Green Leather For Ethical Consumers in China and Korea

J Bus Ethics
DOI 10.1007/s10551-014-2475-2
Green Leather for Ethical Consumers in China and Korea:

Facilitating Ethical Consumption with Value–Belief–Attitude
Logic
Hye Jung Jung • HaeJung Kim • Kyung Wha Oh
Received: 6 March 2014 / Accepted: 14 November 2014

Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract Using an innovative fabrication technique, eco- managerial implementations and theoretical advance-
friendly faux leather (EFFL) has been newly developed as ments in eco-friendly related subjects and issues.
a green leather alternative for the Chinese and Korean
markets. Value–belief–attitude logic drawn from the heu- Keywords Eco-friendly faux-leather (EFFL) products
ristic-systemic model (Zuckmand and Chaiken in Psychol Ethical consumption Value–belief–attitude logic
Mark 15(7):621–642, 1998) and value–belief–norm the-
ory (Stern et al. in Environ Behav 27(6):723–743, 1995) is
proposed to explicate the consumer acceptance attitudes Introduction
toward the EFFL product. The findings from the multi-
group structural equation modeling analysis of online data The well-informed ethics-oriented consumer not only
(n = 600) support the relevancy of VBA logic in which demands fairly traded products, but challenges manufac-
utilitarian and hedonic value motivate pro-environmental turers and retailers to guarantee the veracity of the ethical
belief, and the EFFL product attributes significantly claims they make about their products (Strong 1996). As
mediate belief and positive attitude toward the EFFL awareness and knowledge on the part of consumers of the
product. The discrepancies across two countries and two importance of ethical claims become more widespread,
age cohorts are noteworthy when pro-environmental belief demand within the eco-friendly clothing sector has
and product-related information lead to different consumer increased. High-profile advocates for ethical practice in the
VBA processes in specific market segments. This study - fashion industry (e.g., U2’s Bono and Ali Hewson’s Edun,
presents insights which provide novel opportunities for Stella McCartney, Katherine Hamnett, Noir, and American
Apparel) have been most successful at raising public
awareness, pushing forward the sustainability issue, and
transforming the traditionally dour image of the eco-fash-
ion position into a cool, educated, and proactive stance
(Holgar et al. 2009). Clothing groups such as Patagonia,
H. J. Jung K. W. Oh (&) Nike, Nordstrom, Levi’s, Timberland, and Eddie Bauer
Department of Fashion Design, Chung-Ang University, 4726 have moved to improve their monitoring of ethical manu-
Seongdongdae-ro, Daedeok-myeon, Anseong-si 456-756,
facturing processes, while incorporating the use of organic
South Korea
e-mail: kwhaoh@cau.ac.kr materials (Holgar et al. 2009) in order to enhance their
public image and to attract and retain ethically sensitive
H. J. Jung
e-mail: jayjung@cau.ac.kr consumers.
With increasing awareness of ethical consumption
H. Kim issues on the part of society and consumers, production of
College of Merchandising, Hospitality, & Tourism,
eco-friendly products without sacrificing esthetic attributes
University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, #311100, Denton,
TX 76203-5017, USA and reasonable prices has become of growing interest in the
e-mail: hjkim@unt.edu fashion industry (e.g., Fletcher 2013; Gam 2011). In
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H. J. Jung et al.
response to these social and industrial developments, the consumers’ heuristic responses to immediate cues, instead
effort toward enhanced functionality of eco-friendly textile of a reasoned action resulting from belief or norms within a
products has long been underway. In particular, the leather systematic processing (Eagly and Chaiken 1993; Hoek
industry is of interest for scholars and practitioners due to et al. 2012). The heuristic-systematic model (Zuckerman
the wide practicality of leather in diverse durable and and Chaiken 1998) delineates the facilitations of immediate
consumable products while it has been considered as a cues through the heuristic route, which encompasses
heavy polluting sector as a result of the tanning and fin- straightforward decision owing to attitudes which can be
ishing stages of the producing chain (De Buckle 2001). For changed straightforward decision of which attitudes can be
instance, chemicals such as Chrome are among the most changed as result of simple associations and cues from
dangerous and long-lasting pollutants, and tannery sludge marketing stimuli such as the presentation of product
has been classified as hazardous waste (Zengin et al. 2012). attributes.
