Electromagnetic Relays Operating principles of relays - the Universal relay — Torque equation — R-X diagram — Electromagnetic Relays — Overcurrent, Directional, Distance, Differential, Negative sequence and Under frequency relays. 2.1, INTRODUCTION ~ ROLE OF PROTECTION RELAY Energy provides the power to Progress. In a power system consisting of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution circuits, it is inevitable that some failure may occur somewhere in the system. When a failure occurs on any part of the system, it must be quickly detected and disconnected from the system. Principal reasons for clear the fault @ If the fault is not cleared quickly it may cause unnecessary interruption of service to customers. @ Quick recovery from fault limits the amount of damage to the equipment and prevents the effects of fault from spreading into the system. Protective Relaying The Protective relaying is the monitoring process which senses the abnormal conditions in a part of the power system and gives an alarm or isolates that part from the healthy system. Y The deflection of a fault and disconnection of a faulty section or equipment can be achieved by using fuses or relays in conjunction with circuit breakers. A fuse performs both detection and interruption functions automatically but its use is limited for the protection of low-voltage circuits only.Protection and Switchgeg,| | 2.2 it breakers are employeq tl ireuil f Y For high voltages above 3.3KV, relays aS safeguard the equipments and the whole system. . i Circuit breaker whi.) The relays detect the fault and supply information to the er Which performs the function of circuit interruption. Se ee 2.2, PROTECTIVE RELAYS Detinitions : | © A Protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operatig, of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest Of the) system, © Relay: Relay is a device by means of which an electric circuit is controlleg| by change in the other circuit. Protective relay is a device which closes its contacts, when operating quantity reaches certain predetermined magnitude/phase. Closing of, relay contact, initiates the operation of circuit breaker. | @ Relay: A relay is an automatic device by means of which an electrical cireuit, 'is indirectly controlled. (opened or closed) and is governed by a change in th same or another electrical circuit. | | 2.2.1. A TYPICAL RELAY CIRCUIT | ‘An important element of any Protective relaying scheme is a relay, | ¥ The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuit by} constantly measuring the electrical quantities which ate different under nord! and fault conditions, | v The electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are vow | current, frequency and phase angle. Though the changes in one ot mor | these quantities the faults signal and their Presence, type and location are to easily detected. Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of breaker. This results in the opening of the breaker and disconnection of Saulty circuit. ee JElectromagnetic Relays P 9N Plunger Circuit i Breaker ol ~ Ae Circuit te Transformer &. Relay C Load Fig. 2.1. Components — Protective relaying A simple relay circuit is shown in Figure 2.2. Usually the relay circuit is a three phase circuit but this diagram shows one phase of 34, system for illustration. Bus bar — Battery Trip Circuit ie | H 4 \ee + Relay contacts Relay coil Trip coll ——+ cB. | t | | t ' Circuit to be Protected Fig. 2.2. Typical relay circuit“4 Protection and SWitchgea, The operational parts of the relay circuits are @ First part is the primary winding of a Current Transformer (C.T), whj connected in series with the lines to be protected. @ Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the relay Operating coil. ich jg © Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or d.c. It consi source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the stationai contacts. ¥ When a fault occurs at point ‘P’ on the transmission line, flowing in the line increases to an enormous value. This heavy current flow through the relay coil, causing the relay t closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker opeiand isolating the faulty section from the Test of the system, In this way, the relay ensures the Safety of the circuit damage and normal working of the healthy portion of the Sts of IY Telay , the curren results in g 10 operate by v (Cr) System equipment from system. Causes of a fault or Short Circuits 1. Over voltage due to switching Over voltage due to the direct and indirect lightning strokes. Bridging of conductors by birds yen Breakdown of insulation due to decrease of its dielectric strength. Mechanical damage to the equipment, ; 2.3. CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS : 2.3.1, RELAYS - ACCORDING TO OPERATING PRINCIPLE Most of the relays in service on electrical power system are of electro-mechanical ‘ype. They work on the following two main operating principles. (i) Electromagnetic Attraction (i) Electromagnetic Induction So, basic relays based on their operating principles are. 1, Electromagnetic Attraction Relays 2. Electromagnetic Induction Relays| Electromagnetic Relays 2.3.2, RELAYS - ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTION (i Electromagnetic Relays (a) Attracted armature type Relay (b) Solenoid type Relay (c) Balanced beam type Relay (a) Moving coil type Relay (©) Moving Iron type Relay. + Such relays are actuated by a.c. or d.c. quantities (ii) Induction Relay (a) Shaded pole structure type (or) Induction disc type Relay. (b) Watt-hour metre (or) Double winding structure type Relay (©) Induction Cup type Relay. ‘ uses the principle of Induction motor. * Actuated by a.c. quantities only. (iii) Electro thermal Relay & Used for thermal overload protection using bimetallic strips. (iv) Physico-electric Relay * Bucholtz relay is under this kind, utilized in transformer Protection. Gas Operated (») Electro - dynamic Relay ** Operate on the same principles as the moving coil instruments. (vi) Static Relay * Such relays employing thermionic valves, transistors or amplifiers to obtain the operating characteristics, (vii) Micro Processor RelayB Protection and Switchgear Y In an electromagnetic, the driving torque is created based on saicleceical ei electronic principle. While the restraining torque is generally Pp} th the help of springs. ¥ The two torques are mechanically compared and the relay operators when driving or operating toque is more than the restraining torque. Ty— Driving torque T, — Restraining torque crate 7 Pe Thus, the relay operates when the resultant torque Ty is positive) s LAYS 2.5, ELECTROMAGNETIC RI 2.5.