left
leg squat test and may not Two Right
be suitable for all individuals. This is considered an advanced assessment
Left
(for strength-specific goals) and, as

such, may not be suitable for many
clients. Generally speaking, health and
fitness professionals should not use this
assessment for clients with general fitness
or weight-loss goals. They should reserve
this assessment for MMA athletes or fitness
enthusiasts with specific strength goals.
Procedure
Position
1. Position client supine on a bench. The
feet should be pointed straight ahead.
The low-back should be in a neutral
position (Figure 3.26).
Movement
1. Warm up with a light resistance that can
be easily performed for 8-10 repetitions.
2. Rest for 1 minute.
FIGURE 3.26
Bench press 1RM test
3. Add 10-20 pounds (or 5-10% of initial
load) and have the client perform 3-5
repetitions.
4. Rest for 2 minutes.
5. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the individual
achieves failure between 2 and 10
repetitions (3-5 repetitions for greater
accuracy).
6. Use the estimation chart in Appendix B
to calculate 1RM.
◆ ◆ LOWER
EXTREMITY STRENGTH
ASSESSMENT: SQUAT
Purpose: This assessment is designed
to estimate the one-repetition squat
maximum and overall lower body
strength. This test can also be used to
determine training intensities for the
squat exercise.
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /37
This is considered an advanced Movement
assessment (for strength-specific 1. Warm up with a light resistance that
goals) and, as such, may not be suitable can be easily performed for 8-10
for many clients. Generally speaking, repetitions.
as with the bench press, health and 2. Rest for 1 minute.
fitness professionals should not use 3. Add 30-40 pounds (or 10-20% of initial
this assessment for clients with general load) and perform 3-5 repetitions.
fitness or weight-loss goals. They should
reserve this assessment for MMA athletes
or fitness enthusiasts with specific FIGURE 3.27
strength goals. Squat 1RM test
Procedure
Position
1. Feet should be shoulder-width apart,
pointed straight ahead, with the
knees in line with the toes. The low-
back should be in a neutral position
(Figure 3.27).

4. Rest for 2 minutes
5. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the individual
achieves failure between 2 and 10
repetitions (3-5 repetitions for greater
accuracy).
6. Use the estimation chart in Appendix B
to calculate 1RM.
◆ ◆ DOUBLE LEG VERTICAL JUMP
Purpose: This assessment is designed to
measure total body bilateral power.
FIGURE 3.28
Double leg vertical jump
Procedure
Position
1. Position the client perpendicular to
a wall 6 to 8 inches away. Set the feet
shoulder-width apart and torso upright.
2. Measure the standing reach of the client
with one arm fully extended upward.
Movement
1. Direct your client from a standing
position to jump explosively upward. The
client can perform a countermovement
or squat prior to the jump if the feet
maintain contact with the floor.
2. Instruct the client to touch the
wall at the highest point of the
countermovement jump (Figure 3.28).
FIGURE 3.29
Double leg horizontal jump
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /38
3. Measure the height difference
between the standing reach and
jumping height.
4. Perform the test three times and
measure the highest jump from the
floor to the point of contact with
the wall.
5. No shuffle step, side step, drop step, or
gather step is allowed. (Client should go
straight down and straight up).
◆ ◆ DOUBLE
LEG HORIZONTAL
JUMP (LONG JUMP)
Purpose: This assessment is designed
to measure total body bilateral power in
a more dynamic fashion by jumping for
distance rather than height.
Procedure
Position
1. Extend a tape measure along a non-
skid surface and make a start line with
athletic tape.
Movement
1. Direct your client to jump forward as far
as possible (Figure 3.29).
2. Record the relative distance from the
edge of the starting line (edge closest
to the landing point) to the client’s
heel or body part nearest to the
starting line.
3. If you client falls backwards, record the
distance from the body part nearest the
starting line.

◆ ◆ 300-YARD SHUTTLE
Purpose: This test measures total anaerobic
endurance.
Procedure
1. Marker cones and lines are placed 25
yards apart to indicate the sprint distance.
2. The client starts with a foot on one
line. When instructed by the timer,
the client runs to the opposite 25-
yard line, touches it with their foot,
turns, and run back to the starting line
(Figure 3.30).
3. The client performs 6 repetitions
without stopping (covering 300 yards
total). After a five-minute rest, the test
is repeated.
4. Record the time of both trials.
FIGURE 3.30
300-yard shuttle
SUMMARY
A health and fitness professional’s
primary responsibility is to safely and
effectively guide clients and MMA athletes
to successful attainment of their goals.
Doing so requires a comprehensive
understanding of an individual’s
background as well as their physical
capabilities and desires. The fitness
assessment process is a comprehensive
tool to systematically gather subjective and
objective information about clients and use
the information appropriately. The client’s
program is only as good as the assessment
process, making it crucial to take this
portion of the training very seriously and
making it as specific to the needs of the
client as possible.
Chapter 3: Human Performance Testing and Evaluation   /39
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CHAPTER 4
INTEGRATED PROGRAM
DESIGN FOR MMA TRAINING
When designing integrated MMA conditioning programs, health and
fitness professionals need to develop the right blend of exercise training
OBJECTIVES knowledge, experience, and skills. At a minimum, health and fitness professionals should be able to
After studying this chapter, answer the following questions with confidence:
you should be able to:
⦁⦁ What exercises are most appropriate for my client?
• Describe the Training
⦁⦁ What exercises are contraindicated for my client?
Camp Program.
⦁⦁ What exercise intensities are appropriate for my client?
• Understand the individual
components that ⦁⦁ How many exercises are appropriate for my client?
comprise the Training ⦁⦁ How many sets and repetitions should I have my client perform?
Camp Program. ⦁⦁ How many days per week should my client train?
• Understand how to
cater the Training Camp
Without possessing the appropriate knowledge and education to answer these questions, health and fitness professionals
Program for clients
with limited time or may design inappropriate, ineffective, or even unsafe training programs for their clients. In an effort to help health and
physical capabilities fitness professionals design safe and effective training programs based on the individual needs of clients, NASM recommends
following structured, scientifically based program design strategies.

The training program should be a methodical approach to improve physical, physiologic, psychological, and performance
adaptations that are consistent to the needs of mixed martial arts. The best way to achieve consistent, superior results is to
follow a structured, systematic, and progressive training program (1-12), as seen in the Training Camp Program. Evidence also

exists that an integrated (multifaceted)
program including flexibility; core;
balance; plyometric; speed, agility,
and quickness (SAQ); resistance; and
cardiorespiratory training can decrease
injury, improve performance, and
alter body composition (13-30). This
also holds true when designing MMA
training programs.
PRINCIPLE OF ADAPTATION
The purpose of an MMA conditioning
program is to provide a pathway to help
clients achieve their health, fitness, and
sports performance goals. To be able
to effectively create exercise training
programs, health and fitness professionals
need to understand the principle
of adaptation.
One of the many unique qualities of the
human body is its ability to adapt or
adjust its functional capacity to meet the
desired needs (31-38). The ability of the
human body to respond and adapt to an
exercise stimulus is perhaps one of the
most important factors of training and
conditioning. Some form of adaptation is
the primary goal of most exercise training
programs. Whether the goal is cosmetic in
nature, or health or performance related,
MMA-style conditioning produces
a variety of desirable effects (39-44).
(Table 4.1).
◆ ◆ THE
PRINCIPLE OF SPECIFICITY:
THE SAID PRINCIPLE
The principle of specificity, often referred
to as the SAID (specific adaptation to
imposed demands) principle, states that
the body will specifically adapt to the type
of demand placed on it. For example, if
an MMA athlete repeatedly lifts heavy
weights, that person will produce higher
levels of maximal strength. If an MMA
athlete repeatedly lifts lighter weights for
many repetitions, that person will develop
higher levels of muscular endurance.
According to the principle of specificity,
MMA training programs should reflect the
desired outcomes. When applying the SAID
principle to MMA training, remember that
TABLE 4.1
Adaptive benefits from a conditioning program
Physiological
Improved cardiovascular efficiency
Beneficial endocrine and serum lipid adaptations
Increased bone density
Increased lean body mass
Decreased body fat
Increased metabolic efficiency
Decreased physiological stress
Performance
Increased tissue tensile strength
Increased power
Increased endurance
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /41
the body is made up of many types of tissues, intensities, proper postural stabilization
and these tissues may respond differently to is required. Therefore, tissues need to
the same stimulus. To make the principle of be trained differently to prepare them
specificity a safe and effective tool, it must for higher levels of training. This is the
be used appropriately. specific purpose behind periodization
When applying the SAID principle to MMA training,
remember that the body is made up of many types of
tissues, and these tissues may respond differently to
the same stimulus. To make the principle of specificity a
safe and effective tool, it must be used appropriately.
For example, type I muscle fibers function and the progressive nature of the Training
differently than type II muscle fibers. Camp Program.
Type I (slow-twitch) muscle fibers are
smaller in diameter, slower to produce The degree of adaptation that occurs
maximal tension, and more resistant to during training is directly related to the
fatigue. Type I fibers are important for mechanical, neuromuscular, and metabolic
muscles that need to produce long-term specificity of the training program (33‑35).
contractions necessary for stabilization, Health and fitness professionals need
endurance, and postural control such as to consistently evaluate the need to
the muscles that stabilize the spine and manipulate the exercise routine to
peripheral joints. help clients meet actual training goals.
Remember: the body can only adapt if it
Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers are has a reason to adapt.
larger in size, quick to produce maximal
tension, and fatigue more quickly than Mechanical specificity refers to the weight
type I fibers. These fibers are important for and movements placed on the body (33,35).
muscles producing movements requiring Developing muscular endurance of the legs
force and power, such as performing requires light weights and high repetitions
strikes and kicks. To train with higher when performing leg-related exercises.

To develop maximal strength in the chest,
heavy weights must be used during chest-
related exercises.
Neuromuscular specificity refers to the
speed of muscular contraction and body
position (45-47). To develop higher levels
of stability while pushing, chest exercises
will need to be performed with controlled,
unstable exercises, at slower speeds
(Figure 4.1). To develop higher levels of
strength, exercises should be performed
in more stable environments with heavier
loads to place more of an emphasis on the
prime movers (Figure 4.2). To develop
higher levels of power, low-weight, high-
velocity contractions must be performed in
a plyometric manner (Figure 4.3).
FIGURE 4.1
Training for stability
Metabolic specificity refers to the energy
demand placed on the body. To develop
cardiovascular and muscular endurance,
MMA training requires prolonged bouts of
exercise, with minimal rest periods between
sets (39-44). Endurance training primarily
uses aerobic pathways to supply energy for
the body. To develop maximal strength or
power, training requires longer rest periods,
so the intensity of each bout of exercise
remains high. Energy is supplied primarily
via the anaerobic pathways (48‑52).
Remember that a client’s MMA
conditioning program should be designed
to meet the individual’s specific fitness and
sports performance goals. The following
example applies the concept of specificity
FIGURE 4.2
Training for strength
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /42
to an MMA athlete whose goal is body fat
reduction in order to make a certain weight
class (39‑44,50‑56).
1. Mechanically, the body burns more
calories when movements are
performed while standing (versus a
seated or lying position) and using
moderate weights. An example would be
performing standing cable rows versus
seated machine rows.
2. From a neuromuscular standpoint,
the body burns more calories when
more muscles are being used for
longer periods in controlled, unstable
environments. An example would
be performing a single-leg dumbbell
shoulder press (versus a seated machine
shoulder press).
FIGURE 4.3
Training for power
3. Metabolically, the body burns more
calories when rest periods are short to
minimize full recuperation. An example
would be to have your athlete perform
resistance training exercises in a circuit
fashion with no rests between sets.
In applying the principles of specificity
to an MMA conditioning program for
weight loss, the athlete should perform the
majority of exercises while standing and
using moderate weights. The client should
also recruit and use as many muscles
as possible during each exercise and
carefully monitor rest periods for greater
caloric expenditure.
◆ ◆ PERIODIZATION
The Training Camp Program is based
on the concept of periodization.
Periodization is a systematic approach to
program design that uses the principle of
specificity to vary the amount and type
of stress placed on the body to produce
adaptation and prevent injury. There are
two types of periodization: linear and
undulating (11,12).
Linear periodization varies the focus of
a training program at regularly planned
periods of time (e.g., weeks or months)
to elicit different adaptations in the body
(e.g., endurance, stability, strength, and
power). By intentionally cycling through

different periods (or phases) of training,
the health and fitness professional
manipulates the acute variables (e.g., sets,
reps, intensity, and rest periods) to adjust
the volume of training. And by controlling
the volume of training, periodization
allows for maximal levels of adaptation,
while minimizing overtraining and
injury (11,12,33,57,58).
Linear periodization involves two primary
objectives:
1. Dividing the training program into
distinct periods of training. The
Training Camp Program divides these
distinct periods into three rounds of
training (discussed in more detail later
in this chapter).
2. Training different energy systems and
forms of strength in each period to
control the volume of training and to
prevent injury (7,8,11,12,33).
Undulating periodization allows the
client to train at varying intensities
during the course of a week, which allows
for multiple adaptations once the client
achieves a baseline level of fitness (11,12).
For example, the client may participate in
a Round 1 workout on Monday, focusing
on aerobic endurance; a Round 2 workout
on Wednesday, focusing on muscular
strength; and a Round 3 workout on Friday,
focusing on muscular power.
◆ ◆ ADAPTATION SUMMARY
To avoid injury, MMA conditioning
programs must include carefully and
methodically planned periodization cycles
through different stages, which allows for
sufficient rest and recuperation. In addition,
different tissues in the body each respond to
different stresses, as seen in the principle of
specificity or specific adaptation to imposed
demands (SAID principle).
MMA training programs should provide
a variety of intensities and stresses to
optimize the adaptation of each tissue to
ensure the best possible results. The degree
of adaptation that occurs during training
is directly related to the mechanical,
neuromuscular, and metabolic specificity
of the training program.
TRAINING CAMP PROGRAM
In this section, the health and fitness
professional will be introduced to the
Training Camp Program, the rationale
behind it, and the various elements within.
The Training Camp Program is designed to
help clients accomplish four main goals.
1. Weight loss
2. Muscle gain
3. Improved athletic performance
4. Decreased risk for injury
Most people walking into a fitness
facility today have one or more of the
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /43
aforementioned goals. To develop a
dynamic MMA conditioning program for MMA training programs
a variety of clientele, NASM integrated should provide a variety
its Optimum Performance Training™
of intensities and stresses
(OPT™) model with the training and
conditioning techniques used by today’s
to optimize the adaptation
MMA competitors. The Training Camp of each tissue to ensure
Program provides the health and fitness the best possible results.
professional with a unique three-round The degree of adaptation
system that they can implement in one-
that occurs during training
on-one or group settings. Upon successful
completion of this section, the health
is directly related to the
and fitness professional will be able to mechanical, neuromuscular,
describe the program, its structure, and its and metabolic specificity
outcomes and adaptations. of the training program.
STRUCTURE
The Training Camp Program is designed
in a progressive manner with the focus
on continued improvement through
increasingly difficult workouts and
exercises. To be successful, each MMA
competitor must demonstrate flexibility,
core strength, multiplanar total-body
strength, speed, quickness, balance,
power, and an extremely well-conditioned
cardiorespiratory system. The Training
Camp Program is systematically designed
to improve all of these aforementioned
performance traits with each workout.
MMA competitors must also prepare
and recondition their bodies to be
able to repeatedly perform vigorous

training sessions safely and effectively
while reducing the risk of overtraining
and musculoskeletal injury. For these
reasons, the Training Camp Program also
includes Movement Prep programs to aid
in injury prevention and correct muscle
imbalances (Figure 4.4).
The Training Camp Program is comprised
of 24 distinct workouts designed to
target different muscle groups and
energy systems (aerobic and anaerobic).
The program consists of three rounds,
with each round made up of eight
individual workouts. Each round becomes
progressively more challenging and builds
upon the previous round (Table 4.2).
FIGURE 4.4
The Training Camp Program
The program is intended to be performed
by a participant two to three days per week
over an eight- to 12-week period, with at
least 24 hours’ rest between workouts
to facilitate recovery. The goal of any
participant starting the program should be
to complete all workouts in 12 weeks.
Health and fitness professionals can tout
the program as the same type of training
MMA competitors perform leading up to
a match. Winning a championship match
is the goal of a MMA athlete. As such,
participants completing the Training Camp
Program should be looked at as winning a
championship once they have completed
all 24 workouts. Along the way, clients will
achieve significant improvements in body
composition (e.g., fat loss and muscle gain),
aerobic fitness, and performance traits
(e.g., strength, speed, and power).
TABLE 4.2
Overview of the Training Camp Program
Round Workouts
1 8
2 8
3 8
All rounds 24
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /44
OUTCOMES AND ADAPTATIONS
As discussed earlier, one of the unique
qualities of the human body is its ability
to adapt to stress. This is perhaps the
root of all training and conditioning
programs. The desire to seek an adaptation
is the driving force behind most clients’
ambitions and training programs.
Whether the goal is fat loss, muscle gain,
or improved health or performance, the
Training Camp Program has shown to
produce many desirable effects. Some
positive outcomes and adaptations a
client may experience include improved
flexibility, posture, coordination, muscular
endurance, muscular hypertrophy, power,
quickness, and cardiorespiratory fitness.
These adaptations will in turn help clients
lose weight, increase lean muscle mass, and
improve athletic performance.
◆ ◆ WEIGHT LOSS
Losing weight and decreasing body fat
requires burning more calories than are
consumed (59). The Training Camp Program
is a circuit-training model that integrates
progressively challenging cardiorespiratory,
plyometric, core, and resistance-training
exercises to increase participants’ overall
caloric burn and metabolism (60-64).
As workouts provide more volume and
become harder, the body’s metabolic
The desire to seek an
adaptation is the driving
force behind most
clients’ ambitions and
training programs.
demand increases, and caloric expenditure
consequently increases (60-64). When
participants combine the exercise
program with proper nutrition strategies,
they can expect remarkable physical
transformations to accomplish their body-
composition goal.
◆ ◆ MUSCULAR HYPERTROPHY
Muscular hypertrophy is the enlargement
of skeletal muscle fibers in response to
being recruited to develop increased
levels of tension, as seen in resistance
training (65). Although the visible signs
of hypertrophy may not be apparent for
four to eight weeks in an untrained client,
the process begins in the early stages of
training, regardless of the intensity of
training used (66-69).
Resistance training protocols involving
progressive overload help to increase
muscular hypertrophy in both younger
and older men and women alike (1,8,70‑75).
Through the combination of a well-balanced

