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Well-being and relationships

after one year coronavirus:
A longitudinal survey study in
Belgium
Prof. Dr. Koen Ponnet
Prof. Dr. Wim Hardyns
Drs. Sarah Anrijs
Drs. Janneke M. Schokkenbroek

Date: August 20, 2021

 2

Colophon

Title: Well-being and relationships after one year coronavirus: A longitudinal

survey study in Belgium
Authors: Koen Ponnet, Wim Hardyns, Sarah Anrijs, & Janneke M. Schokkenbroek
Date of Publication: August 20, 2021

Ghent University

Faculty of Political & Social Sciences

Department Communication Sciences
Research group imec-mict
Miriam Makebaplein 1 9000 Ghent

Faculty of Law & Criminology

Department Criminology, Criminal Law & Social Law
Research group IRCP
Universiteitstraat 4 9000 Ghent

Contact:
Prof. Koen Ponnet
T+32 9 264 68 90
Koen.Ponnet@UGent.be

Prof. Wim Hardyns

T+32 9 264 84 78
Wim.Hardyns@UGent.be

Please cite as:

Ponnet, K., Hardyns, W., Anrijs, S., & Schokkenbroek, J.M. (2021). Well-being and relationships
after one year coronavirus: A longitudinal survey study in Belgium. Ghent: Ghent
University. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.16831315
 3

Table of Contents

0. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 4
1. Study information.............................................................................................................. 6
1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Who took part in the study? ...................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Method ................................................................................................................................................... 7
2. Mental health ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Anxiety ................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Depression ........................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Loneliness ......................................................................................................................................... 10
3. Stress .................................................................................................................................. 11
3.1 Stress about corona .................................................................................................................... 11
Fear of infection ............................................................................................................................. 11
Stress about the coronacrisis ................................................................................................. 12
3.2 Parenting stress ............................................................................................................................ 13
3.3 Work and study stress ............................................................................................................... 14
Work...................................................................................................................................................... 14
Students .............................................................................................................................................. 15
3.4 Financial stress .............................................................................................................................. 16
Financial stress – present ......................................................................................................... 16
Financial stress – future ............................................................................................................ 17
4. Romantic relationships .................................................................................................. 18
4.1 Relationship stress and relationship satisfaction..................................................... 18
Relationship stress ....................................................................................................................... 18
Relationship satisfaction .......................................................................................................... 19
4.2 Partner violence ............................................................................................................................ 19
5. Coronavirus infection and vaccination ....................................................................... 21
5.1 Quarantine and coronavirus infection ............................................................................ 21
5.2 Vaccination ...................................................................................................................................... 21
6. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 22
References .................................................................................................................................. 23
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0. Summary
The global spread of the coronavirus has drastically impacted our daily lives for over a year
now. From April 3rd to 17th, 2020, a survey study (wave 1) was conducted in Belgium that
aimed to examine the impact of the coronacrisis on our mental health, our job, and our
relationships.
Exactly one year after wave 1, between April 2nd and 16th, 2021, 512 people again answered
survey questions about their mental health and their feelings of stress about the coronacrisis,
parenting, work- or study, finances, and their relationship, and experiences of partner
violence (wave 2). We would like to emphasize that the respondents are not representative
for the population of Flanders, Belgium, but nevertheless do our findings provide an
insightful indication of changes in people’s well-being. Below a summary of the study
findings:

• Mental health: Feelings of anxiety, depression and loneliness were all higher in wave 2
compared to wave 1. Anxiety is significantly higher for all age groups except 50-plus and
for all work situations (students, people working from home, and people who (part-time)
worked at their workplace). Feelings of depression were higher among people of 18-24
and 35-50 years old, as well as among students and people who (part-time) worked at
their workplace). Loneliness increased among people from 35 to 50-plus years old,
among people working from home and among people who (part-time) worked at their
workplace.

• Stress about corona: Fear of infection is weaker in wave 2 compared than wave 1 for all
ages (except 18-24-year-olds) and among people who (part-time) worked at their
workplace. Stress about the coronacrisis, on the other hand, increased. This increase was
significant among 18-24-year-olds, students, and people working from home.

• Parenting stress: Parenting stress is higher in wave 2 among women. No significant

differences over time were found per work situation.