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE : _— V These are simplest type of relays. These relays have a coil, which is energized by the operating quantity. which may be proportional to circuit current or voltage. yA plunger or rotating iron vane is subjected to the action of magnetic field produced by the operating quantity. It is basically a single actuating quantity relay. The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap. The total actuating force may be expressed as F= KP-K, - ..) where F — Net force i K — aconstant of current coil converting the current to force: K, — the restraining force including friction I — ms value of the Operating current, When this type of relay is.on the verge of pick-up, the net force is zero. $0 from equation (2.1) og KP? = wee (22)Electromagnetic Relays Characteristics of Electromagnetic Relays : sa being ¥ Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an armal ies attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or & plunger being drawn solenoid. Such relays may be actuated by de or a.c. quantities. Y These relays are non-directional and also termed as magnitude relays. ¥ Simpler in construction and very fast in operation. Hence, they are also caused as instantaneous relays. ¥ These relays are normally used as under current, short circuit, overvoltage under voltage relays in distribution circuits. Types of Electromagnetic Relays 1, Attracted armature type relay " Solenoid type relay . Balanced beam type relay . Moving coil type relay wpwn . Moving iron type relay 2.5.2. ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE RELAY Figure 2.3 shows the schematic of an attracted armature type relay. 99 i coi \ | eee GSU _ Fig. 2.3. Attracted armature Relay Magnet M {OWAANINNATES NNN CC) It consists of a laminated electromagnet ‘M’ carrying a coil ‘C’ and a pivoted laminated armature. The armature is balanced’ by a counterweight and carries a pair of spring contact fingers at its end. E : Under Normal Operating conditions, the current flows through the relay coil ‘C’ in such way that Counterweight holds the armature in the position as shown in Figure 2.3.2.10 Protection and Switchgea When a fault or Short Circuit occurs the current through the relay coil increases sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on the Telay armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the relay frame. This completes the trip circuit which results in the opening of the circuit breake, and therefore in the disconnection of the faulty circuit. Pick up Current: The minimum currents at which the relay armature is attracteg to close the trip circuit is called pick up current. : Y Generally the number of tappings are provided on the relay coil with which ig turns can- be selected as per the requirement. This is used to adjust the sq value of an operating quantity at which relay should operate. Y An important advantage of such relays is their high operating speed. The current-time characteristics of such relays, ‘is hyperbolic as shown in Figure 2.4. 40-+ 2 30. 2 2+ 10+ & spe aC RRERENEE EEE o> , > t+—_ +++ 4 Current in % setting 100 200 300 = 400. 500 Fig. 2.4. Current-time characteristics of armature type relay SOLENOID AND PLUNGER TYPE RELAY Pigaing 2.5 shows the schematic of a solenoid -type relay which works on u principle of electromagnetic attraction, It consists of a solenoid which is nothing but an electromagnet. It also consis* a movable iron plunger. x A 7 : Under normal operating conditions 2.5(a) the current through the relay a C’ is such that it holds the plunger by gravity or spring in the position sho”211 Electromagnetic Relays e current through the relay coil becomes more than be attracted to the solenoid. The the trip circuit, thus opening the Y Under fault conditions, the the pickup values causing the plunger to upward movement of the plunger closes, circuit breaker and disconnecting the faulty circuit. ? ° = Input Electromagnet — eri | —j — coil 1 TTT it = Ly -——} : [7 tip c t circuit aa © To trip e circuit { | Movable wor t iron . plunger Iron’ =— Spring plunger (a) (b) Detailed View Fig. 2.5. Solenoid Type Relay 25a. HINGED AND POLARISED MOVING IRON TYPE OF ATTRACTED ARMATURE RELAY Electromagnet Vor! Input Fig. 2.6. Hinged armature typeProtection and Switchgeg 212 ‘Moving Iron To tip Circull Wg, Ss ~*o Fig. 2.7. Polarized moving iron type ‘As discussed in the operating principle . F=KIP? F = %K( 12 -P cos at) Contant Pulshting Since 2 = (,, sin ot? The coil is energized by current or voltage, a proportionate operating quantity, which produces a magnetic flux, thereby creating an electromagnetic flux. This force is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap or square of the current. This force increases, as the armature approaches the pole of electromagnet. This type of relay is used for protection of small machines. Also used for auxiliary relays, such as indicating relays (flags) alarm and annunciator relays etc. 2.5.5. BALANCED BEAM TYPE RELAY Trip Hi A f Fig. 2.8. Balanced beam typeElectromagnetic Relays Principle b jectromagnetic force is produced by the magnetic flux which in turn is produced Fe og erating quantity. The force exerted on the moving element is proportional to ne square of the flux in the air ap or square of the current. In cc electromagnetic relays this force is constant, If this force exceeds the restraining force, the telay operates reliably. Foc g? ~fora.e. relays F & K = constant — for dic. relays Spring —— a EY Be Contacts 1 -— Plunger t : Restraining * Operating coil coil Fig. 2.9. Balanced beam relay ~ Arrangement It consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam. The electromagnet in this has two windings, one is energised by the voltage and the other is energised by the current. Under normal operating conditions the current through the relay coil is such that the beam is held in the horizontal position by the spring. Under faulty conditions, the current through the relay coil becomes greater than the pickup value and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty circuit, Operating principle The net torque is : T=KT- KE (23) Where T—net torque 1, —current in operating coil J, current in restraining coilProtection and Switchgear At the verge of operation, net torque is zero, therefore, ae K, Ij - KI} =0 KR = KG} kK, ‘ 4 we (QS K, constant (2.4) 4 " The operating characteristics of balanced beam relay is shown in Figure 2.19 which is an approximate straight line, slightly curved for low currents due to effect of spring. The current which gives operating torque i.e. positive torque is called operating current. The other one is called restraining current. If one of the coils is actuated by voltage say V, other by current I, then the equation is V;/I= K constant, This principle is used in impedance relays. = Balanced beam relay is difficult to be designed over a wide range current because the force is proportional to I”. @ The relays of this type is fast and instantaneous. Operating characteristic (Dark) Ideal characteristic Sy Effect of Negative Torque Tegion spring Operating Current I Restraining Current Fig. 2.10. Operating characteristics of balanced beam relay 2.5.