diet and increased caloric consumption,
with increased training volume, muscles
will be forced to increase their cellular
makeup and increase in size (76). The
Training Camp Program increases muscular
hypertrophy by combining a high volume
of strength training exercises with limited
rest periods to create an anabolic hormonal
environment necessary for optimal
muscle gain.
◆ ◆ ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
The Training Camp Program enables
clients to enhance their ability to
accelerate, decelerate, and dynamically
stabilize their entire body during higher-
velocity acceleration and deceleration
movements in all planes of motion (such
as striking, kicking and grappling).
In addition, MMA conditioning may
further help the nervous system enhance
muscular recruitment and coordination,
and improve overall cardiorespiratory
fitness (39-44,50,51).
MOVEMENT PREP PROGRAMS
The best approach to minimizing injury
risk is through a comprehensive injury
prevention strategy, which requires
a well-conditioned musculoskeletal
system, including ideal mobility and
strength, as well as a systematic and
periodized training regimen to avoid
overuse injuries.
There can be confusion when attempting
to determine the most appropriate
exercises for preventing musculoskeletal
dysfunction and injury, especially in the
sport of MMA. The most effective option
may be a systematic selection process
based on the specific movement patterns
observed during specific movement
assessments (discussed in Chapter 3).
Because altered movement patterns are
believed to be one of the primary causes
of musculoskeletal dysfunction, a logical
approach to preventing these injuries
would be to select exercises that correct
these faulty movement patterns. Thus,
prevention exercises will focus on a
systematic progression to correct these
undesirable movement patterns.
Solving identified neuromusculoskeletal
problems and faulty movement patterns
will require a systematic plan. This plan
is known as the Corrective Exercise
Continuum (Figure 4.5)
The Corrective Exercise Continuum
includes four primary phases.
1. Inhibit. Inhibitory techniques release
tension and decrease activity of
overactive neuromyofascial tissues
in the body. This can be accomplished
through the use of self-myofascial
release techniques (e.g., a foam roller).
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /45
FIGURE 4.5
Corrective Exercise Continuum
2. Lengthen. Lengthening techniques
increase the extensibility, length, and
range of motion of neuromyofascial
tissues in the body. This can be
accomplished through the use of
static stretching.
3. Activate. Activation techniques
re‑educate and increase neural
activation of underactive tissues.
This can be accomplished through
the use of isolated (single-joint)
strengthening exercises.
4. Integrate. Functional multijoint
movement techniques retrain the
collective synergistic function of
all muscles.
Upon the conclusion of various movement
assessments (e.g., overhead squat test
and single-leg squat test), the health
and fitness professional should provide
a Movement Prep program best suited
for clients based on their individual
movement compensations. Each
Movement Prep program is specifically
designed to assist with the correction of
impairments with the:
⦁⦁ Feet
⦁⦁ Knees
⦁⦁ Hips and low-back
⦁⦁ Shoulders
⦁⦁ Combo (upper and lower extremities)
Ideally, clients should perform Movement
Prep programs as a warm-up prior to
the Training Camp Program. They can
also complete Movement Prep programs
on off days to help the body recover
from vigorous activity. These programs
are a form of active rest, and they can
be especially beneficial for clients and
athletes alike.

ROUND 1 TRAINING
The first round of training in the Training
Camp Program focuses on the adaptation
of stabilization and achieving an aerobic
baseline level of fitness. This period is
as crucial for the beginner as it is for the
experienced MMA athlete coming back
from a detrained state.
It is also necessary to cycle back through
after periods of intense MMA conditioning
in order to maintain a high degree of core
and joint stability. In addition, it allows
the body to rest from more intense bouts
of training. Round 1 Training follows many
of the same training strategies seen in the
stabilization level of the OPT model.
The goals of Round 1 Training include the
following:
⦁⦁ Improve muscular endurance.
⦁⦁ Improve aerobic capacity (develop an
aerobic base).
⦁⦁ Enhance joint stability.
⦁⦁ Increase flexibility.
⦁⦁ Enhance control of posture.
⦁⦁ Improve neuromuscular efficiency
(muscular coordination).
ROUND 2 TRAINING
The second round of the Training Camp
Program focuses on the adaptations
of strength endurance, muscular
hypertrophy, and continuing to improve
cardiorespiratory fitness. It is intended to
be done at a medium tempo, with shorter
rest periods within the workouts than in
Round 1.
Round 2 Training is designed to maintain
stability while increasing the amount of
stress placed upon the body to increase
muscle size and strength. This period of
training is a necessary progression to develop
muscle size and strength and to improve
overall performance. Round 2 Training
follows many of the same training strategies
seen in the strength level of the OPT model.
The goals of Round 2 Training include the
following:
⦁⦁ Improve stabilization endurance and
increase prime mover strength.
⦁⦁ Improve overall work capacity.
⦁⦁ Enhance muscular endurance.
⦁⦁ Increase lean body mass.
⦁⦁ Increase the load-bearing capabilities of
muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints .
⦁⦁ Increase the volume of training with
more reps, sets, and intensity.
⦁⦁ Increase metabolic demand by taxing the
ATP-PC and glycolytic energy systems.
ROUND 3 TRAINING
The client should only enter the third
round of training after successful
completion of the first two. This level of
training emphasizes the development
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /46
of power, quickness, and metabolic
(anaerobic) conditioning, and simulates The client should only enter
the intensity of being in the octagon during the third round of training
an MMA match. Round 3 Training follows
after successful completion
many of the same training strategies seen
in the power level of the OPT model.
of the first two. This level
of training emphasizes the
The goals of Round 3 Training include the development of power,
following: quickness, and metabolic
⦁⦁ Enhance prime mover strength.
(anaerobic) conditioning,
⦁⦁ Increase rate of force production
(power).
and simulates the intensity
⦁⦁ Enhance reaction time (quickness). of being in the octagon
⦁⦁ Improve metabolic conditioning. during an MMA match.
WORKOUT OVERVIEW
Each workout is structured with eight
distinct sections. These sections include
the following:
1. Preworkout stretch
2. Cardio warm-up
3. Dynamic warm-up
4. Quickness training
5. Performance prep instruction
6. Performance prep
7. Ultimate performance instruction
8. Ultimate performance
Tables 4.6 to 4.13 on the following page
provide the rationale and details as to the
purpose, location (keep in mind that not
all facilities are the same), equipment,
duration, and selection of exercises used
within the program.
 Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /47

TABLE 4.6 TABLE 4.10

Preworkout stretch Performance prep instruction
Increase the participant’s flexibility using static stretching to provide optimal range of Health and fitness professional instructs and prepares participant for performance
Purpose motion at designated joints. This is the first step in the client’s warm-up process. Purpose prep section.

Duration 4 min Duration 2 to 5 min, based on round

Calf stretch, hamstring stretch, kneeling hip flexor stretch, latissimus dorsi stretch, and
Exercises pectoral stretch.
TABLE 4.11
Performance prep
TABLE 4.7
Increase the participant’s lean muscle mass through multiplanar exercises and improve
Cardio warm-up Purpose the participant’s cardiorespiratory efficiency through high-paced, interval‑style routines
based on the round and workout.
Continue the client’s warm-up by providing 5 min of cardiorespiratory training. The cardio
Purpose warm-up generally consists of several scripted jump rope drills to help elevate heart Duration 8 to 10 min, depending on round
and breathing rates. Other modalities such as a treadmill, elliptical, stationary bicycle, or
Airdyne can be substituted for jump rope drills. Exercises Multiplanar and varied in intensity, tempo, duration, and movement patterns
Duration 5 min

Exercises Multiple and varied in tempo, direction, and difficulty. TABLE 4.12
Ultimate performance instruction
TABLE 4.8 Health and fitness professional instructs and prepares participant for ultimate
Purpose performance section.
Dynamic warm-up
Duration 3 min
Continue to warm-up the participant’s body and enhance joint range of motion through a
Purpose series of dynamic stretches.

Duration 5 min TABLE 4.13

Exercises High knee, knee/ankle, lateral movement (left/right), forward lunge with twist, Spider‑Man, Ultimate performance
backward lunge, Frankenstein, and lateral bear crawl.
Simulate a professional fighter’s training routine using functional strength and
cardiovascular training methods in a highly charged, nonstop environment that mirrors
Purpose the energy requirements of a mixed martial arts competition, based on the round and
TABLE 4.9 workout.
Quickness training Duration 5 to 20 min, depending on round

Enhance the participant’s ability to react and change position with maximum rate of force Exercises Multiplanar and varied in intensity, tempo, duration, and movement patterns.
Purpose production, in all planes of motion and from all body positions, during functional positions.

Duration 10 min

Multiplanar and varied in intensity, tempo, duration, and movement patterns using plate
Exercises drills, agility ladder drills, and dot drills.

COOL-DOWN
A cool-down is an important part of any
well-designed exercise program. The
Training Camp Program does not have
a cool-down section within the workout
templates only because of the total time
that the actual workouts take.
It is highly recommended that once a workout is completed,
all participants spend five to 10 minutes cooling down,
using low-intensity cardiorespiratory training.
It is highly recommended that once a
workout is completed, all participants
spend five to 10 minutes cooling down, using
low-intensity cardiorespiratory training.
The reason for this is to slowly bring the
body back to some sense of normalcy after
completing a workout and prevent blood
from pooling in the lower extremities.
The pace should be slow enough to bring
the heart rate down to within normal levels
and to allow the body to begin the recovery
process. In addition, participants should
perform three to five static stretches to reset
muscles back to their optimal resting lengths.
ALTERNATIVE PROGRAMMING
The Training Camp Program is designed
to be implemented in a progressive,
systematic fashion with an individual
or small group. Additionally, to provide
the health and fitness professional with
the utmost flexibility, there are several
alternative programming options.
Just like the NASM OPT model, the
Training Camp Program is made up of
several components that together deliver
an integrated training solution. Each of
these components can be removed and
used on its own to offer a targeted program
to an individual or group. Also, you can
skip or modify certain sections of the
Training Camp Program depending on the
conditioning level of the client.
◆ ◆ WARM-UP
The warm-up sections can be used
on their own or in conjunction with a
Movement Prep program to provide an
individual or group of people with a quick
program that can be done prior to any
activity. By addressing flexibility needs
while increasing heart rate and core
temperature, each person will be ready to
exercise, regardless of the activity they
will perform.
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /48
Additionally, the time spent jumping
rope during a warm-up can be shortened
depending on the ability level of the client.
For example, a client’s first workout
might consist of two minutes of jump
rope and progressively get longer each
workout, until the client can perform five
minutes of continuous jump rope without
undue fatigue.
◆ ◆ QUICKNESS TRAINING
The quickness training section provides
a variety exercises that can be used on
their own or with other combinations of
programming to address speed, agility, and
quickness. The quickness workouts will
provide a fun and challenging alternative,
whether the client is looking to enhance
footwork and overall speed or looking to
add something less traditional to increase
caloric expenditure.
◆ ◆ PERFORMANCE PREP
To provide a total-body workout based on
the principles of stabilization, strength,
and power, the performance prep section
provides a series of quick strength and
conditioning exercises. These exercises
can be used to target the core and specific
body parts while blending in an aerobic
conditioning element. A health and fitness
professional can use these as mini-circuits
to have clients cycle through in order to
meet the time allotment available.
◆ ◆ ULTIMATE PERFORMANCE
For any deconditioned client or client
experiencing extreme fatigue (or possible
nausea or dizziness), it will be wise to skip
the ultimate performance section of the
workout until conditioning levels improve.
These clients will instead only perform the
Movement Prep program and the warm-up,
quickness, and performance prep sections.
These total-body functional conditioning
workouts will provide each participant
with a series of exercises that integrate
stabilization, strength, and power of the
upper and lower body while challenging
the cardiorespiratory system.
◆ ◆ DAILY TRAINING AND CONDITIONING
Another alternative available for health
and fitness professionals is daily training
and conditioning (DTC). DTC is a series
of randomized daily workouts designed
for those who may not have the ability
to follow and complete a structured
training system, such as the Training
Camp Program.
The DTC series provides participants
with an assortment of challenging and
dynamic workouts that can be used at any
time. And each covers the spectrum of
fitness components for members who are
looking to improve their overall function
and conditioning.

It is highly recommended that when you
use alternative programming strategies,
you implement a proper Movement
Prep program and warm-up. Because the
Training Camp Program is set up in a
systematic fashion, a health and fitness
From the time participants begin the Training Camp Program,
they should have no more than three days off without an
additional cardiorespiratory training session, total-body
strength training session, or a Training Camp workout.
professional must consider the outcomes,
goals, and objectives of any alternative
programming and should set up the
workouts accordingly to be safe, effective,
and enjoyable. Refer to the programming
manual for more information regarding
daily training and conditioning.
AWAY FROM THE OCTAGON
To increase the effectiveness of
the Training Camp Program, it is
important for participants to do
additional training on their own. If a
client’s schedule permits, they should
perform an additional two to three
days of cardiorespiratory training
outside of the program. They can do
these additional workouts using any
mode of cardiorespiratory training
equipment (e.g., treadmill, elliptical
machine, or stationary bicycle) that the
participant chooses.
The first day should consist of a low-
intensity cardiorespiratory exercise
routine (65-75% HRmax), lasting between
30 and 45 minutes. The second day should
consist of an intermediate-intensity
exercise routine (75-85% HRmax) for about
20 minutes. The third and optional day
consists of 20 minutes of interval training.
As a general rule, intervals should start
out relatively brief with a work-to-rest
(hard-to-easy) ratio of 1:3 (e.g., 15-second
interval followed by a 45-second recovery).
Intervals typically range from 65-95%
of HRmax.
From the time participants begin the
Training Camp Program, they should
have no more than three days off without
an additional cardiorespiratory training
session, total-body strength training
session, or a Training Camp workout.
Chapter 4: Integrated Program Design for MMA Training   /49
This will help ensure that the individual
maintains the conditioning required to
progress safely and effectively throughout
the program.
SUMMARY
The Training Camp Program is designed
for clients seeking weight or fat loss,
muscle gain (hypertrophy), or improved
athletic performance. The Training Camp
Program integrates the fundamental
principles of the evidence-based NASM
OPT model with the vast array of training
and conditioning strategies used by today’s
MMA competitors.
This program provides the health and
fitness professional with a system that
they can implement with a variety of
clients in one-on-one or group settings
that will set them apart from any other
personal-training program. The program is
made up of three rounds, with each round
containing eight individual workouts
(24 total workouts). Each round becomes
progressively more challenging and builds
upon the previous round.
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adults. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2000;10(4):211–5.
62. Jurimae T, Jurimae J, Pihl E. Circulatory response to single
circuit weight and walking training sessions of similar energy cost in
middle-aged overweight females. Clin Physiol 2000;20(2):143–9.
63. Burleson MA, O’Bryant HS, Stone MH, et al. Effect of weight
training exercise and treadmill exercise on post-exercise oxygen
consumption. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998;30(4):518–22.
64. Gillette CA, Bullough RC, Melby CL. Postexercise energy
expenditure in response to acute aerobic or resistive exercise. Int J
Sport Nutr 1994;4(4):347–60.
65. Abernathy PJ, Jürimäe J, Logan PA, et al. Acute and chronic
response of skeletal muscle to resistance exercise. Sports Med
1994;17(1):22–38.
66. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Evans WJ. Strength and power training:
physiological mechanisms of adaptation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev
1996;24:363–97.
67. Mayhew TP, Rothstein JM, Finucane SD, et al. Muscular
adaptation to concentric and eccentric exercise at equal power levels.
Med Sci Sport Exer 1995;27:868–73.
68. Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, et al. Skeletal muscle
adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men
and women. J Appl Physiol 1994;76:1247–55.
69. Ahtiainen JP, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Muscle hypertrophy,
hormonal adaptations and strength development during strength
training in strength-trained and untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol.
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in response to three different resistance-training regimens:
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2002;88:50–60.
71. Brandenburg JP, Docherty D. The effects of accentuated eccentric
loading on strength, muscle hypertrophy, and neural adaptations in
trained individuals. J Strength Cond Res 2002;16:25–32.
72. Häkkinen K, Alen M, Kraemer WJ, et al. Neuromuscular
adaptations during concurrent strength and endurance training
versus strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003;89:42–52.
73. McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Fleck SJ, et al. Acute and chronic
hormonal responses to resistance training designed to promote
muscle hypertrophy. Can J Appl Physiol 1999;24(1):96–107.
74. Andersen JL, Aagaard P. Effects of strength training on muscle
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75. Schoenfeld BJ. The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and
their application to resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2010
Oct;24(10):2857-72.
CHAPTER 5
INTEGRATED TRAINING
COMPONENTS AND EXERCISE TECHNIQUES
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter,
you should be able to:
• Understand the eight
sections that comprise the
Training Camp Program.
• Understand the scientific
rationale for the exercises
used within the Training
Camp Program.
• Describe how to apply
exercise techniques in
a safe and systematic
fashion to enhance
results and decrease
the risk of injury.
The Training Camp Program teaches health
and fitness professionals how to effectively
deliver integrated, MMA-inspired conditioning
programs. It employs an easy-to-use, scientifically valid, and clinically
proven training system for individuals looking to improve their health, fitness, and
sports performance levels. This chapter provides the health and fitness professional
with the scientific rationale for the exercises used within the Training Camp TABLE 5.1
Program, and how to apply these techniques in a safe and systematic fashion to Training Camp Program components
increase the benefit of each exercise while minimizing injury risk. 1 Preworkout stretch
2 Cardio warm-up
TRAINING CAMP PROGRAM SECTIONS 3 Dynamic warm-up
As mentioned in Chapter 4, the Training Camp Program is composed of 24
4 Quickness training
workouts designed to target different muscle groups and energy systems (aerobic
5 Performance prep instruction
and anaerobic). Each individual workout is structured with eight distinct sections
6 Performance prep
(Table 5.1). It is imperative that health and fitness professionals understand the
7 Ultimate performance instruction
types of exercises used within each section and how these exercises are performed to
8 Ultimate performance
maximize results and minimize the risk of injury.