Although composting and biogas production have been Integrating the heuristic-systematic model within the
proposed to minimize and recycle tannery sludge, these VBN theory, this study proposes the value–belief–attitude
treatment measures will also lead to undesirable environ- (VBA) framework, suggesting that consumers’ ethical
mental consequences such as the generation of atmospheric consumption attitude comes about through the systemic
greenhouse gas (Weiland 2010). Furthermore, genuine route of perceived consumption value, personal pro-envi-
leather is renewable and bio-degradable, but the millions of ronmental belief; and through the heuristic route of the
cows and other animals that are killed for their skin endure attributes of EFFL products. Each variable in the VBA
the horrors of factory farming (Hustvedt et al. 2008). These chain directly affects the next, and thus each may also
considerations call for the development of alternative eco- affect variables further down the chain. Since ethical
friendly products, such as faux-leather products, to protect consumption behavior of Asian consumers has been rela-
the eco-system. tively neglected, examining the discrepancies between
With advanced esthetic features of color and texture, Chinese and Korean consumers is of interest in order to
several faux-leather textiles (e.g., Leathertex, which understand Asian ethical attitudes. In addition, investigat-
develops embossed geometric imitation leather, and Mo- ing the difference between diverse demographic cohorts is
zartex, which offers high-end fake leather to Burberry) are important for assessing the competency of market seg-
used widely in fashion clothes, interior materials, and case menting strategy in different target markets.
covers for tablet PCs or cell phones (Wynne and Szmydke The tripartite objectives of this study are (1) to configure
2013). Yet, faux-leather products still raise environmental the dimensionality of value, belief, and attributes of EFFL
concerns due to their non-biodegradability and the pro- products in relation to the VBA logic; (2) to examine the
duction of toxic gases when they burn. With the causal relationships among VBA constructs with the
advancement of Bio-based Polyurethane and Nanocellu- mediation of EFFL products’ attributes; and (3) to inves-
lose, eco-friendly faux leather (EFFL) has been newly tigate the moderating roles of cultural discrepancies (in
developed for enhanced functionality and disposability China vs. Korea) and demographic cohort (younger vs.
while costing less than natural leather. With a view to the older individuals) within the VBA framework. Given the
introduction of EFFL products into the global market scarcity of work comparing Chinese and Korean consumers
including the China and Korea, their marketability needs to in the ethical product context, this cross cultural and age
be tested with an emphasis on consumer acceptance. group comparison calls for a theoretical reappraisal of
In the ethical consumption context, the value–belief– ethical consumption in the global context (Newholm and
norm (VBN) theory (Stern et al. 1999) asserts that the Shaw 2007). Given the growing interest in ethical con-
motivation for consumer ethical practices lies in a consumption on the part of societies, industries, and consum-
junction of values, beliefs, and personal norms which impel ers, comprehending these dynamics can empower
individuals to act in ways consistent with ethical con- marketers and researchers to devise pertinent ideas for the
sumption behaviors. The VBN theory explains how envi- practical application of EFFL products and present them to
ronmental concerns and ethical issues are socially academia and to the industries.
constructed (Stern et al. 1995). Empirical studies support
the claim that the VBN chain of variables is a strong pre-
dictor explaining multifaceted ethical consumption move- Literature Review
ments and support for the ideals of ethical consumption
(Stern et al. 1999). Although the VBN theory explicates the Ethical Consumption
systemic process of building consumer acceptance attitude,
the links among consumers’ value, beliefs, and behavior Ethical consumption has become an important issue since
have not been straightforward (Prothero et al. 2011) due to problems of environmental pollution, labor standards,
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Green Leather for Ethical Consumers in China and Korea
animal welfare, and fair trade have risen to substantial (Newholm 2005). The complexity of the consumers’
prominence (Carrigan et al. 2004). Although there is no decision-making environment has been noted (Newholm
unified definition of the concept of ethical consumption, 2005), along with the consequent variety of legitimated
ethically conscious consumers pursue certain consumption consumer responses (Shaw and Newholm 2002). To
ideals such as ‘voluntary simplicity’ (Etzioni 2004), the understand ethical consumption-related behaviors, a num-
adoption of ‘ethical simplifiers’ (Shaw and Newholm ber of studies subsequently adopted the Theory of Planned
2002), creation of ‘anti-consumption groups’ (Zavestoski, Behavior (TPB) as a framework for describing ethical
2002; Kozinets and Handelman, 2004; Thompson and consumption, in which are included additional measures of
Arsel 2004), and slow living’ (Parkins and Craig 2006), ‘ethical obligation’ and ‘self-identity’ (Shaw et al. 2000;
mostly in affluent society. As consumers are empowered to Shaw and Shiu 2003; Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al. 2006). TPB
make ethically informed consumption choices and as has been a widely applied expectancy-value model of
campaigners are provided with reliable information on attitude-behavior relationships which has met with some
corporate behavior, consumers ethically engage in the degree of success in predicting a variety of individual
behaviors of ‘positive buying,’ in which ethical products behaviors (Ajzen 1988, 1991; Conner and Sparks 1996;
are favored, and ‘moral boycott,’ which is negative pur- Godin and Kok 1996). The TPB details the determinants
chasing and company-based purchasing as well (‘‘Why we of an individual’s decision to enact a particular behavior.