• Work & study stress: Work stress is significantly higher in wave 2 for both men and
women, as well as people working from home. Also, both male and female students
experience more study stress in wave 2.

• Financial stress: No differences over time exist in feelings of financial stress for the
current financial situation. Financial stress regarding the future was lower in wave 2
compared to a year before among people aged 35-50 and 50-plus, and among people
working from home or (part-time) working from their workplace.
 5

• Relationship stress and partner violence: Relationship stress did not change over
time. Relationship satisfaction slightly decreased among 35-50-year-olds. Frequencies of
partner violence in wave 2 vary from 1.2% (sexual, physical) to 33.1% (verbal,
emotional).

• Corona infection and vaccination: 26.8% of the respondents in this sample has
experienced quarantine since April 2020 and 8.8% has been infected with the
coronavirus. 18.6% of the respondents were already vaccinated against the coronavirus.
Of those not vaccinated, 89.0% intends to get vaccinated, 8.4% is in doubt and 2.6% does
not plan on getting the vaccine.
 6

1. Study information
1.1 Introduction
For more than a year, the global spread of the coronavirus has drastically impacted our daily
lives (WHO, 2021). On March 13th, 2020, the Belgium government for the first time issued
impactful measures aimed to control and decrease the spread of the virus. Since then, work
and social life has for many been confined to their own home and the people they share this
with. Depending on their living and work situation, this could strongly impact people’s
(mental) health, feelings of stress, and their relationships.

To examine the impact of the coronacrisis on mental health, work and relationships, a survey
study was conducted from April 3rd to 17th, 2020, by the Department of Communication
Sciences and the Department of Criminology at Ghent University. This survey was
distributed through online channels, and everyone over the age of 18, speaking Dutch and
living in Belgium was encouraged to participate. In total, 2889 respondents took part in this
first survey study. An overview of the main findings of this study was published in a research
report.

From April 2nd to 16th, 2021, exactly one year after the first survey study, 977 respondents
were invited per email to participate in wave 2 of our survey. These 977 respondents had
indicated in wave 1 that they were willing to again participate in a survey study in the future.
In wave 2, a total of 512 respondents1 took part in the survey. We would like to emphasize
that the respondents are not representative for the population of Flanders, Belgium, but
nevertheless do our findings provide an insightful indication of changes in people’s well-
being.

In this report, we provide an overview of people’s mental well-being, their feelings of stress
and their relationships one year after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium. Also,
we will compare people’s responses in wave 2 to our findings from a year before.

1In total, 522 respondents took part in wave 2 of our study, resulting in a response rate of 53.4%. For 10 respondents, it
was not possible to match their responses from wave 1 to wave 2 due to different email addresses and the inability to match
based on their socio-demographic data.
 7

1.2 Who took part in the study?

A description of the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents in our sample in
wave 2 is provided in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Demographic composition sample wave 2

N = 512 n (%)
Gendera
Male 114 (22.3%)
Female 395 (77.1%)
Non-binary 3 (0.6%)
Age in years (range / mean) 19-85 (38.71)
18-24 130 (25.4%)
25-34 136 (26.6%)
35-50 120 (23.4%)
50-plus 126 (24.6%)
Highest level of education
No degree or degree lower education 8 (1.6%)
High school degree 113 (22.1%)
Degree higher education 391 (76.4%)
In a romantic relationship 347 (67.8%)
Living together 244 (70.3%)
Not (or part-time) living together 103 (19.7%)
Work situation
Studies from home or dorm 132 (31.7%)
Works from home 140 (27.3%)
Works (part-time) at workplace 147 (28.7%)
(Temporarily) unemployed 17 (3.4%)
Other 76 (14.8%)
Parent 214 (41.8%)
Children under 18 years living at home 149 (29.1%)
Note. a Due to the small number of ‘non-binary’ responses (n = 3), this group was omitted from the study
analyses.

1.3 Method
In this report, graphs are presented in which the prevalence of several feelings (e.g., anxiety,
financial stress) in wave 1 and wave 2 are displayed. Paired samples t-tests were conducted
to examine if the feelings reported in wave 2 were significantly lower or higher among the
same people compared to a year before.
 8

2. Mental health
Both in wave 1 as well as in wave 2 respondents reported on their feelings of anxiety,
depression, and loneliness.