◆ ◆ SECTION 1: PREWORKOUT STRETCH
Flexibility training, such as static
stretching, is a key component for all
training programs. It is used for a variety of
reasons, including the following:
⦁⦁ Correcting muscle imbalances.
⦁⦁ Increasing joint range of motion.
⦁⦁ Decreasing excessive tension of
muscles.
FIGURE 5.1
Static preworkout stretches
Static 90/90 hamstring stretch
Static gastrocnemius stretch
CHAPTER 5: Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques   /52
⦁⦁ Relieving joint stress. and holding the stretch for a minimum of martial artists to perform striking and
⦁⦁ Improving the extensibility of the 30 seconds (1,8). This is the traditional form grappling techniques with precision. Static
musculotendinous junction. of stretching that is most often seen in stretching should be used to decrease
⦁⦁ Maintaining the normal functional fitness today. It combines low force with the muscle spindle activity of a tight
length of all muscles. longer duration (1,9,10). Holding the muscle muscle before and after activity. Figure 5.1
⦁⦁ Improving neuromuscular efficiency (1,7). in a stretched position allows the muscle provides examples of static stretches
to relax and provides for better elongation that can be used during this section of the
Static stretching is the process of passively of the muscle (2,11). Optimal flexibility and program. Refer to the exercise video library
taking a muscle to the point of tension joint range of motion are integral for mixed for more examples of static stretches.
Static ball latissimus dorsi stretch
Static pectoral stretch Static kneeling hip flexor stretch

◆ ◆ SECTION 2: CARDIO WARM-UP
The cardiorespiratory portion of
a warm-up period typically lasts 5
minutes and consists of whole-body,
dynamic cardiovascular movements.
The purpose of the warm-up period is
to increase heart and respiration rates,
increase tissue temperature, increase
neural recruitment of muscle, and
psychologically prepare the client for
higher training intensities (12-15).
NASM recommends that the cardio
warm-up be performed at a low-to-
moderate intensity level. Depending
FIGURE 5.2
Cardiorespiratory warm-up activities
Jump rope
CHAPTER 5: Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques   /53
The purpose of the warm-up period is to increase heart
and respiration rates, increase tissue temperature,
increase neural recruitment of muscle, and psychologically
prepare the client for higher training intensities
on the client’s goals and objectives, have. Recommended cardiorespiratory
a health and fitness professional can warm-up activities include jumping
modify the warm-up period by either rope, walking/jogging on a treadmill, or
extending or reducing the time allotted, exercising on various cardiorespiratory
or by modifying activities based on any machines (Figure 5.2).
known or suspected medical, health,
or orthopedic limitations a client may ◆ ◆ SECTION 3: DYNAMIC WARM-UP
Dynamic stretching uses the force
production of a muscle and the body’s
momentum to take a joint through the
full available range of motion. During
the Training Camp Program, clients
will typically perform five prescribed
dynamic stretches.
Dynamic stretching improves joint range
of motion without risking a loss of strength
or power (16,17). Research also suggests
dynamic stretching may be the most
appropriate form of physical activity prior
to athletic competition for athletes with no
identified muscle imbalances (16-19).
Therefore combining static stretching (to
Treadmill
increase tissue extensibility of identified
tight muscles) with dynamic stretching
(to increase motor neuron excitability)
can improve overall pre-activity
neuromuscular coordination. NASM
recommends that clients have good levels
of tissue extensibility, core stability, and
balance capabilities before undertaking an
aggressive dynamic stretching program.
The dynamic warm-up period should
prepare the body for activity, so it is
important to monitor the intensity at which
clients are performing selected warm-up
activities to ensure they do not experience
undue fatigue before the workout portion of
their program actually begins.
Keeping the activity to a moderate duration
and intensity level will help ensure a
The dynamic warm-up
period should prepare the
body for activity, so it is
important to monitor the
intensity at which clients
are performing selected
warm-up activities to ensure
they do not experience
undue fatigue before the
workout portion of their
program actually begins.
 CHAPTER 5: Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques   /54

proper warm-up. Figure 5.3 provides FIGURE 5.3

examples of dynamic stretches that can be Dynamic stretches
used during this section of the program.
Refer to the exercise video library for more
examples of dynamic stretches.

◆ ◆ SECTION 4: QUICKNESS TRAINING

Quickness is the ability to react and
change body position with maximal
rate of force production, in all planes of
motion and from all body positions, during
functional activities. Quickness involves
the ability to assess visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic stimuli and to provide the
appropriate physical response as fast as Spider-Man
possible (e.g.,  dodging a punch, avoiding a
takedown, or counterstriking).
High knee
Quickness can be one of the most significant
components contributing to athletic
success (20,21). A quick MMA athlete is able
to assess a situation and apply the necessary
actions at a very high speed. While many
MMA athletes may possess a high level
of performance traits such as strength,
flexibility, or endurance, the MMA athlete
who can apply appropriate technical skills
at the right time at the highest rate will often
be the most successful.

Although quickness training is a widely

used and accepted way to improve sports
performance, components of quickness
Knee/ankle Forward lunge with twist
training can also significantly improve

the physical health profile of apparently
healthy sedentary adults. The increased
neuromuscular and physiological demand
for such training can aid in weight loss,
coordination, and movement proficiency,
when applied safely and effectively (22,23,24).
In addition, individuals from a variety
of populations find quickness training
fun and invigorating, increasing exercise
compliance, adherence, and effectiveness.
Quickness training drills require greater
integration of a variety of the body’s biologic
FIGURE 5.4
Quickness drills
Speed ladder drills
systems. An individual must accelerate,
decelerate, and change direction in
response to a variety of both predictable
and unpredictable stimuli at a relatively
high rate of speed. Thus, quickness training
provides a unique challenge, facilitating
constant responses and adaptation.
Because of the elevated intensity with
quickness training protocols, health and
fitness professionals must perform extensive
client evaluations for exercise experience,
movement quality, health history, and injury
Dot drills
CHAPTER 5: Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques   /55
profile before implementing quickness
training exercises. Figure 5.4 provides
examples of quickness drills that can be used
during this section of the program. Refer to
the exercise video library for more examples
of quickness drills.
◆ ◆ SECTION
5: PERFORMANCE
PREP INSTRUCTION
During performance prep instruction, the
health and fitness professional instructs
participants and prepares them for
performance prep section. During this
Plate drills
time, health and fitness professionals
should be proactive to make sure verbal
messages are clear and that the client
interprets them correctly. For this to
occur, health and fitness professionals
need to speak clearly and concisely when
providing exercise instruction to capture
the participants’ attention.
This instructional period will last
anywhere from 2 to 5 minutes, depending
on the structure of the workout. This gives
participants a chance to rest. Rest intervals
 CHAPTER 5: Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques   /56

have a dramatic effect on the outcome of
the training program (25‑28). Inadequate rest
intervals can decrease performance and can
lead to altered movement patterns and even
injury. Conversely, if rest periods are too
long, the potential effects include decreased
neuromuscular activity and decreased body
temperature (25,26,28). The training program
should establish the appropriate rest
periods based on the physical capabilities of
the participants (25‑28).
◆ ◆ SECTION 6: PERFORMANCE PREP
Based on the principles of stabilization,
strength, and power, the performance prep
section provides a series of core, balance,
and strength training exercises that can
be used to target the core (lumbo-pelvic-
hip-complex), challenge one’s balance, and
target specific body parts while blending
in an aerobic conditioning element. The
objective of these exercises is to uniformly
improve postural control, neuromuscular
coordination, and strengthen the muscles
that stabilize, align, and move the hips and
trunk of the body.
A weak core and poor balance are
fundamental problems inherent to
inefficient movement and may lead to
predictable patterns of injury (29‑34).
However, properly integrating core,
balance, and strength training exercises
can help an individual gain neuromuscular
control, stability, muscular endurance,
strength, and power.
The client should perform the exercises in
the performance prep section in a circuit
fashion and will typically complete the
entire section in 8 to 10 minutes. Figure 5.5
provides example exercises that can be
used during this section of the program.
Refer to the exercise video library for more
examples of Performance Prep exercises.

FIGURE 5.5
Performance prep exercises

Prone iso-ab (plank) Medicine ball one-arm push-up

Floor crunch

Kettlebell single-leg Romanian deadlift Medicine ball chest slams Standing kettlebell row: one arm
 CHAPTER 5: Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques   /57

◆ ◆ SECTION
7: ULTIMATE The studies found the following results: ⦁⦁ Circuit training was just as beneficial as Figure 5.6 provides examples of MMA-
PERFORMANCE INSTRUCTION ⦁⦁ Circuit training resulted in higher post traditional forms of cardiorespiratory specific exercises that can be used during this
During the ultimate performance instruction exercise metabolic rates as well as exercise for improving or contributing to section of the program. Refer to the exercise
portion of the workout, the health and fitness strength levels (35-37). improved fitness levels (35,37,38). video library for more examples.
professional instructs participants and
prepares them for the ultimate performance FIGURE 5.5
section. At this stage of the workout, MMA-specific exercise for ultimate performance
participants can be fatigued, so it is extremely
important that your messages are clear and
concise. This instructional period will last
roughly 3 minutes and gives participants
their last chance to rest and hydrate.

◆ ◆ SECTION 8: ULTIMATE PERFORMANCE

The ultimate performance section is designed
to simulate an MMA athlete’s training routine
using a multitude of functional strength and
cardiovascular training methods in a highly
charged, nonstop working environment
with the energy requirements of a mixed Skip knees Heavy bag carry Punch sprints
martial arts competition. This section will
help target all energy systems and improve
the participant’s cardiorespiratory efficiency
through high-paced circuit training routines.

Circuit training allows for comparable fitness

results without spending extended periods
of time to achieve them. Several studies
have compared the effects of circuit weight
training with those of traditional endurance
forms of exercise (e.g., treadmills, cross-
country skiing, jogging, and bicycling) in
relation to energy expenditure, strength, and
Kettlebell swings Tire flips
improving physical fitness.

EXERCISE TECHNIQUE
No matter which section of the Training
Camp Program is being implemented,
proper exercise technique and safety is
paramount. The client must explore and
understand certain precautions, such as
proper posture and breathing patterns, to
maximize the effectiveness of the program,
and, more importantly, limit the possibility
of debilitating injury.
◆ ◆ PROPER POSTURE
In order to gain the best response and
ensure safety during the Training Camp
Program, proper posture is essential.
Proper posture helps ensure proper
exercise technique and decreases
unwanted stress on the spine and joints.
Some common posture mistakes to avoid
include turning the feet outward, caving
the knees inward (knock knees), arching
the low-back, and rounding the shoulders
and head forward. These postures during
exercise are dangerous and can potentially
contribute to joint pain and injury.
Review five kinetic chain checkpoints
for each exercise to ensure that proper
technique is being demonstrated. By
maintaining proper alignment of these
five checkpoints, the effectiveness of the
exercise will be enhanced and there will be a
decreased risk of injury. Regardless of body
CHAPTER 5: Integrated Training Components and Exercise Techniques   /58
position (standing, prone, supine, multi- and cardiorespiratory fitness. As such,
directional movement or high velocities), it is the responsibility of the health and The client must explore
proper alignment at each checkpoint needs fitness professional to properly select and understand certain
to be maintained (Figure 5.7). safe yet challenging exercises. In order to
precautions, such as
accomplish this, a basic understanding of
◆ ◆ EXERCISE
PROGRESSIONS exercise progressions (making the exercise
proper posture and
AND REGRESSIONS more challenging) and regressions (making breathing patterns, to
It is up to the health and fitness the exercise easier) is important (Table 5.2). maximize the effectiveness
professional to ensure every client is of the program, and,
training in a safe environment that ◆ ◆ BREATHING
more importantly,
maximizes their performance potential. Maintaining proper breathing patterns
The health and fitness professional will during exercise is extremely important
limit the possibility of
be working with a variety of clientele, to help avoid undue fatigue and avoid debilitating injury.
all with different strengths, weaknesses spikes in blood pressure, especially for
FIGURE 5.7 TABLE 5.2
Kinetic chain checkpoints Exercise progressions and regressions
Exercise progressions Exercise regressions
Increase load (weight) Decrease load (weight)
Increase velocity (repetition tempo) Decrease velocity (repetition tempo)
Head and cervical
spine: Neutral position.
Increase volume (sets, reps) Decrease volume (sets, reps)
Shoulders: Depressed Decrease rest periods Increase rest periods
and slightly retracted
(to activate scapular Simple to complex (single-joint ➟ multiple joint) Complex to simple (multiple joint ➟ single-joint)
stabilizers).
Hips and low-back: Static to dynamic Dynamic to static
Demonstrate a neutral
pelvis.
Single plane to multiple planes (sagittal, frontal, and Multiple planes (sagittal, frontal, and transverse
Knees: Aligned between transverse planes of motion) planes of motion) to single plane
hips and toes (avoid
valgus motions). Increase proprioceptive demands Decrease proprioceptive demands
Feet: Pointing straight Two legs ➟ One leg One leg ➟ Two-legs
ahead. One leg stable (floor) ➟ One leg unstable (half One leg unstable (half foam roll, balance pad, and
foam roll, balance pad, and balance cushion ) balance cushion ) ➟ One leg stable (floor)
Two arms ➟ Alternating arms Alternating arms ➟ Two arms
Alternating arms ➟ One arm One arm ➟ Alternating arms

clients with chronic diseases such as
hypertension or other forms of heart
disease. Correct breathing ensures the
body is receiving adequate amounts of
oxygen for working muscles.
Proper breathing includes exhaling during
the most strenuous phase of the concentric
movement (the sticking point), and inhaling
during the eccentric phase. Avoid the
Valsalva maneuver (exhaling against a closed
glottis) because it can raise blood pressure
and cause headaches, dizziness or fainting
(40). Proper breathing during strenuous
activity cannot be overemphasized.
SUMMARY
The Training Camp Program is structured
into eight distinct sections:
1. Preworkout stretch
2. Cardio warm-up
3. Dynamic warm-up
4. Quickness training
5. Performance prep instruction
6. Performance prep
7. Ultimate performance instruction
8. Ultimate performance
It is imperative for health and fitness
professionals to understand the scientific
rationale of exercises used within each
section and how these exercises are
performed to maximize results and
minimize injury risk.
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CHAPTER 6
INJURY PREVENTION AND
MOVEMENT PREP PROGRAMS
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter,
you should be able to:
• Rationalize the need for
movement prep programs
(corrective exercise).
• Understand and
describe the Corrective
Exercise Continuum.
• Incorporate corrective
exercises into a
participant’s program
to help decrease
the risk of injury.
The Training Camp Program employs high-intensity, circuit-based
strength training techniques to help participants achieve remarkable
levels of physical fitness. As mentioned in Chapter 4, to minimize the risk of common musculoskeletal
injuries associated with high-intensity training, participants should also incorporate movement prep programs (corrective
exercise) to maximize recovery and regeneration. This chapter will review common injuries that occur in athletics and the
rationale for movement prep programs to aid in injury prevention.
RATIONALE FOR MOVEMENT PREP PROGRAMS
Research suggests that musculoskeletal pain is more common now than it was 40 years ago (1). Very specific injuries, such as
ankle sprains, anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, low-back pain and shoulder pain, create an enormous challenge to
MMA athletes and fitness enthusiasts alike. MMA strength training and conditioning requires high-intensity cutting and
jumping, and participants are particularly affected by injuries from overtraining, poor neuromuscular control, arthrokinetic
( joint) dysfunction, or improper biomechanics. The number of injuries to joint areas such as the foot and ankle, knees, hips,
low-back, and shoulders is staggering and necessitates a comprehensive programming strategy to help prevent injury or
recondition individuals once an injury has occurred.