buy’’ 2013). Indeed, ethical consumption involves both a In exploring intentions to avoid purchasing sweatshop
governing of consumption and a governing of the con- clothing, Shaw et al. (2006) found that desire and plan-
suming self (Barnett et al. 2005). Based on previous ning, in addition to intention, are also pertinent precursors
research, ethical fashion consumers can be defined as those to ethically motivated behavior. Obviously, there is a
who are concerned with the effects on the external world desire in the fashion and textiles discipline to clearly
around them when they buy, use, and dispose of fashion understand the acceptance attitudes of consumers in an
products. They undertake a range of ethical consumption ethical context. Although recent advanced studies have
practices including boycotts; positive buying; fully linked actions with their consequences (Gam 2011; Bray
screened comparative ethical ratings across whole product et al. 2011), there is still a lack of theoretical under-
areas; relationship purchasing, where consumers seek to standing, and of principles for guiding consumers toward
educate sellers about their ethical needs; anti-consumerism; more informed decision making. This study explores
and/or or sustainable consumerism avoiding unsustainable ethical consumption from the perspective of Value-Belief-
fashion products. Attitude logic.
While some of the research has sought to model ethical
consumer decision making, other research has sought to Value–Belief–Attitude (VBA) Logic
understand the construction of consumer identity from the
discourses of ethical consumption (Langeland 1998). Ethical consumers perceive needs, gather information, set
Exploring pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors, Ellen this information within their attitudes and their perception
(1994) examined the relationship between ethical con- of the social context, and develop behavioral intentions
sumption dimensions and objective/subjective knowledge. (Newholm and Shaw 2007). In this way, the notion of
Consumers may not have the knowledge required to make attitude is central to theories of consumer decision-mak-
ethical decisions and may require marketers, government, ing. For example, Follows and Jobber (2000) explored
and NGOs to support the development of effective con- environmentally responsible behavior in the context of
sumer labeling and advertising programs (Ellen 1994). cloth diaper purchasing and found a values–attitudes–
Shaw and Clarke (1999) described the lack of availability, intentions–behavior hierarchical relationship. To under-
choice, and information as ‘knowledge obstacles’ to stand the relationships between attitudes and behaviors in
desired ethical consumer behavior. If the fashion industry an ethical context, however, it must be realized that
provided relevant knowledge such as product attributes, concerned consumers may find themselves confronted by
ethical consumers would make informed decisions in their uncertainty in terms of information available to aid
ethical consumption choices. decision-making and of the consequences of their deci-
While much of ethical consumption practice has been sions (Newholm and Shaw 2007). If consumer behavior is
carried out in relation to fair trade (Shaw et al. 2000; to avoid this uncertainty, it is crucial that consumers
Nicholls 2002; Shaw and Shiu 2003; Golding and Peattie make consumption choices based on certain standards
2005; Low and Davenport 2005; Fridell 2006; Hira and such as product knowledge and environmental belief. To
Ferrie 2006; Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al. 2006), a focus on foresee consumer ethical consumption behavior toward
individual ethical consumption is revealing the market EFFL products, this study proposes VBA logic drawn
complexity of competing ethical consumption claims from the VBN theory.
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H. J. Jung et al.