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC MOVING COIL RELAYS Moving coil relays has two types and this relay responds to d.c, only. 1. Rotary moving coil 2. Axial moving coilElectromagnetic Relays 1. Rotary Moving Coil oe To trip coil a? }*— Permanent Tot Magnet TC. N s / Moving 7 (Ks Contact \ 7 Moving coil, Moving coll. Aluminium former Fixed contact -@) (by It consist of a permanent magnet, coil wound on nonmagnetic former, spring, spindle etc. as shown in Figure 2.11. The coil is energised by the fault current. Due to the interaction of the permanent magnetic field and the field due to the coil moving torque is developed. Due to this the spindle rotates and closes the trip circuits. It has i ' 1 1 1 1 t 1 Ze Up negative time-current characteristics as shown in Pick Current Fi ; . ‘igure 2.11 (c) © Fig, 2.11. Rotary moving Net force F oc NHIL coil relay. Where ? N — Number of turns, I - Current in the coil, H — Magnetic field, L — Length of coil2.16 Protection and Switchgear 2. Axlal Moving Coll Relay This kind of relay has axially suspended coil wound on a former. The coil has only axial movement. When the coil is energised by the current, magnetic field is developed and this magnitude field is repelled by the already existing permanent magnet. Due to this, contact gets closed. This relay is more sensitive and faster than the rotary moving coil relay. Pemfanent Magnet o— Totrip O— circuit Axially suspended Fig. 2.12. Axial Moving Coil Relay 2.5.7. POLARISED MOVING IRON RELAYS These are moving iron relays with an additional polarizing feature. Polarizing p quantity is one that produces flux in dj Contacts addition to the main flux. A moving iron s relay can be polarized by providing a permanent magnet in.its magnetic circuit. "Figure 2.13 shows a polarized moving iron relays, Polarization increases the sensitivity of the relay, the other features of the relay as combinations of speed, __ sensitivity, TT characteristics, etc. can be modified by means of polarization. I Permanent magnet Fig. 2.13. Polarized Moving Iron RelayElectromagnetic Relays 2.5.8. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS Advantages are v Fast operation and Fast reset Y Relays are compact, simple, reliable and robust. Y Used with both a.c. and d.c. : Y High operating speed with operating time in few milliseconds. Disadvantages are ¥ Due to fast operation, the relay can operate during transients and may cause faulty operation. Y Non directional operation Applications VY Over/Under current relays Over/Under voltage relays Earth fault protection relays v v v Differential protection es. INDUCTION RELAYS 2.6.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION RELAY Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of induction motor and are widely used for protecting relaying purposes involving a.c. quantities not with d.c. quantities, Concept An induction relay essentially consists of a pivoted Aluminium disc placed in two alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency of displaced in time and space. The torque is produced in the dise by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents induced in the disc by the other. 2.6.2, TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION RELAY Torque is produced in these relays when one alternating flux reacts with eddy currents induced in a rotor by another alternating flux of the same frequency but displaced in time and space.Protection and Switchgear 2.18 in Figure 2.14. The alternating The illustrative elementary arrangement shown it and . These two currents to two electromagnets produce two alternating fluxes >, fluxes have same frequency but they have a phase difference of «. 42 o Fig. 2.14, Induction Relay-Torque, production 6, = >, max sin ot : (2.5) b> =) max sin (ot + «) ++ (2.6) where 6, leads 4, by an angle of « . By assuming negligible self-inductance, the rotor currents will become in-phase with their voltages. Hence, ; $ ' i eda (27) Sub 4, A d : iy cc Gp ($) max sin ot) after differentiation i) & ymax cos at ve 2.8) and fo ey +29) it becomes iy & $) max cos (wt + &) «..(2.10)Electromagnetic Relays aio Now, forces are Fy & by i 11) Fy by fy oe(2.12) Fig. 2.15. Two forces in operation Figure 2.15 shows that the two forces are in operation ©. Net force Fo F-F, © bio b Fec 9; max sin (@t + &) max cos at — «(2.13) ymax sin ot, max cos (ot + a) Fee ; max $, max [sin (wt + a) cos wt — sin wt cos (ot + a)] Foc $, max $) max sin 0. Fed $ sina «+ (2.14) where $, and 4, are the r.m.s values of the fluxes, Net force F cc $) 4, sina Points to note © The greater the phase angle a. between the fluxes, the greater is the net force applied to the disc. Maximum force at two fluxes are 90° out of phase. © The direction of the net force which decides the direction of rotation of disc. 2.6.3. TYPES OF STRUCTURES The following three types of structures are commonly used for obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes and hence the operating torque in induction relays. 1. Shaded - Pole Structure 2, Watt-hour - Meter (or) Double Winding Structure 3. Induction Cup Structure a2.20) Protection and Switchgear 2.6.4, SHADED POLE TYPE INDUCTION RELAY The schematic arrangement of shaded pole structure is shown in 2.16. Flux Shading ring Teal a fiat a ; - ey : : Input [+ —— i ot | coil : n ‘Shading ring Fig. 2.16. Shaded pole induction relay $y — Flux in unshaded portion ,— Flux in shaded portion E, - EMF due to 6, E,—EMF due to , 1, - current due to E, I, — current due to E,. Shaded pole structure consists of a pivoted aluminium disc free to rotate in the air gap of an electromagnet. One half of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring. Due to the alternating flux 4;,.e.m.f gets induced in the shading ring. This emf. drives the currents causing the flux to exist in shaded portion. This flux lags behind, the flux in the unshaded portion by angle a. As proved, the driving torque T is given by : T x 6, 6, sina w- (215) Assuming the fluxes 4, and 4, to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil. T « Psina, TAKR Thus the torque is proportional to the square of current in relay coil. «--(2.16) ..(2.17)Blectromagnetic Relays cf Fig. 2.17, Vector diagram of fluxes and current for shaded pole induction dise relay ig. 2.17. 2.6.5, WATT-HOUR METER (OR) DOUBLE WINDING STRUCTURE In this structure, there are two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries two windings; the primary and the secondary. Figure . 2.18 Upper magnet clearly depicts the ¢ f arrangements 2 E > B poe double winding n -_ ° structure. In that, > 1-3) Secondary winding I the primary 2 | winding carries the 4 J A relay current 1, ie Which induces emf ; < in the secondary ~ 4 i and so circulates a [| ra . 