◆ ◆ FOOT AND ANKLE INJURIES
Ankle sprains are the most common
sports-related injuries (2). Individuals who
suffer a lateral ankle sprain are at risk for
developing chronic ankle instability (3).
Individuals may experience hip weakness
after an ankle sprain (4).
◆ ◆ LOW-BACK PAIN
Low-back pain affects nearly 80% of all
adults (5,6). In addition, 6-15% of athletes
experience low-back pain in a given
year (7,8). The symptoms associated with
generalized low-back pain take 4-6 weeks
to resolve (9).
Individuals who suffer one low-back
injury are significantly more likely to
suffer additional low-back injuries, further
increasing their time lost for training
and competition (10). Repeated injuries to
the back may predispose the individual
to future osteoarthritis and long term
disability. Because of the high incidence
of recurrent back injury, prevention of the
first injury is the most effective means to
promote health and performance.
◆ ◆ KNEE INJURIES
The incidence of knee injuries is also a
concern. An estimated 80,000 to 100,000
ACL injuries occur annually in the general
U.S. population. Approximately 70-75%
of these are noncontact injuries (11-17).
CHAPTER 6: Injury Prevention and Movement Prep Programs   /61
neuromyofascial tissues in the body. This
Repeated injuries to the back may predispose the can be accomplished through the use of
individual to future osteoarthritis and long term self-myofascial release techniques (e.g., a
foam roller).
disability. Because of the high incidence of recurrent
back injury, prevention of the first injury is the most By applying gentle force to an adhesion or
effective means to promote health and performance. knot, the elastic muscle fibers are altered
from a bundled position (which causes
the adhesion) into a straighter alignment
In addition, ACL injuries have a strong as the Corrective Exercise Continuum with the direction of the muscle or
correlation to acquiring arthritis in the (Figure 6.1). The Corrective Exercise fascia (23-25). The gentle pressure (similar
affected knee (18). Continuum includes four primary phases. to a massage) breaks up knots within the
1. Inhibit muscle and helps to release unwanted
◆ ◆ SHOULDER INJURIES 2. Lengthen muscular tension.
Shoulder pain is reported to occur in up 3. Activate
to 21% of the general population with 4. Integrate It is crucial to note that when a person is
40% persisting for at least one year at an using self-myofascial release, he or she
estimated annual cost of $39 billion (19‑22). ◆ ◆ INHIBIT must find a tender spot (which indicates
Shoulder impingement is the most The first phase is Inhibit. In this phase, the the presence of muscle hypertonicity)
prevalent diagnosis, accounting for 40-65% client uses inhibitory techniques to release and sustain pressure on that spot for
of reported shoulder pain. tension or decrease activity of overactive a minimum of 30 seconds. It may take
The persistent nature of shoulder pain may
be the result of degenerative changes to the FIGURE 6.1
shoulder’s joint capsule and surrounding Corrective Exercise Continuum
ligaments, articular cartilage, and tendons
as the result of altered shoulder mechanics.
COMPONENTS OF MOVEMENT
PREP PROGRAMS
The movement prep programs use
a systematic plan to help solve
neuromusculoskeletal problems and faulty
movement patterns. This plan is known

longer, depending on the client’s ability to
consciously relax.
Self-myofascial release is suggested
before stretching because breaking up
fascial adhesions may potentially improve
the tissue’s ability to lengthen through
stretching techniques. In addition,
it can be used during the cool-down
process. Figure 6.2 provides examples
of self-myofascial release techniques.
Refer to the exercise video library for
more examples.
◆ ◆ LENGTHEN
The second phase is Lengthen.
Lengthening techniques are used to
increase the extensibility, length, and range
of motion of neuromyofascial tissues in
the body (26-31). This can be accomplished
through the use of static stretching.
Static stretching is arguably the most
common form of stretching seen in
the fitness community. A participant
passively extends a joint to the first
point of tension and holds this position
for a minimum of 30 seconds. Holding a
stretched position for a prolonged period
allows for better elongation of the muscle
and joint range of motion (26-31). See
Chapter 5 for examples of static stretches.
Refer to the exercise video library for
more examples.
CHAPTER 6: Injury Prevention and Movement Prep Programs   /62
◆ ◆ ACTIVATE FIGURE 6.2
The third phase is Activate. Activation Self-myofascial release techniques
refers to the stimulation (or re-education)
of underactive myofascial tissue through the
use of isolated strengthening techniques.
Because human muscle imbalance includes
both overactive and underactive muscles,
a comprehensive corrective strategy must SMR: Latissimus dorsi
also address the underactive muscles.
Isolated strengthening includes primarily
single-joint resistance exercises,
performed through a full range of motion,
that are used to isolate particular muscles SMR: Calves SMR: IT band
to increase force production capabilities
and intramuscular coordination. The
eccentric component involved with
isolated strengthening also plays a
role in the recovery of muscle injury,
tendonopathies, and in preparation for
integrated training (32-36).
SMR: Adductors SMR: Thoracic spine
Isolated strengthening can be performed
3-5 days per week depending on the
intensity and volume used. One to two
sets of 10-15 repetitions is suitable prior
to an integrated exercise program. Each
repetition will consist of a 2-second
isometric hold at end range of motion and
a four-second eccentric component (36).
Figure 6.3 on the following page provides
examples of isolated strengthening
exercises. Refer to the exercise video
library for more examples.
 CHAPTER 6: Injury Prevention and Movement Prep Programs   /63

FIGURE 6.3
Isolated strengthening exercises

Side-lying leg raises Ball bridge

Medial gastrocnemius

Standing tubing external rotation Anterior tibialis


◆ ◆ INTEGRATE
The fourth and final phase is Integrate.
In this phase, the client uses multijoint
integrated dynamic movement techniques.
Integrated dynamic movement involves
the use of dynamic, total-body exercises
to help retrain the collective synergistic
function of all muscles.
Many injuries occur during eccentric
deceleration in the frontal and transverse
FIGURE 6.4
Isolated strengthening exercises
Ball squat to overhead press
planes as a result of the inability to control
postural alignment (12-15). This shows the
importance of using multijoint exercises
in all planes of motion from both bilateral
and unilateral stances. Doing so will help
increase intermuscular coordination and
re-educate the neuromuscular system to
maintain proper postural alignment during
functional activity (1,16,17,19). This helps re-
establish postural control and decrease the
risk of injury.
Squat to row
CHAPTER 6: Injury Prevention and Movement Prep Programs   /64
Integrated dynamic movement involves
low load (light weight) and controlled
movement in ideal posture. These
exercises can be safely performed
anywhere from 3-5 days per week
depending on the intensity and volume
used. Appropriate acute variables include
1-3 sets of 10-15 repetitions with a slow
and controlled tempo. Generally, only
one to two integrated dynamic movement
exercises are necessary, though others
can be incorporated if desired. Figure 6.4
provides examples of integration exercises.
Refer to the exercise video library for
more examples.
APPLICATION
As mentioned in Chapters 3 and 4,
movement assessments such as the
overhead squat and single-leg squat tests
help determine what muscles need to be
addressed using these corrective exercise
Step-up to overhead press
 CHAPTER 6: Injury Prevention and Movement Prep Programs   /65

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rest and can be especially beneficial
for clients.
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In working with today’s typical clients
and MMA athletes, who more than likely
possess muscle imbalances, health and
fitness professionals must use special
consideration when designing MMA
conditioning programs. To help aid in
injury prevention and recovery from
intense MMA-inspired workouts, health
and fitness professionals should include
movement prep programs designed to
address musculoskeletal dysfunction and
correct faulty movement patterns.
Movement prep programs include the four
phases of Corrective Exercise Continuum.
1. Inhibit
2. Lengthen
3. Activate
4. Integrate
Health and fitness professionals need to
be proficient in teaching these programs to
maximize their client’s success.
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CHAPTER 7
COACHING AND PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter,
you should be able to:
• Observe best practices
and facility policies to
minimize the risk of injury.
• Successfully and safely
implement a Training
Camp Program in a variety
of settings, including
traditional one-on-one
and small group training.
• Learn to effectively
communicate, coach, and
motivate clients during an
MMA training session.
Health and fitness professionals must implement and deliver integrated
fitness programs, such as the Training Camp Program, for a variety of
clients in multiple settings. Clients often have different goals, needs, and abilities. The Training Camp
Program is designed to accommodate these diversities; however, health and fitness professionals must be prepared to provide a
proper environment so each client has a chance to succeed with minimal injury risk.
This chapter explores gym safety, program operations, communication, motivation, and coaching techniques to safely and
effectively implement the Training Camp Program. A thorough understanding of these necessities is essential for the health
and fitness professional to appropriately train people who are looking for someone to give them the plan, tools, and support
required to achieve their goals.
GYM SAFETY
The Training Camp Program is dynamic and intense and often involves multiple people and equipment. As such, health and fitness
professionals and their clients must adhere to all best practices and facility policies to minimize the risk of injury or weight room-
related accidents. Best practices, rules, and policies are important because they provide participants with guidelines for keeping
a safe, clean, and professional environment for all to enjoy. The following is a basic checklist health and fitness professionals and
their clients should follow to help ensure the Training Camp Program is facilitated in the safest way possible (1).

◆ ◆ SAFETY CHECKLIST
⦁⦁ All Training Camp Programs should
take place during hours of operation.
No one is allowed to participate in
⦁⦁
the Training Camp Program without
qualified supervision.
⦁⦁ Prior to participation in the Training
Camp Program, all participants
must undergo a thorough fitness
assessment process.
⦁⦁ Clients with chronic disease (e.g., heart
disease, diabetes, or osteoporosis) or
moderate-to-severe musculoskeletal
limitations (e.g., low-back pain, knee
pain, or shoulder pain) must produce
a signed medical release form prior
to participation.
⦁⦁ Participants of the Training Camp
Program should not use unfamiliar
equipment without proper instruction.
⦁⦁ Participants must observe gym
etiquette at all times.
⦁⦁ Horseplay is not allowed.
⦁⦁ Clients and health and fitness
professionals must wear proper
workout attire at all times.
⦁⦁ Individuals must demonstrate proper
respect for all gym equipment. Do not
throw dumbbells or barbells at any time.
⦁⦁ All equipment needs to be returned to
its proper rack when finished.
⦁⦁ Health and fitness professionals must
ensure all equipment is in proper
working condition.
⦁⦁ Health and fitness professionals must
keep the pathway to equipment clear
and maintain a safe distance from other
participants during exercise.
⦁⦁ Participants must stop exercising if
they feel faint, dizzy, light-headed,
or nauseous.
⦁⦁ Participants must stop or regress an
exercise if they can’t maintain proper
posture and exercise technique.
⦁⦁ Health and fitness professionals must
be able to maintain a line of sight and
monitor all clients at all times during
the exercise program.
⦁⦁ Health and fitness professionals must
report any problems, accidents, injuries,
or broken equipment in accordance
with facility policies and procedures.
PROGRAM OPERATIONS
Health and fitness professionals need to
design and administer exercise programs
that are fun, safe, efficient, and effective
using a multitude of strength training
methods and modes.
This requires health and fitness
professionals to employ proper
preparation, organization, and
management skills, combined with
the implementation of exercises in a
structured and progressive manner. When
combined, these attributes maximize
adherence and minimize the risk of injury.
CHAPTER 7: Coaching and Program Implementation   /67
◆ ◆ OPERATIONS FOR ONE-ON-ONE TRAINING
The design of the Training Camp Program The design of the
requires the health and fitness professional Training Camp Program
to be organized and systematic in how he
requires the health and
or she conducts a training session. Because
of its intense nature, the health and fitness
fitness professional to be
professional must be alert and attentive organized and systematic
at all times in order to minimize accidents in how he or she conducts
and injury risk. Use the tools provided a training session.
in the programming manual, such as
templates and forms, to minimize the time
spent focusing on the logistical aspects of
the program.
Health and fitness professionals should
come to every exercise session prepared to
conduct the exercise program as smoothly
as possible. For example, the health
and fitness professional should arrange
exercise equipment and circuit-training
stations ahead of time to allow for seamless
and continuous activity.
Throughout the Training Camp Program,
health and fitness professionals must
be cognizant of their client’s exercise
technique. If a client is unable to maintain
proper postural control, the exercise
must be regressed accordingly. For
example, clients who lack upper body
and core strength often perform push-
ups with excessive scapular winging.
In this instance, the health and fitness
professional should regress the client to a
 CHAPTER 7: Coaching and Program Implementation   /68

kneeling push-up until the client builds the
necessary strength to perform a traditional
push-up with precise technique.
◆ ◆ OPERATIONS FOR GROUP TRAINING
The Training Camp Program is perhaps
best implemented in a small group setting
with a recommended group size between
four to eight participants, with no more
than 12 total participants. Facility space,
equipment, and the ability of the health and
fitness professional to effectively organize
and manage the group will all be factors in
which size group is best.
To minimize the possibility of accidents
or injury, the layout of the program must
be simple and structured. Health and
fitness professionals must be alert and
monitor all participants at all times with
no visual obstructions.
There are five workout blueprints that help
facilitate constant visual contact:
1. Line model (Table 7.1)
2. Offset line model (Table 7.2)
3. U model (Table 7.3)
4. Circular model (Table 7.4)
5. L model (Table 7.5)
When designing a small group program, TABLE 7.4
consider space requirements and exercise Circular model
equipment choices. If the facility is limited Design: All stations for the workout are set up in a
in space, opt for exercises that use small circular fashion with ample room between each station.
Advantages: Takes up a relatively small amount
portable equipment such as kettlebells, of room.
tubing, dumbbells, and medicine balls. These Disadvantages: Unused space within the center of
the circle.
equipment choices make it easier to manage Example:
a group of people and allow participants to
seamlessly transition from station to station.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication is often the
difference between success and failure
for the relationship between a health and

TABLE 7.1 TABLE 7.2 TABLE 7.3 TABLE 7.5

Line model
Design: All stations for the workout are set up in a
linear fashion with ample room between each station.
Advantages: Allows the health and fitness
professional to see all participants from one
stationary position. professional to see all participants from one
Disadvantages: Takes up a large amount of room if
the stations/equipment are large in nature.
Example:
Offset line model
Design: All stations for the workout are set up in a
linear fashion with each participant offset to allow
ample room between each station.
Advantages: Allows the health and fitness
stationary position. Allows more room between
participants than the Line model. Disadvantages: If in the wrong position, the health
Disadvantages: Takes up a large amount of room if
the stations/equipment are large in nature.
Example:
U model
Design: All stations for the workout are set up in a “U”
fashion with ample room between each station.
Advantages: Allows the health and fitness
professional to see all participants without visual
obstruction from one stationary position and takes up
a relatively small amount of room. Takes up a large amount of room if the stations/
and fitness professional will have his or her back to
one or more participants.
Example:
L model
Design: All stations for the workout are set up in an L
fashion with ample room between each station.
Advantages: Allows the health and fitness professional
to see all participants from one stationary position.
Disadvantages:
equipment are large in nature.
Example:

fitness professional and his or her client.
It is important for health and fitness
professionals to understand the impact
of verbal and nonverbal communication
on their successes and failures. Effective
communication is a learned behavior.
Regardless of the mode of communication,
it is important to start building a positive
relationship with new clients through
proper communication skills. Tips for
enhancing communication with clients (2):
⦁⦁ Explain important policies, procedures,
and expectations so clients understand
what is expected of them.
⦁⦁ Communicate consistently according to
your personality and training style.
⦁⦁ Use a positive communication approach
that includes encouragement, support,
and positive reinforcement.
⦁⦁ Greet clients with a hello and a smile.
⦁⦁ Ask questions!
$$ It’s the only way to know if clients
are satisfied with the conditioning
program and their progress.
$$ It’s the only way to know how and
what clients are feeling.
$$ It’s the only way to determine how to
best help clients.
⦁⦁ Be an active listener.
⦁⦁ Be professional and stay positive.
Remember, it’s not about you; it’s
about them.
⦁⦁ Speak clearly and concisely when
providing exercise instruction.
MOTIVATION
Knowing how to motivate and inspire
clients to succeed ultimately boils down
to knowing what they want to achieve and
why (3). This information will help health
and fitness professionals determine the
best motivational strategy to help their
clients stay on track.
The fitness assessment process is critical
to client motivation for this very reason.
The following are some key points to
keep in mind when determining how to
best motivate clients participating in the
Training Camp Program:
⦁⦁ Inspire, don’t command.
⦁⦁ Be empathetic, not sympathetic.
⦁⦁ Do not allow participants to settle for
second best. Always push them to be
their best.
⦁⦁ Reassess and jointly review past
data. Jointly reviewing past data and
subsequent reassessment data with
clients helps to build confidence by
seeing the progress they have made,
and helps motivate them to continue
to achieve more (3). Clients are more
willing to stick with an exercise
program if they can see objective
numbers displaying their progress
(e.g., weight and inches lost).
⦁⦁ Analyze the data.
$$ This helps clients determine which
goals they are making progress
CHAPTER 7: Coaching and Program Implementation   /69
toward and which goals require new
strategies or additional effort (4).
$$ Supplementing long-term vision
with near-term, proximal goals
will help clients get and stay on
course. Proximal goals lead to better
performance, as well as a heightened
sense of confidence, determination,
and happiness (5).
$$ Examining trends over time may
reveal certain self-destructive habits
and patterns. This can provide the
knowledge for course correction
behaviors and strategies that will
help clients get back on track to
achieving their goals (6).
◆ ◆ SELF-MONITORING
Encourage clients to self-monitor by
recording their progress toward each
of their goals. This will hold clients
accountable and motivate them through
this challenging process.
Self-monitoring is usually done in the
form of a daily written record, such as an
exercise and nutrition log. An exercise
log can have a variety of forms. It can be
a journal, a calendar, or a workout card. A
client needs to find an effective, individual
method of self-monitoring.
A health and fitness professional may
suggest that clients include not only time,
Knowing how to motivate and
inspire a client to succeed
ultimately boils down to
knowing what he or she
wants to achieve and why.
exercises, calories expended, and perceived
heart rate, but also how much sleep they
are getting, the kind of food they are eating,
and how they are feeling emotionally.
The following are benefits of
self‑monitoring (7).
⦁⦁ It gives clients the opportunity to look
at their progress.
⦁⦁ Being able to see progress builds self-
confidence and self-esteem, which leads
to exercise adherence.
⦁⦁ The exercise log can be used as a form
of accountability. If clients know you
are going to ask them to show their
exercise log each week, it can help keep
them motivated.
⦁⦁ Self-monitoring encourages clients
to be honest about their activity,
which encourages them to stick to an
exercise program.
⦁⦁ Logging a workout serves as a reward.
⦁⦁ Self-monitoring helps clients identify
challenging situations and barriers
to exercise.