The VBN theory explains how the attitudes regarding and social or prescriptive norm strength for choosing eco-
environmental concerns and issues are socially constructed friendly products. Drawing on the concepts of the VBN
(Stern et al. 1995). The VBN theory asserts that the theory, this study elaborates the VBA logic with the
motivation for consumer sustainable practices lies in a mediation of product attribute information. The particular
conjunction of values, beliefs, and personal norms which types of product attributes lead to a flow from a dispo-
impel individuals to act in ways supporting the ethical sitional element based on personal consumption values
consumption movement (Stern et al. 1999). Personal and beliefs to an attitude of commitment toward EFFL
norms, which result from individuals’ values, influence all products. VBA logic expects that each variable in the
kinds of behavior (Stern 2000); thus, the consequences of chain, described in the following paragraphs, directly
norms are the result of whatever the individuals’ values affects the next and that each may also affect variables
are. Several studies support the idea that environmental and further down the chain.
societal values have a strong impact on the activating of
sustainability norms and ethical consumption practices Consumption Value
(Karp 1996; Stern et al. 1999).
As more ethical choices enter consumer consciousness Value is a personal assessment of the net worth obtained
(Cherrier and Murray 2002; Memery et al. 2005), under- from an activity (Babin and Harris 2009). Values are of
standing why those choices are made has become an particular interest because they may affect a wide spectrum
important area of consumer research. Each consumer pur- of behavior (Seligman et al. 1996), consumer decision
chase has ‘ethical, resource, waste, and community impli- processes (Vermeir and Verbeke 2006), and attitudes, with
cations’ (McDonald et al. 2006) and while it is clear that varying emotional intensity (Schwartz 1994). Values can
ethical considerations are increasingly entering consumer be categorized as terminal and instrumental values (Rok-
purchase decisions, a ‘disconnect between the issues con- each 1973), self-centered and society-centered values
sumers claim to care about’ and ‘their purchasing behavior’ (Homer and Kahle 1988), and social and environment
is apparent (Belk et al. 2005). While the individual con- values (Stern et al. 1999; Thompson and Barton 1994; Van
sumer’s rational choice paradigm has made significant Vugt and Samuelson 1999). Williams (1979) contends that
contributions to the ethical consumption literature, critics fully conceptualized values become criteria for judgment,
of these studies argue that a rational choice paradigm such preferences, and choice. Such relativistic preferences shape
as the Theory of Planned Behavior approach may result in the consumption experiences that create customer value in
responses that appear to be similar, but are underpinned by the sense that products perform services and relevant value
a variety of meanings. This has led recent empirical work creates experience. However, values may not necessarily
to engage in a ‘social’ context approach to the study of lead in a straightforward way to attitudes because social
ethical consumption. behavior can be influenced by agents such as the mass
The importance attached to consumption values is a key media and social movements. Values may manipulate
factor during the systemic phase of VBA process. Unless individuals’ attention so as to affect the ways in which they
consumers value environmental and ethical claims, why construct their preferences and thereby influence their
should they look for the EFFL product? Through infor- opinions and actions (Dietz et al. 1989).
mation seeking and personal experience, consumers know Values often tend to (1) serve the interests of some
more about eco-friendly products, and their specific beliefs social entity, (2) motivate action, giving it direction and
and product knowledge are assumed to influence their emotional intensity, (3) function as standards for judging
choice behavior. In situations that call for pro-environ- and justifying action, and (4) be acquired both through
mental ethical behavior, consumers will also be sensitive socialization to dominant group values and through the
to what others do and consider being proper behavior unique learning experiences of individuals (Schwartz,
(Grankvist and Bill 2001). On the other hand, consumers 1994). According to Kluckhohn (1951), values are con-
may also be sensitive to the behavioral support for a ceptions of the desirable that influence action and evaluate
prescriptive norm in choosing eco-friendly products. This events. Moreover, values are relatively central criteria
could be of special importance in the phase wherein which can reflect major social change in societies (Davidov
consumers start to engage in a new ethical behavior et al. 2008) because values are mostly consistent across
(Klandermans 1992). Hence, a number of factors that different cultures, which justifies the construct of ‘‘value’’
could serve as predictors of the purchase of eco-friendly as a valid measure for lifestyle segmentation across cul-
products are considered. Importance is attached to general tures (Schwartz and Bardi 2001).
purchase criteria (environmental friendliness being one Although several researchers (Park and Rabolt 2009;
example), beliefs about characteristics of eco-friendly Cowart and Goldsmith 2007) have identified consumption
products as compared to non-eco-friendly alternatives, values and their impacts on purchase behavior, there has
123
been no study of consumption value measure with an aim focused on the hedonic motivations of shopping and recog-
to investigating its influence on a specific apparel and nized six dimensions of hedonic shopping motivations:
textile category, especially ethical leather apparel products, adventure, gratification, role, value, social, and idea shop-
across countries. Extant research has established that con- ping. They indicated consumers of hedonic products such as
sumption can take place for hedonic or utilitarian reasons apparel do shop for novelty, to satisfy their curiosity, to
(e.g., Hirshman 1986; Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; reduce boredom, to keep up with new trends and events.
Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). According to Niinimäki The notion of conspicuous value pertains to an image of
(2010), utilitarian and hedonic values are strong actors in a good that is congruent with the norms of a consumer’s
clothing choices because every consumer wants utilitarian reference group and with the social status that they desire
benefits such as high quality and durable clothes and is also to project (Sánchez-Fernández and Iniesta-Bonillo 2007;
influenced by hedonism, a strong human value whose Sheth et al. 1991). Purchases related to highly visible
motivational goal is pleasure and self-indulgence when products (e.g., an automobile, clothing, or jewelry) or
consumers shop. In this study, utilitarian and hedonic services (e.g., a hotel, opera, or cruise trip) might be
values, with reference to the consumption value framework affected by conspicuous consumption value since people
by Hirschman and Holbrook (1982), and conspicuous hope to show off their social status. Products have been
consumption values, by pre-test results of in-depth inter- identified as possessing socially symbolic value in excess
views, are highlighted in the ethical consumption context. of their functional and utilitarian values (Veblen 1899).
The concept of utilitarian value relates to whether an Sheth et al. (1991) indicated the importance of conspicuous
alternative is able to perform its functional, utilitarian, or values in consumers’ choices as a result of interpersonal
physical purposes. Utilitarian value has been perceived to communication and information diffusion about new pro-
be the key influence on consumer choice (Sheth et al. ducts or services within the social group. Consumers that
1991). Utilitarian value is based on the assumption that a engage in status achievement are characterized as highly
consumer is a rational problem-solver (Bettman 1979). The self-monitoring and are primarily concerned with what
utilitarian perspective on a product may result from its kind of impression (i.e., by showing off high-priced
attributes or characteristics such as physical performance, apparel, or by buying luxury brands) they give to others
functionality, durability, and price (Sheth et al. 1991). (Browne and Kaldenberg 1997; Johnson et al. 2014).
Consumers encounter utilitarian value when their task-
related needs are fulfilled. Therefore, utilitarian value is Pro-environmental Belief
considered to be instrumental and extrinsic (Babin et al.
1994; Holbrook 1999; Hirschman and Holbrook 1982). Pro-environmental belief is a belief oriented toward the
Consumers in collectivistic countries including China and environment (Stern 2000) and the collective good which is
Korea are more influenced by utilitarianism and function- distinguished from a purely self-interested attitude (Karp
ality than by hedonism due to their deep-seated values of 1996). When consumers are concerned about the environ-
saving and frugality, and they make purchase decisions ment, they verbally endorse most schemes or products that
based on a product’s functional benefits (Tse 1996). Levy seek to conserve or improve it (McDonald and Oates
(1996) found that 88 % of Chinese consumers relied on 2006). However, consumers are disinclined to put pro-
practicality rather than feelings when making decisions environmental belief into practice unless they hold the
about purchasing products (i.e., clothing or electronics). belief that their efforts can make a difference to the envi-
Hedonic value can be related to a desire for knowledge, ronment (Pieters et al. 1998).
whether driven by intellectual curiosity or novelty seeking Numerous studies (Gärling et al. 2003; Joireman et al.
(Sánchez-Fernández and Iniesta-Bonillo 2007). Exploration 2001; Nordlund and Garvill 2002) have examined the
provides hedonic value when consumers enjoy the excite- relationships among values, beliefs, and environmental
ment of a product or of an information search (Babin et al. behavior. Although there is a consensus that pro-environ-
1994; Chandon et al. 2000). Consumers are motivated to mental belief is determined mainly by values (Gatersleben
choose because they are tired of existing brands, are inter- et al. 2002; Nordlund and Garvill 2002), an understanding
ested in novel and high-tech brands, or have a desire to learn of what determines support for ethical consumption prac-
knowledge and to meet with a new experience. Novelty and tice and of how to develop and evaluate interventions to
variety seeking motives have been proposed as factors that change consumers’ ethical behaviors must be put forward
can be exploited to encourage product or brand search, trial, for practical application and theoretical validation (Steg
and switching behaviors (Sheth et al. 1991). This con- and Vlek 1997). Regarding the possibility of empirical
sumption value may be important for consumers who are correlations between environmental beliefs and ethical
considering and browsing for new experiences (e.g., the consumption behaviors (Dunlap et al. 2000; Stern et al.
purchase of EFFL products). Arnold and Reynolds (2003) 1995, 1999), the following relationship is proposed:
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H. J. Jung et al.