1 Current I, in it, | ars otra Due to this arrangement the Fig, 2.18. Double Winding Structure leakage fx entering the dise from the upy Magnet are ‘orque in th . . m the lower per magnet and the leakage flux entering the disc fro driving roduce the displaced sufficiently in phase and thus the two fluxes P le disc, B2.22 Protection and Switchgear The flux $, induces in the lower magnet by the current in the secondary winding of the upper magnet will lag behind f, by an angle o.. The two fluxes 6, and $, differing in phase by « will produce a driving torque on the disc proportional to $,2 sin a. Tx $)9) sina Majority of the induction type relays are of the double winding structure. An important feature of the double winding induction type relay is that its operation can be controlled by opening or closing the secondary winding circuit. If this circuit is opened, no torque will be produced and thus the relay can be made inoperative. 2.6.6. INDUCTION CUP STRUCTURE “Y 7 ° = 1 yo To trip . oy circuit Sy F 4 t —f ° Stationary core Se ° Fig. 2.19. Induction Cup Relay Induction Cup relays operate on the same principle as the induction motor. v Here, the rotor conductor portion being free to rotate. v The moving element is a hollow metal cylinder or cup, which turns on its axis. The driving element consists of four or more poles placed radially around the outside of the cylinder and joined by an iron yoke. Y To shorter the air gap without increasing the inertia, a stationary iron core is placed inside the rotatable cylinder. Y This type of structure can be of single winding or double winding type and is used for high speed induction relays because the moment of inertia can be made much smaller.Electromagnetic Relays DIRECTIONAL RELAYS (OVER CURRENT RELAY OR EARTH FAULT RELAY) 2.7.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Active power flowing through an electric circuit is given by P=Vicos$ where 6 is a phase angle between I and V. The reactive power is given by VI sin >. Figure 2.20 shows a’ vector diagram of power. Line of zero power = y—— Region of x negative cos} Region of positive cos Reference Fig. 2.20. Vector diagram of power By referring the Figure 2.20, For 270° < < +90°, cos ¢ is positive, hence real power P is positive For @ = 90° and 180°, real power P is zero For +90° < < +270° real power P is negative. ; So, the power flow can be sensed by sensing the magnitude and sign . VI cos $. The voltage coil of the directional relay is supplied from secondary e Voltage transformer. The current coil is supplied from the secondary of curre i ower is transformer. The directional relay senses the power and responds if the p Positive.Proce = 2.24 2.7.2, USES OF DIRECTIONAL RELAYS ¥ Directional protection responds to flow of power in a definite direction with reference to the location of current transformer’s CT’s and potentia transformer’s PT’s, directional relays respond to t the magnitude_and sign (direction) of. power applied at their | terminals. Y Directional relays are used in protective system as elements which judge the direction of power flow. ne ee 2.7.3. KINDS OF DIRECTIONAL RELAYS (i) Directional Power Relays “7 * Gi) Directional Over current Relays @) (iii) Directional Earth Fault Relays 7 4, CONSTRUCTION OF A.C. DIRECTIONAL RELAY we When directional feature is desired, the relay is provided with two actuating coils called “Current coil” and “Voltage coil”. Figure 2.21 illustrates the construction of an a.c. directional relay. “ To line C.T. I & = — i i 4 ER A Aluminium Sector ———— I |_— Shading i—| Ring Resistance To line V.T. Fig, 2.21. Directional relay2.25 Electromagnetic Relays The current coils of the relays are connected to the secondary of current transformers CT's, The voltage coils of directional relay are connected to the secondary of potential transformers PT’s (110V). Directional relay connections Y Depending upon the phase angle between current and voltage in the relay Coils, the connection is called 90°, 60°, 30° connection. ¥ The values of angles refer to the phase angle between current of the current coil and voltage of the voltage coil, Maximum torque angle It is the angle between current in the current coil and voltage applied to voltage coil to obtain maximum torque. Maximum torque angle has typical values such as 0°, 30°, lead 45° etc. OPERATION OF DIRECTIONAL ELEMENT Voltage O- coil ara t—~ }-—~ {—~f -O o Ld |O- 1oO———— Current ot leo coil | mt j >» ee ae | ete | Fig. 2.22. Directional Element of RelayProtection and Switchgear 2.26 Fi 2.22 shows the moving system of induction type directional relay igure 2. ich i ical spind| comprises an Aluminium sector and a contact which is fixed to a vert spindle fitted with hardened steel pivots. “The hair spring, which is attached to the spindle at one end andl to the main frame at the other, is equipped with a torsion setting device and it serves two ~ purposes first as the electrical connection from the moving contact to the main frame and then secondly as control spring, Figure 2.23 shows a schematic arrangement of directional relay which shows with clear depiction of connecting directional element and Non-directional element. When a fault occurs Directional element “The fault current flows through current coil, of the relay which produces a flux is the lower magnet of the directional element while the current in the voltage coil produces another flux in this upper-magnet of the directional element, The two fluxes produce a torque tending to close its directional element contacts. Non-direction element The relay current also flows through the winding over the upper magnet of the non-directional element and therefore produces a flux in this magnet, This flux induces an emf in the winding over the lower magnet of the non- directional element. Since this winding provides a closed path, the induced emf circulates a current which therefore produces another flux. * The two fluxes then produce a torque on the disc of the non-directional element to close the contacts in the trip circuit. The movement of the non-directional element is controlled by the directional element i.e., the directional element must operate first is order to operate the non-directional element. Directional relays torque relation is T a Vicos (@-a) Where 0=90-a a=90-8 Thus, the torque is proportional to active power. Such relay is called active power relay.Electromagnetic Relays = i i = o at C= o———_| 5 74 & 3 § |} | 5 = = & Voltage L a : Plug setting bridge Current HoOooo0oo 2 VWI Contacts in I$ ~~ Tripping circuit Ul WW Fig. 2.23. Direction relay arrangement(28) Protection and Switchgea Figure 2.24 and 2.25 ‘shows the connection diagrams of 30° and 90° with the maximum torque angle of directional relay. as eel R Yew L -y F B & ver y N BE current , EEE or Yov b ly RI} Y] 8) net bb 3 Veo [3 R i ra — BS i | [We ye 6° Vey 3 B (a) O) Fig. 2.24, 30° connection diagram of directional relay + AP R t t ¥ Y oar B Over ‘current elements Wa [38 _ + C i [1 Tee [3 ¥ ge [ve 3 8 (a) (e) Fig. 2.25. 