COACHING TECHNIQUES
The health and fitness professional sets
the tone for each workout. The success
of participants begins and ends with the
trainer. Effectively coaching clients is not
an easy task.
In order to be an effective coach, the health
and fitness professional should keep three
things in mind.
1. Focus on clients the entire time.
$$ Is the client doing things correctly?
$$ Is the client performing proper
exercise technique?
$$ What can you do to help clients
perform better in the future?
2. Understand proper exercise technique.
$$ A health and fitness professional
should never ask clients to perform
an exercise he/she cannot properly
demonstrate.
$$ Lead by example.
3. Correct poor technique.
$$ Do not be lazy. It is the obligation of
every health and fitness professional
to fix poor technique.
$$ Develop an arsenal of teaching
cues to help clients achieve proper
movement, postural alignment, and
muscle activation. Examples include
the following:
◆◆ “Pull your belly button toward
your spine to activate your
abdominals.”
◆◆ “Keep your shoulder blades back
and down. Imagine pulling them
into your back pockets.”
“Pretend your feet are in skis and
◆◆
must point straight ahead.”
◆◆ “Push through your heels.”
$$ Different clients need different cues.
The best cue is the one that works.
◆ ◆ COACHING IN A GROUP SETTING
An effective health and fitness professional is
one who maintains a disciplined group while
working at high intensity levels. At times,
participants in these groups may become
discouraged, fatigued, and even want to give
up. The health and fitness professional must
recognize clients’ physical and psychological
stress and allow for leniency while
maintaining a professional presence.
The following is are tips on how to be an
effective coach in a group setting.
⦁⦁ Always come prepared.
⦁⦁ Take charge of the group. Instruct and
portray confidence.
⦁⦁ Be professional and stay positive.
⦁⦁ Always speak clearly and loudly.
⦁⦁ Use small words and concise phrases
while leading a workout.
⦁⦁ Do not ask your client to do something
that you can’t do.
⦁⦁ Ensure the task is understood.
⦁⦁ Be consistent with comments and
motivational phrases.
CHAPTER 7: Coaching and Program Implementation   /70
The health and fitness professional must recognize
clients’ physical and psychological stress and allow
leniency while maintaining a professional presence.
⦁⦁ Always keep a clear line of sight.
⦁⦁ Do not focus on one individual, and keep REFERENCES
1. Armitage-Johnson S. Day-To-Day Operations: Developing Policies
everyone in view at all times. and Procedures. In: Baechle TR. Essentials of Strength Training
and Conditioning: National Strength and Conditioning Champaign:
⦁⦁ Train as a team and encourage Human Kinetics; 1994: 484-485.
competition. 2. Weinberg RS, Gould D. Foundations of Sport and Exercise
Psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2007:232.
⦁⦁ Encourage accountability and do not 3. Krause SJ. Behavior Modification. In: Clark MA, Lucett SC, Corn
RJ, eds. NASM Essentials of Personal Fitness Training. Baltimore,
allow excuses. MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008: 465-475.
⦁⦁ Use positive peer pressure. 4. Cappuccio R. Professional Development. In: Clark MA, Lucett
SC, Corn RJ, eds. NASM Essentials of Personal Fitness Training.
⦁⦁ Promote camaraderie between Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008: 477-494.
participants, pushing each other to do 5. Bandura A, Simon K. The role of proximal intentions in self-
regulation of refractory behavior. Cogn Ther Res. 1977;1:177-193.
their best. 6. Palys TA, Little BR. Perceived life satisfaction and the organization
of personal project systems. J PersSoc Psychol. 1983; 44:1221-1230.
SUMMARY 7. Lox LL, Martin Ginis KA, et al. The Psychology of Exercise:
Integrating Theory and Practice. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Publishing;
2006:139-174.
To be safe, effective, and productive,
health and fitness professionals must be
competent at implementing and delivering
the Training Camp Program with a
variety of clients. When implementing the
program, health and fitness professionals
must be cognizant of all gym safety
guidelines and operational procedures.
Whether the health and fitness
professional is working with a single client
or a small group, it is the responsibility of
the trainer to be a positive motivational
leader in order to maximize the
effectiveness of the program.
CHAPTER 8
NUTRITION AND SUPPLEMENTATION
Nutrition is the sum of the processes by which an animal or plant takes in
and uses food substances for growth and repair of tissues (1). This basic definition
OBJECTIVES does not begin to illuminate the role that diet plays in the health, appearance, performance, and well-being of an individual.
After studying this chapter, An individually planned nutrition strategy can improve health, reduce the risk of disease, increase energy levels, and enhance
you should be able to:
sport performance traits. An additional benefit clients often seek is favorably altering body composition. Properly designed
• Provide basic nutritional
nutrition strategies can enhance the anabolic (muscle-building) effect of strength training and help reduce body fat.
recommendations
for optimizing health,
performance, and This chapter specifically provides relevant concepts and solutions that can be applied to maximize results through the Training
weight control.
Camp Program for the goals of weight loss, muscle gain, and performance enhancement.
• Suggest pre-exercise and
post-exercise nutrition
and supplementation DAILY ENERGY NEEDS
strategies for optimal A calorie (lower case c) is a unit of energy and is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature
performance. of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. A Calorie (upper case C) or kilocalorie (kcal) is equal to 1,000 calories. Although not
• Provide hydration technically correct, calorie, Calorie, and kilocalorie are used interchangeably in nonscientific, everyday language. The term
recommendations
kilocalorie (kcal) will be used throughout this chapter.
and identify signs
of dehydration.

Estimated total energy expenditure (TEE),
is defined as the amount of energy (kcal)
spent, on average, in a typical day. TEE is
actually the sum total of three different
energy components:
⦁⦁ Resting metabolic rate (RMR). The
amount of energy expended while at
rest represents the minimal amount of
energy required to sustain vital bodily
functions such as blood circulation,
respiration, and temperature regulation.
RMR typically accounts for 70% of TEE.
⦁⦁ Thermic effect of food (TEF). The
amount of energy expended above RMR
as a result of the processing of food
(digestion) for storage and use. TEF
typically accounts for approximately
6-10% of TEE.
⦁⦁ Energy expended during physical
activity. The amount of energy
expended above RMR and TEF
associated with physical activity.
Physical activity accounts for
approximately 20% of TEE.
◆ ◆ ESTIMATING TOTAL DAILY
ENERGY EXPENDITURE
One of the most common ways to estimate
total energy expenditure is to first
estimate RMR, then multiply RMR by an
appropriate activity factor (Table 8.1).
There are several different prediction
equations used to estimate RMR. Such
simplified equations can provide a
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /72
reasonable estimate of TEE in most cases. metabolism and total energy expenditure. body weight over 6 months. For a person
The following is an example of a simplified Use caution when applying a prediction weighing 250 pounds, a 10% loss is 25
TEE calculation: equation to calculate RMR. pounds over 6 months, or about 1 pound
per week (3).
Weight in pounds × 10 = RMR Other options for health and fitness
professionals to help estimate TEE are Evidence shows that gradual weight loss
RMR × activity factor = TEE online calculators, such as the one provided is more likely to be maintained than rapid
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture at losses. Additionally, severe restriction of
Example: A heavily active 180-pound MMA www.choosemyplate.gov, or seeking the kilocalories is generally not sustainable
male athlete. guidance of a registered dietician. and may pose greater health risks than
moderate restriction.
180 × 10 = 1,800 RMR NUTRITION AND WEIGHT LOSS
Successful weight loss strategies To create an energy deficit, a brief
1,800 × 2.1 = 3,780 kcal (TEE) embrace small changes, moderate losses, examination of the energy equation is
and achievable goals (2). Depending on required. Those desiring to lose weight
Even the most commonly used formulas initial body weight, a reasonable rate can either decrease their input (what they
can have up to a 20% variance in of weight loss for overweight people eat and drink), increase their output (their
overestimating or underestimating resting is 0.5 to 2 pounds per week, or 10% of daily living and activity expenditure), or a
combination of both.
TABLE 8.1
The National Institutes of Health Obesity
Physical activity factors for adults (19 years and older) of average size Education Guidelines in Table 8.2 show the
Level Activity Activity factor recommend intakes for weight loss (4).
Seated and standing activities, such as office work, driving, and 1.2-1.3
Very light cooking; no vigorous activity
In addition to the activities of a sedentary lifestyle, 30 minutes of 1.5-1.6
Low active moderate activity equivalent to walking 2 miles in 30 minutes; most
office workers with additional planned exercise routines TABLE 8.2
In addition to the activities of a low active lifestyle, an additional 1.6-1.7 The National Institutes of Health Obesity
Active 3 hours of activity, such as bicycling at 10-12 miles an hour or walking
4.5 miles an hour Education Guidelines
Planned vigorous activities and physical labor; most full-time athletes 1.9-2.1 BMI Recommended intake reduction
Heavy and hard-labor professions, such as steel or road workers
≥ 35 500 to 1000 kcal/day
Adapted from the Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrates, Fiber, Fat,
Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 2002. 27-35 300 to 500 kcal/day

While the operative characteristic of
a weight loss eating program is that it
provides less energy than the person
would need to maintain weight, experts
caution people not to create too severe a
restriction or to eliminate a category of
foods that is needed for good health. Overly
restrictive programs can be nutritionally
deficient, cause the loss of lean body tissue,
and possibly augment the development of
disordered eating behaviors. Moreover,
highly restrictive eating patterns are
difficult to maintain, which often results
in weight regain once the dieting stops and
the client returns to old eating habits.
◆ ◆ MACRONUTRIENTGUIDELINES
FOR WEIGHT LOSS
To create a deficit in total energy
intake, experts generally recommend
a proportional decrease in all three
macronutrient categories: carbohydrates,
protein, and fat. To lose weight, these need
to be modified to create an energy deficit.
While macronutrient manipulation
programs, such as low-carbohydrate or
low-fat diets, are extensively debated
in the scientific and popular literature,
there is not a consensus that one specific
macronutrient ratio will produce a
significantly greater weight loss over
another (5-7). Additionally, there is
widespread agreement in the scientific
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /73
There is widespread agreement in the scientific community that good health
and nutrient provision do not have to be compromised in a weight loss
program. In other words, individuals can simultaneously follow current dietary
recommendations for good health as well as those for weight loss.
community that good health and nutrient of carbohydrate, protein, and fat in a diet It should also be noted that the AMDR are
provision do not have to be compromised associated with a reduced risk of chronic very wide ranges and can accommodate a
in a weight loss program. In other words, disease while providing adequate intakes wide range of personal dietary preferences.
individuals can simultaneously follow of essential nutrients.
current dietary recommendations for good ◆ ◆ NUTRIENT DENSITY
health as well as those for weight loss. If an individual’s daily intake does not fall Nutrient density — specifically, essential
within the AMDR there is an increased risk nutrients per kcal — is an excellent
The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) are of chronic diseases and insufficient intakes principle around which to design a weight
a set of nutrient-based reference values of essential nutrients. The AMDR for loss program. It can be helpful to think of
determined by expert panels appointed adults (as a percentage of kcal) are listed in it in budgetary terms. Think of an income
by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Table 8.3. budget, with money earned and certain
Institute of Medicine (8). Each of these costs that have to be covered (e.g., rent,
values have a specific use in defining These percentages should be maintained
recommended dietary intake levels for even when someone is on an energy-
TABLE 8.3
individual nutrients. Some key values used restricted program. Health and fitness
include recommended dietary allowance, professionals can also use the AMDR Acceptable macronutrient distribution ranges
adequate intakes, tolerable upper limits, to help defend against some of the
Macronutrient Percent of total kcal
estimated average requirements, and extreme fad diets that attract clients
Protein 10 - 35%
acceptable macronutrient distribution with unrealistic promises. For example,
ranges (AMDR). if a client wants to go on a very low- Fat 20 - 35%
carbohydrate diet, health and fitness Carbohydrate 45 - 65%
Nutrition professionals use the complete professional can explain that getting 45-
Source: Committee on Dietary Reference
set of DRIs to assess and plan diets. Health 65% of total calories from carbohydrates Intakes, Dietary Reference Intakes for
Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty
and fitness professionals may find the will ensure that he or she will maintain Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino
Acids. Washington, DC: National Academies
AMDR particularly useful. The AMDR good health and energy needed for exercise Press, 2005
breakdown the acceptable intake ranges and still lose weight.

transportation, food, and medical).
Sometimes, there is discretionary money
left over for the nonessentials (e.g.,
recreation and vacation).
The same concept can be applied to an
energy budget. During a weight loss
effort, when the energy budget is slightly
restricted, the essentials still need to be
covered. So the foods need to be chosen
carefully. While the term “empty calorie”
is a bit of a misnomer (after all, if a food
has kilocalories, it is not empty), it can
be helpful. If a food is empty of essential
nutrients, then there is little room for it
in a weight loss eating program. Nutrient-
dense foods — those that provide a high
ratio of essential nutrients per kilocalorie
— should be encouraged, and the client
must be willing to adopt these foods.
Imagine the choice between a can of cola
and a bunch of grapes. They both provide
about the same number of kilocalories.
They both provide about the same amount
of carbohydrate. However, the grapes
provide vitamins, minerals, and fiber
(essential nutrients) that are critical for
the growth, maintenance, and repair of
body cells that a can of cola cannot provide.
Moreover, experts believe that it is very
difficult to achieve consumption of the
essential macro- and micronutrients on
fewer than 1,200 kcal/day (9), and there
is widespread agreement that a daily
multivitamin and mineral formula helps
meet daily needs.
◆ ◆ PORTION AWARENESS
Nutrition experts have coined the term
“portion distortion” to describe the rapidly
growing portion size of commercially
available food and the resulting distorted
consumer expectations. Fast food
restaurants are offering “value meals” and
bundling (pricing several items together),
which sets up “big food” expectations
in the consumer. Instead of asking
themselves, “Does my body need this much
food?” consumers ask, “Is this the most I
can get for my dollar?”
Unfortunately, cheap food commonly lacks
essential nutrients, is high in fat and sodium,
and often comes in sizes that are far larger
than the average person needs. Portions
of food at grocery stores, restaurants, and
even in people’s homes have increased
considerably in the past 30 years (10,11). With
the introduction first of “fat-free” and
then “low carb” foods, consumers often
misunderstand that these foods still contain
kilocalories, and when eaten in excess, any
nutrient will be stored as body fat.
To help clients better recognize
appropriate portions of different types of
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /74
foods, health and fitness professionals can
again consult the MyPlate website  If a food is empty of
(www.choosemyplate.gov), which essential nutrients, then
itemizes servings sizes for all six of the there is little room for it in a
food groups.
weight loss eating program.
◆ ◆ LOW-ENERGYDENSITY/ Nutrient-dense foods —
HIGH-VOLUME FOODS those that provide a high
It’s not just large portions that can derail ratio of essential nutrients
weight loss success. In fact, there are
per kilocalorie — should
some nutrition professionals who believe
individuals should choose large portions,
be encouraged, and the
but only of low-energy density foods. client must be willing to
adopt these foods.
Recall that nutrient density is expressed
as essential nutrients per kilocalorie. For
example, a half of a baked potato and a
handful of jelly beans have about the same
number of kilocalories, but the potato —
with fiber, vitamins, and minerals — is far
more nutrient-dense.
Energy density (ED) on the other hand,
is expressed in kilocalories per gram. For
example, a meal consisting of scrambled
eggs, whole wheat toast, and 1 cup of
fruit salad weighs 450 g and has 500 kcal,
for a total energy density of 1.1 kcal/g
(500 kcal/450g = 1.1 kcal/g). Two chocolate
doughnuts only weigh 144 g and have
500 kcal, for a total energy density of 3.5
kcal/g (500 kcal/144 g = 3.5 kcal/g). The
doughnuts have a greater energy density
but a lower nutrient density.

Barbara Rolls, a well-known researcher,
has published numerous studies, as
well as a book titled “The Volumetrics
Eating Plan,” which suggests if people
eat large volumes of foods with lower
energy density, they will feel satisfied and
eat less (12-15). The success of eating high
volumes of food with lower energy density
lies with its focus on satiety (feeling full).
Rolls demonstrates that the feeling
of fullness comes from the amount of
food people eat, not from the number of
calories they consume or the grams of fat,
carbohydrates, or protein. Therefore, if the
majority of foods are high in water content
(0 kcal), an individual can eat more and
take in fewer kilocalories.
In fact, some people new to this type of
eating actually feel like they are eating
more, not less, although their total energy
intake is lower. Rolls concludes, “Reducing
dietary energy density, particularly by
combining increased fruit and vegetable
intakes with decreased fat intake, is an
effective strategy for managing body
weight while controlling hunger” (12).
WEIGHT GAIN
Underweight — a body weight so low
as to have adverse health effects — is
generally defined as a BMI of less than 18.5.
Underweight people are far less prevalent
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /75
A client can gain weight by incorporating additional energy into the diet while
increasing strength training to promote muscle growth. How quickly a client
gains weight will depend on the client’s age, gender, training experience, genetic
makeup, degree of positive energy balance, diet composition, timing of meals,
number of rest and recovery days per week, and type of training program.
than overweight people in the United depend on the client’s age, gender, training at least three healthy meals per day and
State. No more than 5% of American adults experience, genetic makeup, degree of several snacks to help them achieve
are underweight (16). positive energy balance, diet composition, their desired energy intake.
timing of meals, number of rest and ⦁⦁ Larger portions. This is the inverse
However, very thin people often find recovery days per week, and type of recommendation for those trying to lose
gaining weight quite challenging. training program (17). weight. Weight gainers should increase
Additionally, most people who want to gain their portion sizes whenever possible.
weight in a fitness environment want to To build lean muscle, more total ⦁⦁ Beverages. Beverages are an excellent
gain lean tissue or muscle mass, and not fat. kilocalories are needed when compared way to add healthy calories. Juice, dairy,
to less active individuals. Strategies for and healthy smoothies (made with or
As excess body weight results from an ensuring adequate energy for weight gain without supplement products) can be
imbalance in the energy equation; so include the following: grabbed on the run.
does being underweight. However, to ⦁⦁ Adding energy-dense foods. Choosing ⦁⦁ Exercise. Resistance training,
gain muscle mass, the adjustment must higher calorie nutritious foods supported by the dietary strategies
be twofold: will help very active people take in listed above, can effectively increase
1. Kilocalories must be increased. adequate energy. This can include muscle mass and strength within
2. An appropriate exercise program must an increase in foods containing fat genetic limitations.
be in place. if the fat is monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated (plant-derived). PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
A client can gain weight by incorporating Recall that the AMDR recommends STRATEGIES
additional energy into the diet (500 to that calories from fat can be as high as Performance nutrition is described as
1,000 kcal per day depending on total 35% of total calories. a combination of strategies to enhance
activity) while increasing strength ⦁⦁ Regular meals. People who are trying to physical and athletic performance through
training to promote muscle growth (17). gain weight should make regular meals specific food and nutrient choices,
How quickly a client gains weight will and snacks a priority. They should eat timing, and quantities. More specifically,