H1 Consumption values (H1a, Conspicuous; H1b, Utili- manufacturers and retailers (Eckman et al. 1990; Olson and
tarian, H1c, Hedonic) positively influence pro-environ- Jacoby 1972). Abraham-Murali and Littrell (1995) gener-
mental beliefs regarding EFFL products. ated a composite list of 79 apparel attributes and four
conceptual categories of attributes, including physical
appearance, physical performance, expressive features, and
Mediation of EFFL Product Attributes
extrinsic attributes. Which attributes consumers consider
important is influenced by the personal values, lifestyles,
Despite the intuitive appeal of VBA logic as a systemic
personality, and social values of consumers (Hsu and
process of building consumer acceptance attitude, the links
Burns 2002), and also product attributes affect consum-
among consumers’ values, beliefs, and behavior have not
ers’ behavioral intention in the decision-making process
always been obvious (Prothero et al. 2011), and thus
(Engel et al. 1995). This study concentrates on EFFL
researchers have reported varied findings (Hoek et al.
product attributes as a mediator between pro-environ-
2012). Discrepancies may arise when consumers engage in
mental beliefs and attitude toward EFFL products, taking
a heuristic response to immediate cues, instead of taking a
into consideration esthetic, brand, and sustainability
reasoned action resulting from belief or norms within a
attributes.
systematic processing (Eagly and Chaiken 1993; Hoek
The notion of aesthetic attribute relates to intrinsic
et al. 2012). Explicitly, Zuckmand and Chaiken’s (1998)
attributes based on inherent and observable features of a
heuristic-systematic model delineates the facilitations of
product. This esthetic attributes of products are comprised
immediate cues through the heuristic route to the systemic
of fabric construction, color, pattern, texture, design, and
route. If the systemic route involves the accessing, scruti-
styling (Abraham-Murali and Littrell 1995). esthetic
nizing, and integrating of all useful information, it entails a
properties are critical elements in the perception of quality
cognitive route in which consumers employ an ethical
(Fiore and Damhorst 1992), and they are the most impor-
attitude in the conjecture of a VBN. On the other hand, the
tant attributes for assessing apparel in both shoppers’
heuristic route encompasses straightforward decision of
interest phases and trial phases in the dressing room
which attitudes can be changed as result of simple asso-
(Eckman et al. 1990).
ciations and cues from marketing stimuli such as the pre-
Brand has been studied most extensively among the
sentation of product attributes. Indeed, this heuristic route
extrinsic attributes (Abraham-Murali and Littrell 1995).
draws on learned knowledge structures in the form of
Branded products achieve awareness, reputation, or certain
simple decision rules to reach judgments (Zuckerman and
images so that consumers can utilize the brand name as an
Chaiken 1998; Hoek et al. 2012).
evaluative criterion in their product choices. While con-
The term product attributes refers to the particular
sumers associate brand-named skirts with a higher quality
dimensions that are used in evaluating the choice alterna-
than non-branded ones (Davis 1985), brand name or label
tives (Hsu and Burns 2002). North et al. (2003) indicated
has little effect on purchase decision in the stores (Eckman
that female consumers’ apparel purchasing decisions
et al. 1990)
depend on the joint influence of product attributes such as
Much attention has been paid to environmental concerns
price, quality, style, and brand. Especially, for products that
and ethical consumption in the fashion industry. Sustain-
have not been introduced into the market yet, such as EFFL
ability attributes depict social and environmental principles
products, due to the uncertainty of marketability, the
which influence consumer purchase decision. Bezençon
fashion industry is intrigued with how consumers respond
and Blili (2010) argue that the sustainable aspect of pro-
to products so that consumer-centric attributes can be
ducts is a stronger criterion for explaining behavioral
stressed in marketing and retailing strategies (Kim et al.
intention of ethical consumers than is product involvement.
2014).
Thus, the following hypotheses are tested.