90° Connection diagram 2.7.6. FEATURES OF DIRECTIONAL RELAY Features of Directional relay are (i)_high speed of operation (ii) high sensitivityElectromagnetic Relays 2.29 Gii) ability to operate with low values of voltage (iv) adequate short-time thermal rating, (v) burden must not be excessive, and (vi) there should be no voltage, Creep and current creep, That is, if either the voltage coil alone or the current coil alone is energised with the other one un-energized there should be no contact movement. )) 2.8. DISTANCE RELAYS Distance protection is non-unit type protection. The distance protection is high speed protection and is simple to apply. It.can be used as a primary and back-up protection. ¥ Distance protection is a widely used protective scheme for the protection of high and extra high voltage transmission line. Y Distance relays can be used in Carrier ‘Aided Distance Schemes and in auto reclosing schemes. Distance protection is very widely used in protection of transmission lines. 2.8.1, INTRODUCTION TO DISTANCE PROTECTION Distance relays comes as different group of relays compared with conventional telays which are activated by the magnitude of current or power in the protected circuit, Y Distance relays are double actuating quantity relays with one coil energized by voltage and the other coil energized by current. The operating torque produced is such that when V/I reduces below a specified value, the relay operates. During a fault on a transmission line the fault current increases and the voltage at fault point reduces. The ratio V/I is measured at location of CT’s and PT’s (Current Transformers and Potential Transformers). The voltage at PT location depends on the distance between the PT and the fault. If fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser. If fault is further, measured voltage is more. Hence assuming constant fault resistance each value of V/I measured from relay location corresponds to distance between the relaying point and the fault. Hence such protection is called Jmpedance protection or Distance protection. v v2.30 e Protection and Switchgea, ¥ Modem distance relays provide high speed fault clearance. They are seq where overcurrent relays become slow. They are used for the protection of transmission and sub transmission lines at 400 KV, 220KV, 110 KV, 66ky and 33KV. Sometime’, they are also.used’at 11KV. Positive > Torque | Region Operating characteristic Effect of spring Negalive Torque Region Operating current + Ideal characteristic Restraining current ——~ : Fig. 2.26. Distance relay-Operating curve TYPES OF DISTANCE RELAYS 2. a PRO aeet The relay operates when the ratio V/I i.e., impedance is less than a predetermined value..As the ratio V/I affects the performance of these relays are also called ratio relays. Dependent on the ratio of V and I there are five types of distance relays. Impedance relay (ii) Reactance relay ~ (iii) Admittance relay(mho)) (iv) Ohm relay ~~ (v) Offset mho relay 2.8.3. IMPEDANCE RELAY purer Figure 2.27 illustrates the basic principle of operation of an impedance relay: Impedance relay consist of two elements, the voltage element of the relay is excited through a potential transformer (P.T) from the line to be protected. The current element of the relay is excited from a current transformer (C.T) in series with the transmission line. Ea L Blectromagnetic Relays Bai] .¥ The torque produced by the current element is balanced against torque produced by the voltage element, Thus the current element produces operating torque, pick torque which can be said to be positive torque. “¥_ The voltage element produces restraining torque, reset torque which can be said to be negative torque. So this relay is voltage restrained over currents relay. : ¥ Under normal conditions, the ratio of voltage V and current I is denoted as *Zy’ which is impedance of line. The relay is inoperative under this condition. ¥ When the fault occurs at point ‘F,’ in the protected zone. The impedance Zr between the point where the relay is installed and the point of fault will be less than Z, and hence the relay operates. PT tae pu | : = CT 4+—.—__>———_ \ B Secs ° LA $y oT } | Protected Coil Coil 1 Line Actuated Actuated Y by current by voltage Fig, 2.27. Impendence relay-schematic2.32. Protection and Switchgear 2.8.4, TYPES OF IMPEDANCE RELAY A distance or impedance relay is essentially an ohmmeter and operates whenever the impedance of the Protected zone falls below a pre-determined value, There are two types of distance relays (i) Definite-distance type impedance relay (i) Time-distance impedance relay 2.8.4.1, Definite-Distance Type Impedance Relay *% Definite relay which operates instantaneously for faults upto a pre-determined distance from the relay. Figure 2.28 shows the schematic of a definite-impedance relay. It consists of a Pivoted beam F and two electromagnets energised respectively by a current and voltage transformer in the protected circuit. * amature 7 IT] UIT. aaa it 4 tL» From PT. Restraining ee From CT, 9 coil Fig. 2.28. Definite-Impedance Relay * The armatures of the two electromagnets are mechanically coupled to the beam on the opposite sides of the fulcrum. : “The beam is provided with a bridging piece for the trip contacts. The relay is so designed that the torques produced by the two electromagnets, are in the opposite direction. * Under Normal conditions: The’ pull due to the voltage element is greatet than that of the current element, So, the relay contacts remain open. * When fault occurs: The applied voltage to the telay decreases and the current increases. The ratio of voltage to current ic., impedance falls below the pre-determined value. So, the pull of the current element will exceed that due to the voltage element and this causes the beam to tilt in a direction to close the trip contacts,a Electromagnetic Relays +(2.33 2.8.4.2. Time - Distance Impedance Relay A time-distance relay has its vital feature that it automatically adjusts its operating time according to the distance of the relay from the fault point i.e., Operating Time T o& V/I ow Z cc Distance -_——Jo— Pe trip o—~cirouit ° From PT. = rom PLT. — oS ; Ry Spiral spring coupling Voltage restraining magnet ° i From C.T. IPP mo CH tir De tT Induction type. i over ny current relay i i a = i i Fig, 2.29. Time-Distance impedance relay Figure 2.29 shows the schematic of a time-distance impedance relay Under normal conditions: The pull of the armature is more than that of the induction element and hence the trip circuit contacts remain open.2.34 Protection and Switchgeg, When fault occurs: The disc of the induction current clement starts to rotate ay Speed depending upon the operating current, As the rotation of the dise proceeds, the spiral spring coupling is wound up till the tension of the spring is sufficient to pul] the armature away from the voltage excited element, The spindle carrying the armature and bridging piece moves rapidly in response to the tension of the spring and trip contacts are closed. This opens the circuit breaker j, isolate the faulty portion. 