2.1 Anxiety
The graphs below present feelings of anxiety2 in wave 1 and wave 2 among different age
groups and people in different work situations. As can be seen in the graph, people from all
ages reported more feelings of anxiety in wave 2 compared to a year before in wave 1. This
change over time is statistically significant3 for all age groups except people from 50+ years.
For different work situations we see that all respondents, regardless of their work situation,
reported more anxiety in wave 2 compared to wave 1. For all work situations, this change
over time was significant. Feelings of anxiety were most prevalent among youth (18-24-year-
olds) and students.

Anxiety - per age group (n = 512)

3 ** **
2,5 **
2
1,5
1
18-24 jaar 25-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Anxiety - per work situation (n = 512)

3 **
2,5 ** **
2 *

1,5

1
student werk - thuis werk - (deels) andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

2 Anxiety was measured with the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7; Spitzer et al., 2006). The scale is comprised
of 7 items, each of which was answered on a 4-pointsscale from 1 = ‘not at all’ to 4 = ‘almost every day’. An example of an
item is “In the past two weeks, how often did you worry too much about different things?”.
3 Significant differences are displayed in the graph with asterixis, for which * indicates a p-value <.05 and ** a p-value < .01.
 9

2.2 Depression
Similar to anxiety, feelings of depression4 were higher for people of all ages and in all work
situations in wave 2 compared to a year earlier, in wave 1.

For the age groups 18-24 and 35-50 years old, this increase was statistically significant.
Regarding people’s work situation, we found significant differences in depressive symptoms
over time among students, people who (part-time) worked at their workplace and for the
group ‘other’ (e.g., unemployed, retired). As can be seen in the graphs, feelings of depression
were most prevalent among young people (18-24 years old) and students.

Depression - per age group (n = 512)

2,5
*
**
2

1,5

1
18-24 jaar 25-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Depression - per work situation (n = 512)

2,5 *
**
*
2

1,5

1
student werk - thuis werk - (deels) andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

4Depression was measured with an abbreviated version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-
D; Radloff, 1977). The scale consists of three items, which were answered on a 4-point scale from 1 = ‘rarely to never’ to 4
= ‘very often to always’. An example of an item is “In the past two weeks, how often did you feel sad?”.
 10

2.3 Loneliness
Respondents from all age groups and work situations reported more feelings of loneliness5
in wave 2 compared to a year before in wave 1. This change over time was significant for
people of the age group 35-50 years old and for people of 50+ years. Within one year, feelings
of loneliness also increased significantly among people in all work situations, except for
students. As can be seen in the graphs, feelings of loneliness were highest among young
people (18-24 years old) and students on both time points.

Loneliness - per age group (n = 512)

3,5 **
3
**
2,5
2
1,5
1
18-24 jaar 25-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Loneliness - per work situation (n = 512)

3,5 **
3
* **
2,5
2
1,5
1
student werk - thuis werk - (deels) andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

5 Loneliness was measured with an abbreviated version of the revised UCLA Loneliness scale (Russell et al., 1978). The scale

consists of three items, which were answered on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘(almost) never’ to 5 = ‘very often’. An example of
an item is “In the past two weeks, how often have you felt completely alone?”.
 11

3. Stress
3.1 Stress about corona
Both in wave 1 and in wave 2, feelings of stress related to COVID-19 were measured.
Specifically, we examined people’s fear of infection and their feelings of stress and worry
about the coronacrisis.6

Fear of infection
Compared to one year before, fear of infection decreased among all age groups. This change
over time was statistically significant for all age groups except 18-24-year-olds.

Fear of infection - per age group (n = 512)

4 * **
**
3

1
18-24 jaar 25-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Fear of infection also decreased among people in all work situations compared to a year
earlier. This change over time was significant among people who (part-time) worked at their
workplace and among people in the group ‘other’.