performance nutrition can delay fatigue,
enhance the anabolic effect of strength
training, promote the regeneration of
energy stores, stabilize the immune
function while training, and improve
cognitive performance factors such as
hand-eye coordination, concentration,
and focus.
Perhaps one of the most important benefits
of executing performance nutrition
strategies is injury prevention. Fatigue
is a significant variable for athletes who
are training and competing. As an athlete
fatigues, the risk of injury increases.
Therefore, if one can prevent or delay
the onset of fatigue, the risk of injury can
be reduced.
◆ ◆ CARBOHYDRATE
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
The fuel an individual burns during
exercise depends on the intensity and
duration of the activity. As intensity
increases so does the contribution of
carbohydrates as an energy source. If blood
glucose cannot be stabilized, performance
intensity must decrease.
Because carbohydrate availability is a
limiting factor in selected activities, it
should be clear that it is a primary fuel
source during physical activity and is
critical for optimal performance.
MMA athletes typically train and compete
at 65% or more of VO2max. At this level,
carbohydrate is the predominant fuel.
Muscle glycogen (stored carbohydrate)
is the major source of carbohydrate in
the body, followed by liver glycogen and
blood glucose. Muscle glycogen can be
depleted within 2 hours of exercise, and
liver glycogen stores can be depleted by a
15-hour fast.
With such limited stores of carbohydrate,
it makes sense that the greater the pre-
exercise glycogen content, the longer an
athlete can exercise. So, by consuming
adequate carbohydrate and energy, the
training athlete can delay the onset of
fatigue caused by glycogen depletion.
Table 8.4 outlines daily carbohydrate
recommendations for athletes (18).
TABLE 8.4
Daily carbohydrate intakes and recommendations
Category Recommendation
Typical U.S. intake 4-5 g/kg/day
General training needs 5-7 g/kg/day
Endurance training 7-10 g/kg/day
needs
Ultra-endurance training 11 g/kg/day or more
needs
Source: Dunford M. Sports Nutrition: A Practice
Manual for Professionals 4th ed. American
Dietetic Association, 2006.
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /76
◆ ◆ PROTEIN
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT
A common misconception among
bodybuilders and mass-dominate athletes
is that they need an enormous amount of
protein to produce gains in muscle mass.
While protein synthesis does occur after
training, it is actually carbohydrate that
fuels the anaerobic type of training that
produces strength and size gains.
That said, research on protein balance in
the last decade has established that protein
is used to a greater extent than previously
thought, particularly as an energy substrate
in prolonged exercise and in a glycogen-
depleted state. These observations
certainly support the importance of a
high-carbohydrate diet to conserve muscle
protein in athletes, along with an adequate
provision of protein.
Recommendations for protein intakes can
be found in Table 8.5. Sports nutritionists
agree that most athletes can meet these
protein requirements with adequate
kilocalories and healthy meals and snacks.
PRE- AND POST-EXERCISE
MEAL REPLACEMENTS
Eating whole foods following exercise
does not deliver nutrients within a time
frame that allows maximum results when
compared to the proper use of quick-
digesting specialized formulas (19-24). This
is because of the length of time it takes
to digest and absorb the nutrients from
traditional meals. Immediately following
exercise, muscle cell nutrient uptake is at
its highest point of the day, and therefore,
this window of opportunity requires a well-
designed, fast-acting formula (24).
The use of pre- and post-exercise meal
replacement formulas can stimulate
muscle growth and repair to a greater
extent than whole foods (19-22). In other
words, clients who consume meal
replacement formulas before and after
their workouts recover faster and build
more muscle (23,24).
TABLE 8.5
Daily protein intakes and recommendations
Category Recommendation
Typical U.S. intake 0.8 g/kg/day
Power (strength or 1.6-1.7 g/kg/day
speed) athletes
Endurance (strength or 1.2-1.6 g/kg/day
speed) athletes
Source: Committee on Dietary Reference
Intakes, Dietary Reference Intakes for
Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty
Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino
Acids. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press, 2005
Source: American Dietetic Association, Dietitians
of Canada, and the American College of
Sports Medicine Position Paper (Nutrition
and Athletic Performance) J Am Diet Assoc.
2000;100:1543-56.
 CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /77

The post-exercise feeding activates
the muscle-building that takes place
during this period, and without it, there
is little to no protein synthesis during
this time frame. Although the post-
training metabolic window is active for
as much as 60 to 90 min, its maximum
activity (greatest nutrient uptake and
protein synthesis capabilities) takes
place immediately at the end of the
training session (24).
HYDRATION AND FLUID STATUS
Fluid intake and hydration status may
be two of the most widely studied — but
overlooked — performance factors in
fitness and sports training. A great deal of
research demonstrates the proven effects of
dehydration on endurance performance, but
hydration status may also affect strength,
power, and high-intensity endurance (25).
Measurements of core temperature, heart
rate, and perceived exertion demonstrate
the physiologic strain of dehydration.
In a dehydrated state, the same exercise
task requires more effort than if it was
performed in a well-hydrated state.
Dehydration of less than 2% body mass can
decrease aerobic exercise performance,
particularly in warm and hot weather.
attention, and mental focus, can all be
affected by dehydration (26).
Tolerance to dehydration is specific to
the individual, so it can be difficult to
quantify specific performance decrements
for all types of activities, sports, or
individual performances (27).
◆ ◆ FLUID RECOMMENDATIONS
A well-executed hydration plan allows an
individual to show up to workouts already
hydrated, ready to keep pace with fluid and
sweat losses during exercise, and adequately
replace fluid losses in order to return to a
hydrated state. According to the Institute of
Medicine, sedentary men and women should
consume on average 3.0 L (13 cups) and 2.2 L
(9 cups) of water per day, respectively (28).
Fluids from all foods and beverages
count toward this total. In general about
20% of daily water comes from foods,
leaving the remaining 80% to come from
ingested fluids (18).
TABLE 8.6
American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine’s fluid
replacement guidelines
Before exercise 14-22 oz fluid 2 hours before exercise
For clients participating in the Training
Camp Program, fluid needs increase A well-executed hydration
because of the increased heat production plan allows an individual to
and water loss from exercise. Fluid
show up to workouts already
guidelines for before, during, and after
exercise have been prepared to help
hydrated, ready to keep
athletes and active individuals properly pace with fluid and sweat
hydrate themselves. Table 8.6 outlines losses during exercise, and
the American Dietetic Association, adequately replace fluid
Dietitians of Canada, and the American
losses in order to return
College of Sports Medicine’s fluid
recommendations (17).
to a hydrated state.
Individuals should prehydrate several
hours before exercise to allow for fluid
absorption and urine output. The goal of
drinking during exercise is to keep fluid
losses to 2% or less, as dehydration levels
in excess of this can lead to significant
performance decrements.
Fluids should be cool — not cold — to
promote consumption and optimize gastric
emptying. Rehydration practices should
aim to fully replace fluid and electrolyte

During exercise 6-12 oz water or sports drink every 15-20min of exercise

Various cognitive tasks, including short- After exercise 16-24 oz water or sports drink for every pound of body mass lost during exercise
term memory, response time, coordination,

losses. Sport beverages containing sodium
will help the body stimulate thirst and
retain ingested fluids.
For individuals needing rapid and
complete recovery from dehydration,
1.5 L of fluid should be consumed for
each kilogram of body mass lost after
exercise (27). Eating food also promotes
fluid intake and retention, so adequate
meals and snacks throughout the day are
critical to daily hydration practices.
◆ ◆ HYDRATION ASSESSMENT
Clients can monitor their own hydration
status through a number of ways. Body
mass changes, urine color, and thirst can all
indicate the need for additional fluids.
Measuring body mass before and after
exercise and calculating the difference
will give a client an indication of his or her
sweat rate. Having an idea of what one’s
sweat rate is can help determine how much
fluid needs replacing after exercise.
Monitoring urine color upon waking and
throughout the day is another way a client
can tell if he or she is properly hydrated. A
urine color that is pale yellow, like light-
colored lemonade, is desirable and likely
indicates a well hydrated state. Darker
colors, like apple juice, indicate that
additional fluids should be consumed.
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /78
The notion that people will be able to satisfy all physiological needs of the body for
proper and ideal nutrient intake with food alone is impractical and outdated. Therefore,
these behaviors prompt the suggestion of a multivitamin and mineral supplement,
which acts as insurance and can help fill in the gaps left by nutrient-deficient diets.
◆ ◆ DEHYDRATION SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS and athletes meet many of their needs
Active individuals should be familiar through increased food intake, they often
with dehydration warning signs and be miss many micronutrients because of
able to recognize these symptoms before the following:
heat illness progresses. Early signs and ⦁⦁ Increased needs that their diet alone
symptoms include thirst, discomfort and does not meet (30-37).
complaints. These are generally followed ⦁⦁ Special populations, age-related
by flushed skin, muscle cramps, and requirements, or practicality of foods
apathy. As water loss continues, dizziness, sources (38).
headache, vomiting, nausea, chills, and ⦁⦁ Lack of interest in or avoidance of
shortness of breath may be observed. essential food groups (39-44).
Identifying these signs and symptoms can ⦁⦁ Low body-fat maintenance (45-47).
help prevent exertional heat illnesses and ⦁⦁ Variables of actual nutrient content
potentially life threatening conditions (29). of food (48-52).
⦁⦁ Low sun exposure (53-58).
MICRONUTRIENT NEEDS ⦁⦁ Inability to define the perfect diet (59-62).
Micronutrients are important for overall
health. Vitamins and minerals play an The notion that people will be able to
important role in maintaining peak bone satisfy all physiological needs of the body
mass, adequate immune, and cognitive for proper and ideal nutrient intake with
function. They also protect body tissues food alone is impractical and outdated.
from oxidative damage and help build and Therefore, these behaviors prompt the
repair muscle tissue following exercise. suggestion of a multivitamin and mineral
supplement, which acts as insurance and
Exercise increases the need for vitamins can help fill in the gaps left by nutrient-
and minerals, and although fitness clients deficient diets.
SUPPLEMENTS
There is unequivocal evidence that a
limited number of natural substances,
when prepared and ingested properly,
can safely improve training-induced
size or performance for many clients
and athletes (63,64). Historically however,
certain fitness enthusiasts and athletes
have had a tendency to not follow
directions. Many subscribe to the old
adage, “If a little works, more is better.”
The practice of overconsumption of
anything, including foods, dietary
compounds, and drugs, can lead to
problems. On the other hand, proper
supplementation for performance has
often been shown to generate truly
remarkable benefits, and this in itself can
save many individuals from turning to
illegal performance-enhancing drugs.
◆ ◆ CALORIE
SUPPLEMENTS
(WEIGHT GAINERS)
While commercial shakes, powders, and
bars represent a convenient method for

taking in a large amount of kilocalories,
they are not required for muscle mass
gain. In fact, it is interesting to compare
weight loss shakes with weight gainer
shakes. Often, the only difference is in the
serving size.
Generally, nutritionists prefer fitness
enthusiasts and athletes to eat whole foods,
which contain not only macronutrients
and kilocalories, but micronutrients
and phytochemicals (plant compounds
known to protect against disease).
For some, however, taking in optimal
energy and nutrients from whole foods,
especially with an exceptionally high level
of activity, may not be realistic and can
cause gastrointestinal distress. For those
clients, recommend a meal supplement
that includes protein, carbohydrates, and
healthy fat.
One pound of muscle contains about 500
calories of protein (75% water content
and intramuscular fat). Adding 700 to
1,000 kcal per day will support a weekly
0.5 to 1.0 kg gain in lean tissue, as well as
provide the additional energy needed to
fuel training. Ideally, the extra kilocalories
will be used to support tissue synthesis.
However, type, intensity, and frequency
of training, as well the individual’s age,
gender, training experience, and hormonal
profile may affect results.
◆ ◆ CREATINE SUPPLEMENTATION
For many sports, including MMA, building
muscle mass and strength are major goals.
Athletes and fitness enthusiasts have tried
a wide variety of natural and synthetic
substances (both legal and illegal) to
assist the body’s natural responses to
strength training.
A legal supplement common among
strength athletes and bodybuilders is
creatine. Creatine is synthesized naturally
in the human body from the amino acids
methionine, glycine, and arginine.
In resting skeletal muscle, about
two-thirds of the creatine exists in a
phosphorylated form that can rapidly
regenerate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to
maintain high-intensity muscular efforts
for up to 10 seconds. Supplementation
with creatine can increase muscle
creatine levels and may enhance certain
types of brief high-intensity efforts (e.g.,
striking flurries and takedowns). Creatine
supplementation, combined with a
strength-training program, has been shown
to increase muscle mass, strength, and
anaerobic performance (65).
The typical dosing scheme begins with 5
to 7 days of supplementation at 20 g/day
to rapidly increase muscle creatine. This
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /79
is then followed by a maintenance phase
of 2 to 5 g/day to sustain maximal muscle In resting skeletal muscle,
creatine levels. about two-thirds of
the creatine exists in a
Creatine supplementation as part of a
strength-training program typically causes
phosphorylated form that can
an initial weight gain of 4 to 5 pounds. rapidly regenerate adenosine
This may be caused by the osmotic effect triphosphate (ATP) from
of creatine drawing water into muscles adenosine diphosphate
along with increased muscle protein
(ADP) to maintain high-
synthesis (66).
intensity muscular efforts
The maintenance dose of creatine (2 to  for up to 10 seconds...
5 g/day) is safe for normal, healthy Creatine supplementation,
individuals for up to 5 years. However, combined with a strength-
possible effects of longer chronic use
training program, has
remain unknown. People with kidney
problems should use creatine supplements been shown to increase
only with medical guidance (66). Consuming muscle mass, strength, and
creatine supplements in combination anaerobic performance.
with carbohydrates can enhance muscle
uptake of creatine and potentially increase
muscle levels above that achieved without
concurrent carbohydrate consumption (67).
Creatine use is widespread in sports,
and reasonable testing procedures for
abnormal levels of this natural compound
would be difficult to establish. It has been
argued that creatine loading should be
considered no different than carbohydrate
loading, because creatine is a substance
found naturally in animal foods like
red meat (68).

◆ ◆ STIMULANTS (CAFFEINE)
Many consider caffeine to be the most
widely used drug in the world, often
consumed in coffee, tea, cocoa, and other
beverages with added caffeine. Foods
such as chocolate and a wide variety of
herbal supplements also provide caffeine.
Caffeine acts as a stimulant that primarily
affects the central nervous system, heart,
and skeletal muscles.
Most carefully controlled studies have
demonstrated ergogenic effects from
caffeine, especially when tested on well-
trained athletes performing endurance
exercise (more than an hour) or high-
intensity short-duration exercise (about 5
minutes). However, there does not appear
to be an ergogenic effect on performance
of sprint-type efforts lasting 90 seconds
or less (69).
The most effective ergogenic response
comes when the dosage of caffeine is about
3 to 6 mg/kg body weight and it is ingested
about 1 hour before exercise. For a 70-kg
person (155 lb), this dose is equivalent to
210 to 420 mg of caffeine.
To put that into a coffee perspective,
16 oz of black coffee ranges from about
200 to 350 mg of caffeine. The caffeine
content of coffee can vary tremendously
depending on the type of coffee, the
amount used, and the brewing process.
Caffeine doses greater than 6 mg/kg 
body weight generally show less
performance benefit and have more risk
of adverse effects (69).
Potential negative effects of caffeine can
vary greatly from one person to another.
Possible adverse effects range from
insomnia and nervousness to lesser known
effects such as nausea, rapid heart and
breathing rates, convulsions, and increased
urine production. Other reported
symptoms include headache, chest pain,
and irregular heart rhythm (66).
SUMMARY
Health and fitness professionals
working with fitness enthusiasts and
athletes should be knowledgeable of
nutrition strategies and be able to
educate appropriately on these topics.
Ultimately, the synergistic effect of both
diet and exercise will help individuals
reach their training potential and body
composition goals.
By using academic resources and
authoritative recommendations from
credentialed sources, health and fitness
professionals can educate their clients and
empower them to make healthful dietary
changes to maximize performance and
achieve ideal body composition.
CHAPTER 8: Nutrition and Supplementation   /80
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CHAPTER 9
BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT
In the United States, 8 million people participate in martial arts (1,2,3).
Martial arts is generally viewed as a method of self-defense; however, competitive martial arts events (e.g., tae kwon do,
OBJECTIVES judo, jiu jitsu) are growing nationally and worldwide. In addition, there is rapid interest in MMA. Participation, media
After studying this chapter, coverage, and prize money relating to mixed martial arts is growing exponentially, particularly with the development
you should be able to:
and expansion of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) (4). As a result, MMA strength and conditioning has vastly
• Learn about opportunities
expanded in the last decade. Health and fitness professionals now have a unique opportunity to offer their services in a
to develop professionally
and ensure a successful new marketplace.
career as a health and
fitness professional.
MARKETPLACE
• Become aware of The marketplace for MMA conditioning is quite vast, consisting of martial arts studios, exclusive MMA studios, and
marketing and other
strategies to build a fitness facilities. According to USA Judo, judo ranks only behind soccer as the most practiced sport in the world (5). Tae
large clientele base. kwon do has more than 2 million participants and is the most popular martial art in the United States (6). In addition,
• Understand legal karate has more than 1 million participants in the United States (6).
and ethical issues
surrounding the health
Martial arts and combat instruction can take place in several venues, including private studios, through parks and
and fitness profession.
recreation departments, and in select gyms and health clubs. The goal for health and fitness professionals is to introduce
themselves and market their services to potential clients existing at all of the aforementioned facilities.