2.8.5, R Z—relay is inoperative * Y-I Diagram of impedance relay Pos Torque Region Operating characteristic Negative Torque Region —— Vv Fig. 2.31. V-I diagram of Impedance relay Disadvantages of Impedance Relay “It is non-directional. Hence it is not possible to discriminate between internal and external faults. “> When fault occurs, the developments of instant arc and it’s arc resistance affects the performance of relay connected to it. * Asa large area is covered by the circle on each side on R — X plane, the power swings also can affect the performance of this relay. 2.8.6, REACTANCE RELAYS A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location, and is Not affected by variations in resistance. Hence its performance remains unaffected by are resistance during the occurrence of fault, z In case of a fault on the protected line, the measured reactance is the reactance of the line between the relay location and the fault point, _Protection and Switchgear 2.36 A simple form of electromagnetic induction cup type reactance relay is shown in simp! Figure 2.32. Eo = fe eens Phase Shifting circuit Phase angle Adjustment Fig. 2.32, Induction Cup Type Reactance Relay The current is the operating quantity, it produces flux in the upper, lower and right hand side poles. The right hand side pole flux is out of phase with the flux in the lower and upper poles because of the secondary winding which is closed by a phase shifting circuit and is placed on the-right hand side pole, The polarizing flux and the. right hand side pole flux interacts to produce the operating torque K,I?. The interaction of left hand side pole flux and the polarizing flux produces the restrain in torque. The phase angle adjustment circuit is connected in series with the voltage coil. A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location. Relay’s performance is not affected by arc resistance during the occurrence of the fault. In case of a fault, the relay measures the reactance of the line upto the fault point from the relay location. Operating Characteristics The relays operating characteristics on R— X diagram is a straight line parallel to X axis as shown in Figure 2.33. The operating torque is by current and the restrainin, directional element, The reactance relay may also be cal directional restraint. The directional element is a negative torque, when the current lags its voltage by 9 K, the torque T is g torque is by current, voltage led as over current relay with ranged to develop maximum 0°. If the spring control effect is Ty =K\ P-K,VIsing—K, sing = cos (90-9)Electromagnetic Relays 2.37 Block Tp Operating characteristic }——————_-R -R x Fig. 2.33. R—X diagram - characteristics of a reactance relay As the value of K; is very small, it can be neglected. “T= K,P-K, VIsing-K, Visind indicates reactive power. At the state of relay operation KP - K,Vising Kj - K,Vsing 2 oil x I Kjsing .. K& Z\ Z = sinp= Rr = X-—constant Operating torque will be more than the restraining torque for relay operation. In other words, the restraining torque should be less than the operating torque. * ie, K,VIsing < KP K,Vsing < KI ¥ sin &q Let current J is flowing through the primary of current transformers towards the external fault, As the current transformers are identical, the secondaries of current transformers will carry equal currents,Protection and Switchgeq, 2.46 y, no current will flow through the operating oj > Due to the connection of rela A | remain inoperative. So relay cannot operate i for the relay. Hence relay wil there is an external fault. Generator winding tobe protected * eseiial cr. J or. 7 v Differential relay Fig. 2.40. Current differential relay If fault occurs Consider now that an internal fault occurs at point F, as shown in the Figure 2.41. The current flows through the fault from both sides. Generator winding to be protected A a Internal fault kh T 4 I~ Differential relay Fig. 2.41. Differential Relay — Fault occurs - View > The two secondary currents through current transformers are not equal. The current flowing through the relay coil is now I, + In. This high current causes the relay to operate. > It should be noted that the fault current need not always flow to the fault from both sides. A flow on one side only or even some current flowing out of on¢ side while a large current entering the other side can cause differential relay !°Electromagnetic Relays operate. Thus the amount of current t flowing th iI depends upon the way the fault is being fed, ing through a relay coil depe1 Disadvantages of current differential relays are > ‘ Se = pee to a very small difference in the two currents, an isting due to impedance of pilot cables. > The relay is likely to operate inaccurately with heavy through currents flows. > Under severe through fault conditions, the current transformers may saturate and cause unequal secondary currents, The difference between the currents may approach the pickup value to cause the inaccurate operation for the relay. > The CTs differ slightly in terms of residual magnetism. In order to. overcome the above short comings/disadvantages, the differential protection scheme is modified, which is called as Merz-Price percentage differential protection scheme in which besides the operating coil, another coil called Restraining or Biased coil is employed. The operating coil is connected to the midpoint of the restraining coil. 2.9.3, MERZ-PRICE PROTECTION OR PERCENTAGE BIASED DIFFERENTIAL RELAY n Pere tarersi sed Ne aim > This relay is designed to operate to the differential current in terms of its fractional relation with the actual current flowing through the protected circuit. “ Alternator winding tobe protected ond cr. 5 Lu Totip Restraining coll —~ $F S ip circuit eo F. Pilot wire . Fig. 2.42. Merz-Price RelayProtection and Switchgeq, ‘Alternator winding to be protected on h A iN Percentage Restraining coil differential relay Fig. 2.43. Circuit Connection — Merz Price Relay Merz-Price protection with modification is having’ additional restraining coil connected in the pilot wire as shown in Figure 2.42. The circuit connection js illustrated in Figure 2.43. > The operating coil is connected to the mid-point of the restraint coil. The total number of ampere-turns becomes the sum of ampere turns in its two halves. ‘ N N ie thy ane a L+h which gives the average restraining current of 2 in N tums. Positive Torque | Negative Torque Region Differential operating current Iy+Ip Average Restraining Current Fig. 2.44. Operating characteristics Differential relayBleciromagnetic Relays Zz » For external faults, > 1 i 5 siete by the fests and Tz inerease as the magnitude of fault current is large and thereby ie Festaining torque increases whieh prevents the mal-opertion of 5 perating characteristic of di i i ywn in Figure 2.44, ifferential relay is as sho The ratio of a operating currents (ic., I; — I2) to the average fn , uth], F restraining current | i.e. |is a fixed percentage. Hence the relay is called percentage differential relay, As the restraining coil is also called as biased coil, the relay using this is also termed as biased differential relay. settings of Merz-Price Relays Ithas two principle settings, namely .