Fear of infection - per work situation

(n = 512)
4 ** **

1
student werk - thuis werk - (deels) andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

6 Fear of infection was measured with the items “I am worried that I might get infected” and “I am worried that someone
close to me (e.g., family, friends) might get infected”. Feelings of stress about the coronacrisis were measured with the items
“I find the current corona situation stressful” and “Even when I am doing something else, I worry about the current corona
situation”. Answers were given on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = ‘do not agree’ to 5 = ‘agree’.
 12

Stress about the coronacrisis

Compared to wave 1, stress about the coronacrisis (minimally) increased among people of
all ages. Among young people aged 18-24 years, this change over time was significant. This
was not the case for any of the other age groups.

Stress coronacrisis - per age group (n = 512)

**
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
18-24 jaar 25-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Stress about the coronacrisis slightly increased among people in all work situations except
for people in the group ‘other’. Statistically significant changes over time were found among
students and people who worked from home.

Stress coronacrisis - per work situation

(n = 512)
3,5
* *
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
student werk - thuis werk - (deels) andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

 13

3.2 Parenting stress

Parenting stress7 was measured among 106 respondents who indicated they were a parent
of children under the age of 18 who still lived at home. We examined differences in parenting
stress from wave 1 to wave 2 among men and women and among people in different work
situations.

Our findings show that parenting stress slightly decreased among men and slightly increased
among women compared to the previous year. For women, this change over time was
significant. It is important to note that the group sizes are relatively small, both for fathers
(n = 26) and mothers (n = 80).

Parenting stress - per sex (n = 106)

2,5 *
2
1,5
1
man vrouw

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Parenting stress was slightly higher in wave 2 among people who were working from home
(n = 52) or (part-time) worked at their workplace (n = 42). Slightly lower levels of parenting
stress were found among people in other work situations. Here, we pooled the group
students with the group ‘other’ (n = 12), as the number of students in our sample who were
a parent was very small (n = 2). Despite the apparent changes in parenting stress over time,
these changes were not significant for people of any of the work situations.
Parenting stress - per work situation
(n = 104)
2,5
2
1,5
1
werk - thuis werk - (deels) student + andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

7Parenting stress was measured with an abbreviated version of the parenting stress scale (Gerris et al., 1992). The scale
consists of three items, which were answered on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘(almost) never’ to 5 = ‘very often’. An example of
an item is “[During the past two weeks…] I feel that I am not as capable of taking care of my child as I thought”.
 14

3.3 Work and study stress

Work and study stress8 were also measured in both waves of the study.

Work
Work stress in wave 1 and wave 2 was examined based on people’s sex (men vs. women)
and their work situation (working from home vs. (part-time) at workplace). Students and
people in the work situation ‘other’ were not included in these analyses.

We found that both men and women reported higher levels of work stress in wave 2
compared to a year before in wave 1. This change over time is statistically significant for both
sexes. Work stress was also significantly higher in wave 2 for people who worked from home,
but not for people who (part-time) worked at their workplace.

Work stress - per sex (n = 232)

3,5 *
**
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
man vrouw

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Work stress - per work situation (n = 232)

3,5 **
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
werk - thuis werk - (deels) werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

8Work and study stress were measured with an adapted version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen et al., 1983). The
scale consists of four items, which were answered on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘(almost) never’ to 5 = ‘very often’. An example
of an item is “During the past two weeks, how often did you feel as if you lost control over important things regarding your
work/studies?”.
 15

Students
Among students, we also measured how much study stress they experienced and how this
changed over the course of a year from wave 1 to wave 2. Specifically, we examined
differences between men and women herein. We found that for both men and women, study
stress was higher in wave 2 compared to a year before in wave 1. For both groups, this
changes over time was statistically significant. It should be noted that the group of male
students was considerably small (n = 24).

Study stress - per sex (n = 128)

* *
4

1
man vrouw

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

 16

3.4 Financial stress

Feelings of financial stress were examined among anyone with a financial income (e.g.,
salary, unemployment pay, pension). Students were not questioned about their financial
stress. Specifically, we examined feelings of stress with regard to the present financial
situation9 and feelings of stress about finances in the future.10 Changes over time were
examined among people of different ages and in different work situations.

Financial stress – present

Feelings of stress about the financial situation in the present remained relatively stable over
the course of a year for people of all ages and in all work situations.