MARKETING OPPORTUNITIES
Many health and fitness professionals
do not enjoy marketing and selling
their services. However, to have a
successful career in the fitness industry,
you need to take advantage of every
marketing opportunity.
Marketing refers to identifying what
the public needs and deciding if you can
provide it at a price that will produce a
profit (7). Advertising refers to alerting the
public about your services. And selling is
the exchange of money for your services (8).
One of the strongest marketing tools is to
promote your education, certifications, and
experience to potential clients. Completing
the MMA Conditioning Specialist program
will make you more appealing to potential
clients and employers, as well as expand
your qualifications to working with MMA
enthusiasts and athletes.
◆ ◆ BUILDING A NICHE
Mastering the Training Camp Program
is a great way to help you stand out
and differentiate yourself in a crowded
marketplace. Earning the MMA
Conditioning Specialist credential means
you have more to offer to your clients.
The MMA Conditioning Specialist
credential qualifies you as a specialized
CHAPTER 9: Business Development   /83
health and fitness professional who can
lead individuals or small groups through an You never know when you will have an opportunity to talk about
MMA-inspired conditioning program that what you do and why you are passionate about your profession
provides exceptional results.
Below are some action items to help create ◆ ◆ ADVERTISING STRATEGIES you will include. Most important, these
exposure and develop your niche as an A health and fitness professional can outlets provide contact information for
expert in MMA conditioning: advertise in a number of ways such as taking potential clients to get in touch with you.
1. Create a profile of your target client. part in social media; having a professionally
For example: Active adults who are made website, business cards, and other While a personal website and participation
inspired by MMA athletes and desire marketing collateral; and setting up face-to- in social media will reach a number of
to participate in similar training face meetings with martial arts instructors potential clients, do not rely solely on
experiences to lose weight and gain self- and fitness managers. these to promote your business, or you will
confidence. This will help you identify miss possible clients along the way. Have
how to reach your target customer, how Social media is one way to spread the information packets prepared and ready to
to effectively communicate with him or word about what you do and who you are. hand out to potential clients. These packets
her, and better understand what they Developing a personal website or managing should include the same information that
need to be successful in reaching their a professional Facebook or LinkedIn page can be found online. Invest in high-quality
fitness goals. will make it easy for potential clients to business cards, and have those with you at
2. Determine if you will train men, find accurate information about you. all times. You never know when you will
women, or both. have an opportunity to talk about what
3. Determine the age group and These media outlets will also give you you do and why you are passionate about
experience level of your potential an opportunity to show certifications, your profession.
clients. This will help you direct qualifications, client testimonials, and
advertising to your target clientele. examples of what a training package with While you need to be ready to promote your
business at any time, you should also be
proactive and put yourself in front of groups
as much as possible. Identify networking
opportunities with martial arts academies,
The MMA Conditioning Specialist credential qualifies you parks and recreation departments, and
as a specialized health and fitness professional who can fitness facilities in your local community.
lead individuals or small groups through an MMA-inspired
conditioning program that provides exceptional results. Once in contact with the head instructor
or fitness manager, set-up a face-to-face
 CHAPTER 9: Business Development   /84

meeting to explain the services you can
provide. This is where it’s necessary to
provide a comprehensive and benefits-
driven explanation of MMA fitness training.
This portion of the conversation should
also go into detail on the types of services
(one-on-one training or group classes),
costs, and how to market these services
ask for referrals from your current clients Another area of legal concern to consider design, and implement MMA-inspired
and your community contacts. are torts and civil liabilities, which are exercise programs that are meant to
laws that let wrongfully injured people progress people at an individual rate and
LEGAL AND ETHICAL collect damages from those who have to reassess and redesign as necessary.
CONSIDERATIONS injured them (8). An example of this Be up front and honest about cost and
The most important legal consideration is would be an injury to a client from the keep your clients informed of progress.
what type of insurance policy is covering use of faulty equipment or from failure Always conduct yourself professionally
you as a professional. If you are employed to properly supervise clients during and avoid offensive language, behavior,
by a fitness company, you should verify exercise sessions. and dress.

If you are an independent contractor (even for only a few clients), you should hold professional liability
insurance... You should also consult a legal professional to assist you with contract development to be sure
you are in compliance with local, state, and federal laws and regulations. A proper contract that you and
the client understand can reduce the chance of serious legal action being taken against you.

to the patrons of the facility. A successful
meeting may lead to the development
of a seminar for the members, posting
of brochures in the facility, or creating
an opportunity to provide initial fitness
consultations to the membership.
Lastly, keep a list of individuals you have
spoken to and ask for contact information,
such as e-mail or phone numbers, so
you can follow up. Keep track of what
you discussed so you can follow up on
specifics from your conversation. This can
help build rapport, which can lead to an
eventual client or additional referrals. One
of the best ways to build your business is to
what type of insurance is provided for you
and what that covers within your scope
of practice.
If you are an independent contractor (even
for only a few clients), you should hold
professional liability insurance. This type of
insurance is readily available from multiple
companies for a reasonable fee. You should
also consult a legal professional to assist
you with contract development to be sure
you are in compliance with local, state,
and federal laws and regulations. A proper
contract that you and the client understand
can reduce the chance of serious legal action
being taken against you (8).
One way to avoid injuring a client is to
always do regular preventive maintenance
on equipment and regularly replace
resistance bands, tubing, and other
equipment that may degrade over time.
Another is to conduct thorough fitness
assessments and start all clients at the
appropriate level, being careful to not
progress a client too quickly. Finally,
require a physician’s clearance for any
known injury or medical condition.
In terms of ethical behavior, be sure to
always be honest with clients and do not
guarantee outrageous results. Let clients
know that your responsibility is to assess,
◆ ◆ DOCUMENTATION
When working with clients, trainers need
to document and properly store several
things. From the first meeting, keep
information from assessments — including
the PAR-Q or any type of health status
questionnaire — in a secure location, as
these documents contain personal health
information. It is a violation of the client’s
right to privacy if that information is
made available to others without their
permission (9). However, documentation
of a client’s health status is a critical
component of developing a training
program and should not be omitted from
the assessments component.

Always track your client’s workouts, and
don’t rely on your memory to know when
and how much to progress them. In your
documentation, you should also note
anything that occurred during the training
session, such as pain, difficulty, or ease
with certain exercises, or general feedback
from your client. Keeping excellent records
is important from a legal standpoint, but
also to keep clients progressing and avoid
boredom and burnout with their program.
REFERRING OUT
In today’s litigious society, it is
important to understand how to protect
yourself legally and understand ethical
behavior required of a health and fitness
professional. Remain within your scope
of practice, and do not perform any duties
outside of your practice.
Many states have laws that protect
certain allied health professionals, and in
doing so require licensure to practice in
certain fields such as medicine, therapy,
psychology, and dietetics. Health and
fitness professionals should not diagnose
illness or injury, treat injuries, offer
psychological counseling, or prescribe
special diets for clients.
It is essential to refer out to the appropriate
medical professional whenever a client is
asking for that type of advice or treatment.
Keep in mind that if a client refuses,
or cannot obtain further professional
assistance, then you may need to restrict
training until you are satisfied that it is safe
for the client to return to training under
your care. This responsibility should not
be taken lightly, and every effort should be
made to ensure the client’s health status is
not contraindicated to exercise.
◆ ◆ PHYSICIAN RELEASE
In order to protect yourself and ensure
safety for your clients, you should require
a physician’s release if there is anything
indicated on a health preparticipation
questionnaire or that was revealed
verbally, that causes you concern, such as
any signs or symptoms of cardiovascular,
pulmonary, or metabolic disease. These
include, but are not limited to, known
hypertension, type 2 diabetes, poor blood
lipid profile, or lung disease (9). It is your
responsibility and your right to not provide
service to an at-risk client until you receive
documentation from a medical doctor that
indicates the parameters which a client can
exercise within.
SUMMARY
A specific marketing and advertising plan
starts with your ability to promote your
expertise. By focusing on building your
knowledge of exercise science and MMA
conditioning, learning how to address
CHAPTER 9: Business Development   /85
clients’ needs, and establishing positive
relationships within your community, you
will have a thriving business by providing a
valuable service.
Working as a health and fitness professional
is a rewarding career. However, there are
tremendous responsibilities that come with
this profession. By recognizing your scope
of practice and the legal considerations,
you should be well-protected and be able
to communicate with your clients and
maintain proper expectations.
References
1. Oler M, Tomson W, Pepe H, et al. Morbidity and mortality in the
martial arts: a warning. J Trauma 1991;31:251-53.
2. Birrer RB: Trauma epidemiology in the martial arts. The results
of an eighteen-year international survey. Am J Sports Med 1996;24(6
Suppl):S72-S79.
3. Zetaruk MN, Violan MA, Zurakowski D, et al: Injuries in martial
arts: a comparison of five styles. Br J Sports Med 2005;39:29-33.
4. Buse GJ: No holds barred sport fighting: a 10 year review of mixed
martial arts competition. Br J Sports Med 2006;40:169-72.
5. USA Judo. Available at http://www.usjudo.org/. Accessed February
27, 2012.
6. Burke DT, Barfoot K, Bryant S, et al.: Effect of implementation
of safety measures in tae kwon do competition. Br J Sports Med
200;37:401-404.
7. Grantham W, Patton R, York T, et al. Marketing and Sales. In:
Health Fitness Management. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics;
1998:99-124.
8. Grantham W, Patton R, York T, Winick M. Legal Issues. In: Health
Fitness Management. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1998:405-425.
9. American College of Sports Medicine. Preparticipation Health
Screening and Risk Stratification. In: ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise
Testing and Prescription. 8th ed: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins;
2010:18-39.
APPENDIX A
NASM LITERATURE REVIEW
The combative sport of mixed martial arts (MMA)
has gained a great deal of popularity on both a
national and international scale. In 1993 the Gracie family
introduced the Brazilian fighting style of Vale Tudo (developed in the 1920’s) to the
United States, the founding of the Ultimate Fighting Championship was established.
The Ultimate Fighting Championship represents the most structured body of MMA and
is the foremost prominent organization that holds MMA competitions today. MMA is
a full contact, combat sport that allows athletes to incorporate various fighting styles
and techniques including, but not limited to grappling techniques as in Greco-Roman
or freestyle wrestling, and striking techniques involving the upper and lower body as in
boxing or kickboxing. Athletes may engage in combat both standing, or on the ground.
The interdisciplinary nature of the sport permits competition between a diverse array of
competitors from various fighting styles/backgrounds.
To date, the literature is extremely limited in terms of describing testing protocols
specific to measuring the fitness profile of a mixed martial artist. Therefore the clinician
working with the mixed martial artist is restricted when deploying a mixed martial arts
specific testing battery, a potential measure of competition success based on physical
testing parameters.
The physical demands of MMA are very unique in the sense the sport places a great deal
of physiological stress on all of the body’s energy systems over an extended period of time.
MMA is a sport that requires repetitive bouts of explosive activity from the anaerobic
energy systems, followed by shorter rest/recovery periods in which the aerobic system
is taxed (1-7).
A limitation to the presented research is that no current literature has presented a direct
examination of the MMA athlete and the physiological demands placed on their body
during competition. However, the nature of the sport is such that it incorporates physical
activity patterns of sports such as judo, taekwondo, karate, and boxing that have been
studied in the past.
A limitation of this review is that the recommendations are based on data obtained from
specific martial arts disciplines and not MMA, in which various fighting techniques
may be combined into an individual athlete’s overall fighting style. To provide validity
to the review’s recommendations it is important to note that there have been observed
similarities in sport specific demands and anthropometric data across disciplines (1-3,7).
A review of the literature lends to an analysis of MMA specific demands placed on
a martial artist from three viewpoints: 1) metabolic pathway requirements, 2) force
 APPENDIX: NASM Literature Review   /87

production, and 3) agility. It is thus
recommended the clinician employ an
appropriate testing battery that targets the
individual elements of the three domains
separately, providing the clinician and
the athlete with a structured evaluation,
detailing specific elements of the athlete’s
overall performance as it relates to the
sport of MMA.
By analyzing the individual components
of the fitness profile of the MMA athlete,
the clinician can adequately target specific
limiting elements of the athlete’s fitness
profile; therefore establish a customized
and directed conditioning program unique
to the athlete.
The literature profiles the elite martial
artist to anthropometrically present with
a body composition characteristic of low
body fat percentage (1-3).
The ideal martial artist is physiologically
characterized to demonstrate high levels
of aerobic capacity and anaerobic power
output, a high degree of muscular strength,
endurance, power, and extensibility.
profile highlights elements of physical
fitness that have been suggested to
characterize highly skilled and successful
martial artists.
The purpose of this review is to
recommend clinical testing methods that
can be implemented by the clinician in
order to establish a fitness profile specific
to the needs of the mixed martial artist.
The testing methods are founded on the
principle of targeting elements of fitness
that have been suggested by the literature
to be determinants of success in martial
arts competition.
METHODS
A comprehensive literature search
was conducted using several available
databases. The resultant list of articles
and abstracts was obtained from only two
databases (PubMed & Google Scholar).
TABLE A.1
Database searches
Research Question
The resultant lists of articles and abstracts
were restricted to the two databases as
a literature search specific to the topic
area of interest was limited. The limited
results of the initial search influenced
the authors to modify their search terms
and direct their search using the Google
Scholar database, as the PubMed database
provided no additional results in regards to
the topic of interest.
The final set of 6 articles met all inclusion
criteria and was abstracted, and data
regarding performance variables specific
to martial arts were ascertained for
this review.
◆ ◆ ELECTRONIC LITERATURE SEARCH
For the electronic literature search,
we used the PubMed online database
maintained by the National Library of
Medicine, and Google Scholar, an open
source database including peer-reviewed
What are the current physiological and physical measures of MMA performance, and how are they measured?
articles across multiple disciplines.
The search terms used for the database
searches are given in Table A.1.
From the initial search on the PubMed
database specific to the search terms
described in Table A.1 a total of 9 articles
were found on PubMed, after modification
of the search terms as indicated in
Table A.1, a total of 1 article was found
on PubMed.
The initial search terms from PubMed
were used for search with Google Scholar,
a total of 7,370 articles were found. After
search terms were refined as indicated in
Table A.1, and used in the Google Scholar
database a total of 275 articles were found.
Two articles from PubMed and 6 articles
from Google Scholar were kept and
abstracted, 1 of the articles was found in
both PubMed and Google Scholar, thus a
total of 7 articles were used.

Search Terms PubMed (1) “martial arts” (AND) performance (AND) assessment
The elite martial artist demonstrates
a developed ability to complete Search Terms for PubMed (2) “martial arts” (AND) fitness (AND) assessment

complex motor tasks quickly and Search Terms for Google Scholar (1) “martial arts” (AND) fitness (AND) assessment
efficiently, implicating an advanced
Search Terms for Google Scholar (2) judo (AND) karate (AND) taekwondo (AND) fitness (AND) profile (AND) assessment
degree of agility (1-7). The described

◆ ◆ SEARCH
RESULTS AND
DATA ABSTRACTION
The text of each article that passed the
initial screening process was read to
determine eligibility. For the purpose of
the study’s summarized inclusion criteria
(Table A.2) required that the articles
presented a clinical and/or laboratory
measure of at least two martial arts specific
fitness components.
The article was required to provide
a physiological rationale for the
implementation of the testing methodology
as it pertained to (a) variable(s) of
performance that was/were determined to
be predictive of success in competition, or
an elementary component of martial arts
specific fitness.
TABLE A.2
Summarized inclusion criteria
Research Question
What are the current physiological and physical
measures of MMA performance, and how are
they measured?
Inclusion Criteria
English language
Peer-reviewed
Published since 1990
Provided at least 2 laboratory or field/clinical
measures of fitness specific to MMA
Provided sound physiological rationale for the
measures implemented
A total of seven articles met the highlighted
inclusion criteria and were used for this
review. Each article was abstracted for the
information given in Table A.3.
SUMMARY
The following summary provides
recommendations for implementing a
series of measures of various aspects
of physical fitness specific to the sport
of MMA.
The testing measures are organized based
on recommendations from the literature
indicating elements of a fitness profile
that are proposed to be determinants of
success in martial arts. The measures of
performance are presented in order from
most the important fitness element to least
important in regards to their observed
contribution to overall performance and
success of the MMA athlete (1-6).
The final measure of performance has
been suggested to incorporate all element
TABLE A.3
Article abstraction criteria
Introduction Methods
Key points Research design
Purpose Laboratory or clinical
methods
APPENDIX: NASM Literature Review   /88
of a martial arts fitness profile, and it is
recommended to be an assessment of
overall performance in the sport of MMA.
It is important to note the recommended
testing procedures are not exhaustive,
and future research will likely provide
measures that are more valid. Therefore
the clinician should attend to the objective
of the measure, focusing on the importance
of the physiological/anthropometric
fitness variable the test is attempting
to quantify.
◆ ◆ ANAEROBIC POWER AND CAPACITY
Anaerobic power has been determined to
be one of the most important elements of
physical fitness for the MMA athlete (1-7).
Elite-level martial artists exhibited very
high levels of anaerobic power output as
measured through a lower (7) body and
upper (2,4,7) body Wingate tests. In one
of the articles, elite-level martial artists
presented with higher levels of anaerobic
power output compared to non-elite-level
martial artists (4,10).
Conclusions Limitations
Key points Scientific
Clinical applications & Clinical
relationship to MMA Target populations
performance
◆ ◆ RECOMMENDED FIELD TESTS
Although some testing methodology
requires complex laboratory equipment
measuring blood lactate concentration
to implement the Wingate test, only a
cycle ergometer providing information
regarding revolutions per minute is
required. Additional tests of anaerobic
power suggested by the literature are the
Bosco 5-Jump Test (8) and the Margeria-
Kalamen Power (step) test (9).
Timed sprinting for defined distances may
also provide information regarding an
MMA athlete’s anaerobic power output (3).
The clinician should note that anaerobic
power may be specific to an athlete’s muscle
group, for example the Bosco 5-Jump Test,
Margeria-Kalamen Power (step) Test, and
cycle erogmeter tests are specific to the
lower body. The Wingate test can be adapted
to use an upper body cycle ergometer.
◆ ◆ AEROBIC CAPACITY
Although the a majority of the combative
activity of MMA incorporates motor
tasks such as kicking, punching, and rapid
take-down/grappling motions relying on
energy production from the anaerobic
system, sustaining activity between
bouts of anaerobic work requires energy
production from the aerobic system, the
cardiovascular element of MMA fitness (1‑7).
The literature notes elite-level martial