> Setting of operating coil circuit (Basic setting) > Setting of restraining coil circuit Basic Setting: The percentage setting of operating coil is defined as the ratio of smallest current in operating coil to cause operation to the rated current of the operating coil, multiplied by 100. Restraining coil setting: i.e., pick-up value is defined as the ratio of current in the operating coil for causing operation to the current in the.restraining coil, multiplied by 100. Pick up value= jy, * 100 2.9.4, BALANCED VOLTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY Alternator winding to be protected cr. J or. Fig. 2.45. Balanced voltage differential retayProtection and Switchgear 2.50 This is also called opposed voltage method. In this type, the over current relay is connected in series with the secondaries of the currént transformers ag shown in Figure 2.45. i, Protected —= Ip (external or through fault location) Over current Over current Relay (1) Relay (2) Fig. 2.46. Fault overview-Balanced voltage concept > Under normal conditions, the current at the two ends of the section to be «protected is same. Hence there is no voltage drop across the relay to cause the current to flow. > Under fault conditions, the current in the two secondaries of current transformers are different. This causes a large voltage drop across the relay. Thus the voltage balanced of the circuit gets disturbed. Hence large current flows through the relay due to which the relay operates to open the circuit breaker. r > The CTs used in such protection are'with air gap core, so that the core does not get saturated and over voltage are not produced under normal working conditions. 2.9.5. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF 3-PHASE CIRCUITS Refer Figure 2.47, during the normal conditions the three secondary CT’s are balanced and no currents flow through the relay coil. currents of Relay coil + ehthTal L— Protected zone : Fig. 2.47. Protection of 3-phase circuitElectromagnetic Relays a f fault occurs in the protected zone, the balance is distributed and the differential current flows though the relay operating coil. If the differential current is above the pick-up value, the relay operates. 2.9.6. TRANSLAY SYSTEM (MODIFIED BALANCED VOLTAGE SYSTEM) Modified form of balanced-voltage system, it differ from the balance system in that the balance or opposition in between voltages induced in the secondary coils wound on the relay magnets and not between the secondary voltages of the line current transformers. Since the CT’s used with translay scheme have only to supply to arelay coil, they can be made of normal designs without any air gaps. This permits the scheme to be used for feeders of any voltage. Figure 2.48 shows a schematic of the Translay relay. It is- similar to an over- current relay except that secondary winding is not closed on itself and also that the central limb is provided with a copper loop or ring. Feeder cr. 1 i | = . A 5 ~ 6 Copper Ring ? 2 4 r— — = Zs Fig. 2.48. Translay relay-schematic > Such a relay is extensively used in the Translay protection applied to feeders. The secondary winding is connected to two pilot wires to which is again connected the secondary winding of a similar relay at the other end of the feeder.2.52 Protection and Switchgear When the current at the two ends of the feeder is the same, ihe) primaries of the two relays carry the same currents including equal voltages in the secondaries, which are so connected that their voltages are in opposition. Hence no current flows in the two secondary circuits under the condition and so no torque results. However, if the current leaving the feeder differs from the current entering the feeder, unequal voltages will be induces in the secondaries and so such a circulating current will flow in the secondary circuit causing torque to be exerted on the disc of each relay. Since the direction of secondary current will be opposite in the two relays, therefore torque in one relay will tend to close the trip circuit while, in other relay, the torque will hold the movement in the un-operated direction. 2.10, FREQUENCY RELAYS 3 . } The frequency of the induced e.m.f is related to the speed of the synchronous _ generators by the relation, N,P f= 720 where, f-- frequency NN, - synchronous speed of generator P - number of poles If the load is reduced, the speed of the synchronous generator increases and frequency increases. While if load increases, the speed decreases and the frequency decreases. Hence frequency relays are required if frequency changes from its normal value and are used in the generator protection and for load frequency control. 1. Under frequency relays 2. Over frequency relays Under frequency relay trips the feeder on load at set value of frequency. So 4 to give relief to the generator, thereby saving the unit. Under frequency relay thus aids load shedding programme to save the grid.OT er 2. 3. Electromagnetic Relays as Relay Arrangements ‘The frequency relays is connected to the secondary of the potential transformer. ane relay monitors the frequency continuously. It has two pair of coils as aoe a Figure 2.50 are Connected in parallel to the supply voltage through the impedance ‘z’. The impedance will vary with frequency. Line ree eee ne lee te (sliding resistor) [~~ 2 GS Fig. 2.49. Under Frequency Relay ~Anticlockwise + Under normal conditions, the impedance is so tuned that no torque is applied on the cup- rotor. Under fault conditions, a torque is applied on the cup rotor due to change in impedance either in the clock-wise direction or in the anticlockwise .