Financial stress present - per age group

(n = 360)
2,5
2
1,5
1
18-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Financial stress present - per work situation

(n = 360)
2,5
2
1,5
1
werk - thuis werk - (deels) andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

9 Present financial stress was measured with the Financial Need scale (Ponnet, 2014). The scale consists of three items,
which could be answered on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘do not agree’ to 5 = ‘agree’. An example of an item is “With my/our
current income it is difficult to make ends meet”.
10 To measure financial stress for the future, we used an abbreviated version of the Financial Insecurity scale

(Ponnet., 2014). Respondents replied to three items using a 5-point answer scale from 1 = ‘do not agree’ to 5 = ‘agree’. An
example of an item is “I am afraid I won't be able to pay all my bills in the near future."
 17

Financial stress – future

For all age groups, financial stress with regard to the future was lower in wave 2 compared
to a year before in wave 1. These changes over time were statistically significant for people
aged 35-50 years and for people aged 50+ years. Among people in different work situations
we also see decreases in feelings of future financial stress. Specifically, these changes over
time were significant for people working from home and people who (part-time) worked at
their workplace.

Financial stress future - per age group

(n = 360)
2 ** *

1,5
1
18-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Financial stress future - per work situation

(n = 360)
2,5
2 ** **
1,5
1
werk - thuis werk - (deels) andere
werkplek

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

 18

4. Romantic relationships
4.1 Relationship stress and relationship satisfaction
Out of the 512 respondents, 304 indicated they were in a romantic relationship in wave 1
and wave 2. The average duration of their relationship was 13.9 years. To determine in what
way the coronacrisis has affected people’s relationships, we asked about feelings of
relationship stress and relationship satisfaction. Additionally, we examined the occurrence
of partner violence during the coronacrisis.

Relationship stress
Relationship stress11 and possible changes over time herein were examined among people
of different ages and among men and women. No significant changes over time were found
among any of the age groups, nor among men or women.

Relationship stress - per age group (n = 304)

2,5
2
1,5
1
18-24 jaar 25-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Relationship stress - per sex (n = 303)

2,5
2
1,5
1
man vrouw

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

11 Relationship stress was measured with an adapted version of the Multidimensional Stress Questionnaire for Couples
(MSD-Q; Bodenmann et al., 2008). Respondents indicated their feelings of stress during the pandemic regarding five
relationship aspects. Specifically, we asked them about feelings of stress regarding 1) conflicts; 2) diverging attitudes
regarding the relationship, 3) restrictions in the relationships (e.g., too little freedom), 4) less connectedness with the
partner and 5) neglect by the partner. Answers were given on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘not stressful’ to 5 = ‘very stressful’.
 19

Relationship satisfaction
In addition to a potentially negative impact of the pandemic on people’s relationship, we
assessed people’s relationship satisfaction12 as well. We found that for people of all ages and
for both men and women that relationship satisfaction was almost similar in wave 2
compared to wave 1. Only for people aged 35-50 years old, a slight, statistically significant
decrease in relationship satisfaction was found.

Relationship satisfaction - per age group

(n = 304)
5 *

1
18-24 jaar 25-34 jaar 35-50 jaar 50+ jaar

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

Relationship satisfaction - per sex (n = 303)

5
4
3
2
1
man vrouw

2020 (wave 1) 2021 (wave 2)

4.2 Partner violence

Various studies have already indicated that the coronacrisis and governmental lockdown
measures have had an impact on the occurrence of partner violence (e.g., Buttell & Ferreira,
2020; Hardyns et al, 2020). In the present study, we examined partner violence as reciprocal
verbal and physical aggression in wave 1. Compared to wave 1, more different forms of
partner violence were measured in wave 2. Due to these differences in measurements in
wave 1 versus wave 2, it was not possible to determine changes in partner violence
occurrence over time. As such, we will merely describe partner violence prevalence rates for
wave 1 and wave 2.