artists not only present with high levels of
anaerobic power output, but also highly
developed aerobic capacity (1,3,5).
A current understanding implies that
between bouts of high-intensity anaerobic
work, the martial arts athlete must recover
during periods of decreased intensity,
relying on their aerobic system to generate
energy (1-7). Due to the repetitive nature
of the sport alternating between periods
of intense work and short duration rest
cycles, the martial arts athlete must
quickly call upon their aerobic pathway for
efficient energy production to keep up with
energy demand.
Laboratory measures of aerobic capacity
are represented by maximal oxygen uptake
(VO2max), and commonly rely on advanced
metabolic gas analysis while completing
graded running on a treadmill or cycling on
an ergometer.
Recommended Field Tests
A highly correlated test of maximal aerobic
capacity is the 12-minute running test
(Cooper Test) described by Cooper et
al, in which individuals attempt to run a
maximal distance around a 400 meter track
within the allotted 12 minutes (10).
An additional test that can be administered
in a smaller physical space is the
incremental 20-meter run test proposed
by Leger et al, as individuals attempt to
complete a shuttle run between a defined
20-meter distance under decreasing
time intervals (11).
◆ ◆ MUSCULAR
STRENGTH,
POWER, AND ENDURANCE
The MMA athlete relies on skeletal
muscle to exert or resist force on/from
their opponent whether it is be a quick
powerful kick or a sustained forceful hold
resulting in their opponent’s submission
and take‑down.
A combination of muscular strength
(absolute force produced by a muscle),
power (ability to produce force/do work
at a high rate), and endurance (ability to
sustain force production over a period of
time) is required by the MMA athlete (1, 3, 4).
Within the sport of MMA, an athlete does
not solely rely on one element of muscular
force production, but it is important to
evaluate the athlete’s force production
capabilities independently to identify
elements (strength, power, endurance) that
may be limiting their overall performance.
In order to target the specific element of
force production, the clinician can employ
testing methods to discriminate the three
components of muscular fitness (1, 3, 4).
APPENDIX: NASM Literature Review   /89
Recommended Field Tests
Current research methods have
implemented common field measures
of muscular strength such as; handgrip
strength using a hand-held dynamometer,
1-maximum repetition (1RM) bench press,
1RM back row, and 1RM back squat (1, 3, 4, 7).
To assess full body muscular power
the literature proposes the 1RM power
clean (4). Elements of muscular endurance
have been measured with timed
1-minute timed push-up, pull-up, and sit-
up tests (3, 4).
◆ ◆ FLEXIBILITY
MMA requires a high degree of flexibility
due to the nature of athletes being placed in
holds and submissive positions that move
their joints through a large range of motion.
A high degree of flexibility is warranted
when an athlete is placed in a defensive/or
held position and must “escape” in order
to resume an offensive position, similar
to Greco-Roman style wrestling (3, 4).
Elite martial artists were observed to
demonstrate high levels of flexibility,
indicating increased muscular and inert
tissue extensibility is advantageous to the
MMA athlete.
Recommended Field Tests
The literature is very limited on its
presentation of testing protocols
specific to flexibility assessment. One
article’s methodology implemented the
sit-and-reach test to examine martial
artists’ flexibility (3).
An additional suggestion may be to
implement the Overhead Squat test into a
movement/fitness assessment of the MMA
athlete, focused on identifying movement
patterns characteristic of overactive/
shortened muscle groups.
◆ ◆ AGILITY
MMA requires athletes to complete
complex motor tasks quickly and efficiently
while delivering or managing high levels
of force (1-7). The ability of a MMA athlete
to complete these complex and physically
demanding motions with a high degree of
precision indicates the elite MMA athlete
possess a high degree of agility (1‑7).
Agility represents an element of rapid
control of motion and force that can be
either generated internally (by the athlete
them-self, as in a striking motion to their
opponent) or externally (by the athlete’s
opponent, as in a grappling hold for a
take‑down).
Recommended Field Tests
Current literature does not implicate
an extensive list of sport-specific tests
for agility, but Markovic et al describes

a side-step test in their methodology (3).
An additional beneficial agility test may
include the Shark Skill test that may be
specific to MMA activity, as the test is
conducted in a small area requiring precise
control of motion.
MMA combat requires precise control of
rapid and forceful motion in a small area,
for example striking a defined region of
the opponent’s body. Therefore the Shark
Skill test may examine elements specific to
a MMA athlete’s agility, although further
research in the validity of the test is
warranted.
◆ ◆ BODY COMPOSITION
Recommended Assessments
Elite-level martial artists have been
described to possess high levels of fat-
free body mass compared to fat-mass,
implicating low percentages of body fat.
A consistent anthropometric measure
in the literature is the implementation
of skin-fold measures to assess body fat
percentage (1-4). A negative correlation
between body fat percentage and success
in judo athletes was noted in three
studies (1, 2, 4).
It is thus recommended a fitness profile
include assessment of body fat through
skin-fold measures, or more advanced
methodology such as hydrostatic weighing,
or air displacement if the resources are
available.
◆ ◆ JUDO SPECIFIC FITNESS TEST
A valid sport specific test that has been
implemented in the sport of judo is
the Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT)
described by Sterkowicz and Franchini et
al (1, 2, 6), the test does not isolate individual
performance variables, yet combines all
elements of martial arts competition and
provides a performance index based on
heart rate and the sport specific task of a
judo throw.
This test is an example in which the overall
sport specific fitness level can be derived,
yet the individual elements/variables of
performance cannot be directly isolated.
The SJFT is a valid measure of
projected performance in martial
arts competition (1, 2, 6), and should be
implemented after specific training goals
have been met, thus determining if the
overall level of sport specific performance
has increased.
OVERALL RECOMMENDATION
Based upon the results of this review it
is suggested that the clinician working
with a MMA athlete implement
measures of the following physiological
APPENDIX: NASM Literature Review   /90
and anthropometric variables; aerobic
capacity and anaerobic power output,
muscular strength, muscular endurance,
muscular power, flexibility, agility, and
body composition. The preceding variables
have been linked to success in martial
arts competition or their favorable values
represent the fitness profiles of elite-level
martial artists.
When working with a MMA athlete the
clinician’s goal of improving performance
within their combative sport is similar
to when working with a client from a
traditional sport; in which performance
enhancement is the focus. Assessment
and program design for a MMA athlete is
similar to that of an athlete in a traditional
sport setting.
The most influential elements of a
MMA specific fitness profile have been
presented in this review. The information
presented suggests that once the clinician
has obtained measures of the described
elements of a MMA fitness profile they
should design their training program
to meet the needs of the client through
traditional training methodology.
The overall goal of the training program
should focus on improving the client’s
MMA fitness profile, thus enhancing their
performance in the sport of MMA.
REFERENCES
1. Franchini E, Nunes AV, Moraes JM, Del Vecchio FB. Physical
fitness and anthropometrical profile of the Brazilian male judo team. J
Physiol Anthropol. Mar 2007;26(2):59-67.
2. Franchini E, Takito MY, Kiss, Sterkowicz S. Physical fitness
and anthropometrical differences between elite and non-elite judo
players. Biology of Sport. 2005;22(4):315-328.
3. Markovic G, Misigoj-Durakovic M, Trninic S. Fitness profile of
elite croatian female taekwondo athletes. Collegium Antropologicum.
2005;29(1):93-99.
4. Robertson P, LaHart I. The design of a judo-specific strength and
conditioning programme. Journal of Sports Therapy. Winter 2009
2009;3(1):1-5.
5. Sbriccoli P, Bazzucchi I, Di Mario A, Marzattinocci G, Felici F.
Assessment of maximal cardiorespiratory performance and muscle
power in the Italian Olympic judoka. J Strength Cond Res. Aug
2007;21(3):738-744.
6. Sterkowicz S, Franchini E. Specific fitness of elite and novice
judoists. Journal of Human Kinetics. 2001;6:91-98.
7. Thompson W, Vinueza C. Physiologic profile of tae kwon do black
belts. Sports medicine, training and rehabilitation. 1991;3(1):49-53.
8. Bosco C, Luhtanen P, Komi P. A simple Method measurement
of mechanical power in jumping. European Journal of Applied
Physiology. 1983;50(1):273-282.
9. Margeria R. Measurement of muscular power (anaerobic) in man.
Journal of Applied Physiology. 1966;21(1):1662-1664.
10. Cooper KH. A means of assessing maximal oxygen intake.
Correlation between field and treadmill testing. JAMA. Jan 15
1968;203(3):201-204.
11. Leger LA, Lambert J. A maximal multistage 20-m shuttle
run test to predict VO2 max. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol.
1982;49(1):1‑12.
APPENDIX B
ONE REP MAXIMUM (1RM) CONVERSION
Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps

5 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 100 133 129 125 121 118 114 111 108 105

10 13 13 13 12 12 11 11 11 11 105 140 135 131 127 124 120 117 114 111

15 20 19 19 18 18 17 17 16 16 110 147 142 138 133 129 126 122 119 116

20 27 26 25 24 24 23 22 22 21 115 153 148 144 139 135 131 128 124 121

25 33 32 31 30 29 29 28 27 26 120 160 155 150 145 141 137 133 130 126

30 40 39 38 36 35 34 33 32 32 125 167 161 156 152 147 143 139 135 132

35 47 45 44 42 41 40 39 38 37 130 173 168 163 158 153 149 144 141 137

40 53 52 50 48 47 46 44 43 42 135 180 174 169 164 159 154 150 146 142

45 60 58 56 55 53 51 50 49 47 140 187 181 175 170 165 160 156 151 147

50 67 65 63 61 59 57 56 54 53 145 193 187 181 176 171 166 161 157 153

55 73 71 69 67 65 63 61 59 58 150 200 194 188 182 176 171 167 162 158

60 80 77 75 73 71 69 67 65 63 155 207 200 194 188 182 177 172 168 163

65 87 84 81 79 76 74 72 70 68 160 213 206 200 194 188 183 178 173 168

70 93 90 88 85 82 80 78 76 74 165 220 213 206 200 194 189 183 178 174

75 100 97 94 91 88 86 83 81 79 170 227 219 213 206 200 194 189 184 179

80 107 103 100 97 94 91 89 86 84 175 233 226 219 212 206 200 194 189 184

85 113 110 106 103 100 97 94 92 89 180 240 232 225 218 212 206 200 195 189

90 120 116 113 109 106 103 100 97 95 185 247 239 231 224 218 211 206 200 195

95 127 123 119 115 112 109 106 103 100 190 253 245 238 230 224 217 211 205 200
 APPENDIX: One Rep Maximum (1RM) Conversion   /92

Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps
195 260 252 244 236 229 223 217 211 205 325 433 419 406 394 382 371 361 351 342

200 267 258 250 242 235 229 222 216 211 330 440 426 413 400 388 377 367 357 347

205 273 265 256 248 241 234 228 222 216 335 447 432 419 406 394 383 372 362 353

210 280 271 263 255 247 240 233 227 221 340 453 439 425 412 400 389 378 368 358

215 287 277 269 261 253 246 239 232 226 345 460 445 431 418 406 394 383 373 363

220 293 284 275 267 259 251 244 238 232 350 467 452 438 424 412 400 389 378 368

225 300 290 281 273 265 257 250 243 237 355 473 458 444 430 418 406 394 384 374

230 307 297 288 279 271 263 256 249 242 360 480 465 450 436 424 411 400 389 379

235 313 303 294 285 276 269 261 254 247 365 487 471 456 442 429 417 406 395 384

240 320 310 300 291 282 274 267 259 253 370 493 477 463 448 435 423 411 400 389

245 327 316 306 297 288 280 272 265 258 375 500 484 469 455 441 429 417 405 395

250 333 323 313 303 294 286 278 270 263 380 507 490 475 461 447 434 422 411 400

255 340 329 319 309 300 291 283 276 268 385 513 497 481 467 453 440 428 416 405

260 347 335 325 315 306 297 289 281 274 390 520 503 488 473 459 446 433 422 411

265 353 342 331 321 312 303 294 286 279 395 527 510 494 479 465 451 439 427 416

270 360 348 338 327 318 309 300 292 284 400 533 516 500 485 471 457 444 432 421

275 367 355 344 333 324 314 306 297 289 405 540 523 506 491 476 463 450 438 426

280 373 361 350 339 329 320 311 303 295 410 547 529 513 497 482 469 456 443 432

285 380 368 356 345 335 326 317 308 300 415 553 535 519 503 488 474 461 449 437

290 387 374 363 352 341 331 322 314 305 420 560 542 525 509 494 480 467 454 442

295 393 381 369 358 347 337 328 319 311 425 567 548 531 515 500 486 472 459 447

300 400 387 375 364 353 343 333 324 316 430 573 555 538 521 506 491 478 465 453

305 407 394 381 370 359 349 339 330 321 435 580 561 544 527 512 497 483 470 458

310 413 400 388 376 365 354 344 335 326 440 587 568 550 533 518 503 489 476 463

315 420 406 394 382 371 360 350 341 332 445 593 574 556 539 524 509 494 481 468

320 427 413 400 388 376 366 356 346 337 450 600 581 563 545 529 514 500 486 474
 APPENDIX: One Rep Maximum (1RM) Conversion   /93

Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps
455 607 587 569 552 535 520 506 492 479 585 780 755 731 709 688 669 650 632 616

460 613 594 575 558 541 526 511 497 484 590 787 761 738 715 694 674 656 638 621

465 620 600 581 564 547 531 517 503 489 595 793 768 744 721 700 680 661 643 626

470 627 606 588 570 553 537 522 508 495 600 800 774 750 727 706 686 667 649 632

475 633 613 594 576 559 543 528 514 500 605 807 781 756 733 712 691 672 654 637

480 640 619 600 582 565 549 533 519 505 610 813 787 763 739 718 697 678 659 642

485 647 626 606 588 571 554 539 524 511 615 820 794 769 745 724 703 683 665 647

490 653 632 613 594 576 560 544 530 516 620 827 800 775 752 729 709 689 670 653

495 660 639 619 600 582 566 550 535 521 625 833 806 781 758 735 714 694 676 658

500 667 645 625 606 588 571 556 541 526 630 840 813 788 764 741 720 700 681 663

505 673 652 631 612 594 577 561 546 532 635 847 819 794 770 747 726 706 686 668

510 680 658 638 618 600 583 567 551 537 640 853 826 800 776 753 731 711 692 674

515 687 665 644 624 606 589 572 557 542 645 860 832 806 782 759 737 717 697 679

520 693 671 650 630 612 594 578 562 547 650 867 839 813 788 765 743 722 703 684

525 700 677 656 636 618 600 583 568 553 655 873 845 819 794 771 749 728 708 689

530 707 684 663 642 624 606 589 573 558 660 880 852 825 800 776 754 733 714 695

535 713 690 669 648 629 611 594 578 563 665 887 858 831 806 782 760 739 719 700

540 720 697 675 655 635 617 600 584 568 670 893 865 838 812 788 766 744 724 705

545 727 703 681 661 641 623 606 589 574 675 900 871 844 818 794 771 750 730 711

550 733 710 688 667 647 629 611 595 579 680 907 877 850 824 800 777 756 735 716

555 740 716 694 673 653 634 617 600 584 685 913 884 856 830 806 783 761 741 721

560 747 723 700 679 659 640 622 605 589 690 920 890 863 836 812 789 767 746 726

565 753 729 706 685 665 646 628 611 595 695 927 897 869 842 818 794 772 751 732

570 760 735 713 691 671 651 633 616 600 700 933 903 875 848 824 800 778 757 737

575 767 742 719 697 676 657 639 622 605 705 940 910 881 855 829 806 783 762 742

580 773 748 725 703 682 663 644 627 611 710 947 916 888 861 835 811 789 768 747
 APPENDIX: One Rep Maximum (1RM) Conversion   /94

Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps Pounds 10 reps 9 reps 8 reps 7 reps 6 reps 5 reps 4 reps 3 reps 2 reps
715 953 923 894 867 841 817 794 773 753 845 1127 1090 1056 1024 994 966 939 914 889

720 960 929 900 873 847 823 800 778 758 850 1133 1097 1063 1030 1000 971 944 919 895

725 967 935 906 879 853 829 806 784 763 855 1140 1103 1069 1036 1006 977 950 924 900

730 973 942 913 885 859 834 811 789 768 900 1200 1161 1125 1091 1059 1029 1000 973 947

735 980 948 919 891 865 840 817 795 774 905 1207 1168 1131 1097 1065 1034 1006 978 953

740 987 955 925 897 871 846 822 800 779 910 1213 1174 1138 1103 1071 1040 1011 984 958

745 993 961 931 903 876 851 828 805 784 915 1220 1181 1144 1109 1076 1046 1017 989 963

750 1000 968 938 909 882 857 833 811 789 920 1227 1187 1150 1115 1082 1051 1022 995 968

755 1007 974 944 915 888 863 839 816 795 925 1233 1194 1156 1121 1088 1057 1028 1000 974

760 1013 981 950 921 894 869 844 822 800 930 1240 1200 1163 1127 1094 1063 1033 1005 979

765 1020 987 956 927 900 874 850 827 805 935 1247 1206 1169 1133 1100 1069 1039 1011 984

770 1027 994 963 933 906 880 856 832 811 940 1253 1213 1175 1139 1106 1074 1044 1016 989

775 1033 1000 969 939 912 886 861 838 816 945 1260 1219 1181 1145 1112 1080 1050 1022 995

780 1040 1006 975 945 918 891 867 843 821 950 1267 1226 1188 1152 1118 1086 1056 1027 1000

785 1047 1013 981 952 924 897 872 849 826 955 1273 1232 1194 1158 1124 1091 1061 1032 1005

790 1053 1019 988 958 929 903 878 854 832 960 1280 1239 1200 1164 1129 1097 1067 1038 1011

795 1060 1026 994 964 935 909 883 859 837 965 1287 1245 1206 1170 1135 1103 1072 1043 1016

800 1067 1032 1000 970 941 914 889 865 842 970 1293 1252 1213 1176 1141 1109 1078 1049 1021

805 1073 1039 1006 976 947 920 894 870 847 975 1300 1258 1219 1182 1147 1114 1083 1054 1026

810 1080 1045 1013 982 953 926 900 876 853 980 1307 1265 1225 1188 1153 1120 1089 1059 1032

815 1087 1052 1019 988 959 931 906 881 858 985 1313 1271 1231 1194 1159 1126 1094 1065 1037

820 1093 1058 1025 994 965 937 911 886 863 990 1320 1277 1238 1200 1165 1131 1100 1070 1042

825 1100 1065 1031 1000 971 943 917 892 868 995 1327 1284 1244 1206 1171 1137 1106 1076 1047

830 1107 1071 1038 1006 976 949 922 897 874 1000 1333 1290 1250 1212 1176 1143 1111 1081 1053

835 1113 1077 1044 1012 982 954 928 903 879

840 1120 1084 1050 1018 988 960 933 908 884