-direction, depending on the frequency is higher or lower than'the desired frequency (rated frequency). The frequency setting is varied by the sliding resistor and the pickup can be varied by the restraining spring. : % If frequency increases then there is unbalance in the impedances and torque say clockwise in nature is external on the rotor. This operates the relay if frequency increases beyond the setting. This is over frequency relay. Cup Type Rotor L 7 7° Electro magnet I évéd Fig. 2.50. Cup rotor Type RelayProtection and Switchgeqy 2.54 2.11, NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAYS > Negative sequence relays are used to protect electrical machines against overheating due to unbalance currents in stator. These unbalance currents cause heating, of rotor and damage it. Unbalance three- phase currents have negative sequence components. These components rotate at synchronous speed int a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of rotor, inducing double frequency currents in the rotor. Generator CTs or Y .51. Negative Sequence relay The arrangement of negative sequence relay connection is shown in Figure 2.51. The relay is connected in parallel across the current transformer secondaries. Under normal conditions, equal currents flow in all the three phases, their algebraic sum is zero. Hence no current flows through the relay. But, if unbalancing occurs, the secondary currents will be different and the resultant current. flows through the relay and the operation of the relay trips the circuit breaker to, disconnect the generator from the system. The negative sequence relay has the inverse square law characteristics ie., t t = K,aconstant Ih is the negative sequence component of the current. The negative sequence relay will give the trip pulse to generator main breaker.Electromagnetic Relays 32, NON-DIRECTIONAL INDUCTION TYPE OVERCURRENT RELAY. adty uoponpus peuonoospuoy — Aejox uossn91040 TSC AT ‘26pug Sunes Bric | = yoRIUOO BUAOW\ P= ae yeuBewonoaja 19M} eppuds ;— Bulpuim Arepuoses . 9810, asip. — wnuuinny Suypuinn, yeuBewos}29I0 seddn, Rtreiits ‘Ase wo wos sjeujusa} quauing ye OL,< 2.56 Protection and Switchge ” The overcurrent relay operates when the current in the circuit exceeds a certaj, pre-set value, The induction type non-directional overcurrent relay is similar to Wa, hour meter type. This kind of relay is also called as earth leakage induction type relay. Figure 2.52 shows the internal in detail of nondirectional induction type ov current relay. It consists of two electromagnets, The ‘E’ shaped upper magnet and +p shaped lower magnet. * The upper magnet has two windings, primary and secondary. The Primary j, connected to the secondary of C.T on the line to be protected. This winding, tapped at intervals. The tappings are connected to plug setting bridge. * The Aluminium disc is free to rotate between the two magnets. The spindle the disc carries moving contacts and when the disc rotates, the moving contacts come in contact with fixed contacts which are the terminals of at, circuit. * With the help of plug setting bridge, number of turns of primary winding ca be adjusted. Thus the desired current setting for the relay can be obtained. * The'secondary winding on the central limb of upper magnet is connected ia series with winding on the lower magnet. This winding is energised by the induction from primary. By this arrangement of secondary winding, th leakage fluxes of upper and lower niagnets are sufficiently displaced in spac and time to produce a rotational torque on the Aluminium disc. The contr! torque is provided by the spiral spring. + When current exceeds its pre-set value, disc rotates and moving contacts ot spindle make connection with trip circuit terminals. Time-current Characteristics Figure 2.53 shows the time-current characteristics for the over current relay. Tit® required to rotate the disc depends on a torque. The torque varies as current in i primary current. More the torque, lesser is the time required hence relay has inve™* time characteristics, Such characteristics are called Inverse Definite Minimum TY (LD.M.T) Characteristics,20 15 10 \—— .D.M.T characteristics Oni 20,4 2G Ge 0 2 4418 Operating current (PS.M) Fig. 2.53. IDMT - Time-current characteristics of over current relay 2.13. RELAYS USED IN OVER CURRENT PROTECTION The choice of relay for overcurrent protection depends upon the time/current characteristics and other features desired. The following relays are used (For instantaneous overcurrent protection Attracted armature type, moving iron type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static. (ii) For inverse time characteristics Electromagnetic induction type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static. protection (iii) Directional overcurrent Double actuating quantily induction relay with directional features, (iv) Static overcurrent relays (v) HRC fuses, drop cout fuses, etc. are used in low voltage medium eee high voltage distribution systems, generally up to 11kV, for over current protection, (vi) Thermal relays are used widely f(238) 2.13.1. CHARACTERIS' PROTECTION The major characteristics current relays are > Definite Characteristics > Inverse Characteristics > Extremely Inverse characteristics > Very Inverse 2.13.2. METHODS OF CONNECTION OF of over Protection and Switchgeg, TICS OF RELAY UNITS FOR OVER-CURREN, Inverse curve Definite curve Operating Time Quantity Fig. 2.54. Typical curves of operating tin Vs magnitude of actuating quantiy, OVERCURRENT AND EARTH FAUL) RELAYS . oc fi |-———_o—_, One OC with one For balanced CT for overload overloads f | L—— | protection. only | 2. Two OC relay | oc ys : with two CT's for | CTS ee line to line fault | 1" Same Pius protection and Fees, overload protection ae | - | oc Three OC relays | Barth fault i with three CTs for | Protection for line to line fault ee ae r i protection, ce pia phase current. 4, Three OC and one oc ey EF relay for line to | EF setting Fi earth fault less than protection and line | phase fault i to line fault setting protection.Electromagnetic Relays 2.59 aS Th oc Two OC and one EF | EF relays for line to | EF setting 5 g——o— line and line to less than full 4h arth fault load. protection 6. EF Fi | One EF relay with | ee ea core balance CT load. OC = Overcurrent; EF = Earth Fault Fig. 2.55. Methods of Connections of Over current and Earth fawt relay 2.14. D.C. RELAYS Moving iron type, permanent magnet moving coil type and thermal type of relays are employed for d.c. relays. Among these, permanent magnet moving coil relays have relatively high accuracy, low power consumption and are therefore, widely used for d.c. circuits. Application: d.c. trolley bus systems, motor control, electroplating works, chemical and metallurgical processes, auxiliary and control circuits. 2.45. THERMAL RELAYS Thermal relays operate on the principle of thermal effect of electric current. > The temperature rise, produced by the current is stored by the current. Mostly a bi-metallic strip is mounted above a resistance lever arm, Carrying a contact is pivoted and is held in contact with the stip with the help of spring. > The tension of the spring can be varied based on that the value is to be setted. Under normal heating of the heater by the load current, the strip ca straight. > When the system is overloaded, the heater current increases more heated due to higher PR loss in the heat coil, The sti the spring opens the contact, interrupting the current, “ Thermal relays are mostly used for LT, motors a.c. and d.c. and the strip gets ip then bends and Protections both