12Relationship satisfaction was measured with the Quality of Marriage Index (QMI; Norton, 1983). The scale consists of 5
items, which could be answered on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘do not agree’ to 5 = ‘agree’. An example of an item is “My
relationship with my partner makes me happy.”
 20

Below in Table 2, it is displayed how many respondents who were in a relationship in wave
2, reported to have ever (= rarely to very often) experienced verbal aggression and physical
partner violence13 during the lockdown (between March 13 and April 17, 2020). Also, the
number of respondents who ever (= rarely to very often) experienced various forms of
partner violence14 in wave 2 is displayed in Table 2.
In addition, in wave 2 of the survey study we made a distinction between victimization and
perpetration experiences. As such, we could distinguish between people who were victim
only, people who were perpetrator only, and people who were both victim and perpetrator
of partner violence. As can be seen in the table, verbal and emotional partner violence often
occurred in a reciprocal manner.
Table 2. Partner violence prevalence rates wave 1 and wave 2

n (%)
Wave 1 (n = 329)
Verbal 229 (59.6%)
Physical 2 (0.6%)
Wave 2 (n = 347)
Verbal Victim 31 (6.1%)
Perpetrator 31 (6.1%)
Both victim and perpetrator 84 (16.4%)
Emotional Victim 35 (6.8%)
Perpetrator 29 (5.7%)
Both victim and perpetrator 55 (10.7%)
Physical Victim 1 (0.2%)
Perpetrator 3 (0.6%)
Both victim and perpetrator 3 (0.6%)
Sexual Victim 32 (6.3%)
Perpetrator 4 (0.8%)
Both victim and perpetrator 1 (0.2%)

13Verbal aggression in wave 1 was measured with an abbreviated version of the Conflict and Problem Solving Scales (CPS;
Kerig, 1996). The scale consisted of 4 items, which were answered on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘(almost) never’ to 5 = ‘very
often’. Respondents indicated the frequency with which various interactions with their partner occurred during the
pandemic, such as ‘arguing with each other’. Physical partner violence was measured with the item ‘purposefully hit each
other, pushed each other, or physically hurt each other in another way’.

14In wave 2, the following forms of partner violence were each measured with a single item: verbal aggression ([I have/my
partner has] insulted or verbally abused [my partner/me]); emotional abuse ([I have / my partner has] given [my partner
/ me] the feeling they are worthless): physical partner violence ([I have / my partner has] hit, pushed, or physically hurt [my
partner / me] in another way): and sexual partner violence ([I have / my partner has] forced [my partner / me] into sexual
activities against their will). Each item was measured twice: once to assess victimization experiences, and once to assess
perpetration. All items were answered on a 5-point scale from 1 = ‘(almost) never’ to 5 = ‘very often’.
 21

5. Coronavirus infection and vaccination

Finally, we asked people about their experiences with the coronavirus. Specifically, we asked
them about their (in)direct quarantine experiences, experiences regarding infection, and
their vaccination status and intentions.

5.1 Quarantine and coronavirus infection

Respondents indicated quarantine and coronavirus infection experiences during the past
year for themselves, people from their household, and family members outside of their
household. Table 3 displays the percentage of people that had experiences with quarantine
and corona infection during the past year. As can be seen in the table, almost a quarter of all
households have had experiences with quarantine, and more than half of all respondents has
(indirectly) dealt with a coronavirus infection.

Table 3. Quarantine and coronavirus infection

Quarantine Infection
Self 137 (26.8%) 45 (8.8%)
Household member 116 (22.7%) 32 (6.3%)
Family member outside household 235 (45.9%) 178 (34.8%)

5.2 Vaccination
Respondents were asked whether they were already vaccinated against the coronavirus and
if not, if they had the intention to do so. In total, 95 (18.6%) out of the 512 respondents were
vaccinated. Out of the remaining 417 respondents, 371 (89.0%) indicated that they intended
to get the vaccine. 11 (2.6%) people did not intend to get the vaccine, and 35 (8.4%) people
were not sure yet.
 22

6. Conclusion
The longitudinal findings of this survey study have illustrated the impact of the coronacrisis
on various aspects of people’s lives. The effects of the pandemic on people’s mental health,
work, parenting, finances, and relationships, are tangible when we compare the results of
our study in April 2021 to those of exactly one year before, in April 2020. Based on our
findings, we propose several recommendations:

• Our findings show that mental well-being worsened in the past year for almost everyone:
increases were found for anxiety, depression, and loneliness over the course of one year.
We believe that media and press can play an important role here. News items and media
campaigns that stimulate positivity and connectedness could provide encouragement
for people and could help them deal with negative feelings.

• Similar to wave 1 of the study did the findings of wave 2 emphasize the vulnerability of
young people during the pandemic: feelings of anxiety, depression, and loneliness were
highest among the youngest age groups. We advise policy makers to keep paying
attention to the mental well-being of citizens, and particularly that of young people. Given
the increase in study stress compared to a year before, we point out to educators that
'online' classes are not a full replacement for 'on campus' classes. It is also clear that
online socializing cannot replace social contacts forged on campuses.

• Particularly (working from home) mothers experienced more difficulties in caring for
their children than a year before. Ideally, support would be provided by increasing
childcare options as well as flexibility from the employer with regard to working hours
and expectations.

• The study results tell us that work stress and loneliness have increased among people
working from home. We advise organizations to take a conscious approach with regard
to the well-being of their employees: if part-time work in the workplace would be
possible in a corona-proof manner, we recommend facilitating this. It could also be
helpful to communicate a clear return plan to employees when government measures
relax.

• From the findings of wave 2, it is clear that some of the respondents have experienced
some form of partner violence. It is important to provide (financial) resources and
support for initiatives that concern the development of intimate partner violence
prevention and intervention techniques that respond to the obstacles of the lockdown
measures.
 23

References
Bodenmann, G., Schär, M., & Gmelch, S. (2008). Multidimensional stress questionnaire for
couples (MDS-Q). Unpublished questionnaire, 49-57.

Buttell, F., & Ferreira, R. J. (2020). The hidden disaster of COVID-19: Intimate partner
violence. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(S1), S197.
https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000646

Cohen, Sheldon, Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404

Gerris, J., Van Boxtel, D., Vermulst, A., Janssens, J., Van Zutphen, R., & Felling, A. (1992). Child-
rearing, family relations and family processes in 1990. Nijmegen: University of Nijmegen.

Goldberg, D., & Williams, P. (1988). General health questionnaire (GHQ). Granada Learning
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Hardyns, W., Keygnaert, I., Ponnet, K., & Vandeviver, C. (2020). Partner and domestic violence
during the COVID-19 crisis. Freedom From Fear, 16, 48–55.

Kerig‚ P. K. (1996). Assessing the links between interparental conflict and child adjustment:
The Conflicts and Problem-Solving Scales. Journal of Family Psychology‚ 10‚ 454-473.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.10.4.454

Norton, R. (1983). Measuring marital quality: A critical look at the dependent variable.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 141-151. https://doi.org/10.2307/351302

Ponnet, K., Hardyns, W., Anrijs, S., & Schokkenbroek, J.M. (2020). Welzijn en relaties in tijden
van corona: Bevindingen van een surveyonderzoek in België van 3-17 april, 2020. Gent:
Universiteit Gent.

Ponnet, K. (2014). Financial stress, parent functioning and adolescent problem behavior: An
actor-partner interdependence approach to family stress processes in low-, middle-, and
high-income families. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1752-1769. DOI:
10.1007/s10964-014-0159-y.

Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the
general population. Applied psychological measurement, 1, 385-401.
https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306

Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978). Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal
of personality assessment, 42, 290-294. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11

Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing
generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Archives of internal medicine, 166, 1092-1097.
https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
 24

World Health Organization. (2021). WHO coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard. Retrieved

from: https://covid19.who.int/

Additional information
For more information regarding the study, the coronavirus, and the vaccination process in
Belgium, we refer you to the following sources:

• Coronavirus: https://www.info-coronavirus.be/nl/
• Vaccinations in Belgium: https://www.laatjevaccineren.be/home
• In case you are looking for more information and help with regard to mental health
problems: https://www.vlaanderen.be/hulp-zoeken-bij-psychische-problemen
• For more information about the study, please email us at koen.ponnet@ugent.be
 25

CONTACT

For more information about the study, contact us:

Prof. Koen Ponnet ● T+32 9 264 68 90 ● Koen.Ponnet@UGent.be

Prof. Wim Hardyns ● T+32 9 264 84 78 ● Wim.Hardyns@UGent.be

More info about the

coronavirus?
-
Go to
www.info-coronavirus.be