Olson (1977) proposed that any product information
could be derived from the actual physical product (deriving H2 Pro-environmental beliefs positively influence attri-
intrinsic cues) or from product-related attributes (deriving bute perception of EFFL products (H2a, Aesthetics; H2b,
extrinsic cues) excluding the physical product. Many Brand; and H2c, Sustainability).
studies have examined intrinsic and extrinsic attributes
H3 Attribute perception of EFFL products (H3a, Aes-
related to apparel. The intrinsic attributes most frequently
thetics; H3b, Brand; and H3c, Sustainability) positively
investigated include style, fit, design, fiber content, color,
influence attitude towards EFFL products.
care, quality, and appearance (Eckman et al. 1990; Olson
and Jacoby 1972). Extrinsic attributes, such as brand name, Based on the review of the literature and the hypotheses
price, package, and country of origin, are not component developed, the VBA framework is conceptualized in
parts of the physical product but are created by Fig. 1.
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Fig. 1 The research model

Conspicuous Aesthetic
Value Attribute
H1a H2a H3a
Pro- H2b Brand Attitude

Utilitarian H1b H3b towards EFFL
Value environmental Attribute
beliefs Products
H1c H2c H3c

Hedonic Sustainability
Value Attribute
Methods biodegradability and to problems of animal abuse and

environmental pollution involved in the production of
Instrument Development natural and man-made leather products, making reference
to the website of PETA (People for Ethical Treatment of
For the purpose of examining the relationships proposed in Animals, http://www.peta.org), a nonprofit organization for
the research model, existing instrument scales were adap- animal welfare. All variables were rated on a 7-point
ted to fit the ethical consumption context. In developing the Likert-type scale anchored by 1 = strongly disagree and
measurement instrument of VBA logic within the ethical 7 = strongly agree.
consumption context, in-depth interviews were initially The translation and back-translation technique sug-
conducted with a total of 14 participants from China gested by Bock et al. (2005) was employed to ensure
(n = 6) and South Korea (n = 8). Interviewees were asked internal consistency and accuracy between the Chinese and
to give some of the most important aspirations and tem- the Korean versions of the instrument (Brislin 1970). The
poral values that affect their purchasing of ethical apparel procedure included the translation of material from Korean
products. The findings from interviews revealed that (1) into Chinese and back into Korean, version comparison,
their perceptions of benefits or problems associated with and final discrepancy resolution (Bock et al. 2005). Two
purchasing clothing indicate functional and utilitarian translation and back-translation processes were conducted,
value; and (2) their feelings associated with their decision with the inter-translator reliability coefficient increasing
to purchase clothing revealed emotional and hedonic value. from 0.87 to 0.96.
The utilitarian and hedonic value perspectives in product
consumption are consistent with the findings of prior Sample and Data Collection
studies (Hirshman 1986; Hirschman and Holbrook 1982;
Holbrook and Hirschman 1982), whereas conspicuous Data were obtained from online female respondents from
consumption value was distinctively mentioned by several China (N = 300) and Korea (N = 300) with ages ranging
interviewees in the clothing and textiles product context. between 20 and 50 years old. Although both China and
Respondents revealed the view that their self-satisfaction Korea are collectivistic countries in which individuals
and conspicuous social status could be elevated when they belong to groups that look after them in exchange for
purchased ethical apparel products, and as a result, they loyalty (Hofstede 1984), they show different consumption
tended to desire to possess ethical apparel products and to behaviors as well as similarities because of their varying
show them off. historical experiences including politics, economy, and
Drawn from the interview findings in conjunction with culture, and these lead to predictable differences in ethical
literature review, a total of nine items were used to measure behaviors and beliefs (Chung et al. 2008).
consumption values (Sánchez-Fernández and Iniesta-Bon- Several studies have indicated that female consumers
illo 2007; Sheth et al. 1991) and three items were used to show a greater tendency to engage in ethical consumption
measure pro-environmental beliefs (Szmigin and Carrigan behavior (Blend and van Ravenswaay 1999; Doran 2009;
2006). After background information regarding EFFL Loureiro and Lotade 2005). Although many previous
products related to an ethical consumption perspective had studies utilized young university students as a sample for
been acquired, a total of eight items for attributes (Abra- convenience sampling, this study included participants
ham-Murali and Littrell 1995) of, and three items of atti- from various age categories from 20 to 50 to compare
tudes (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980) toward EFFL products ethical consumption behaviors across diverse age cohorts.
were included, followed by demographic questions. The The sample was distributed evenly among subjects in their
information on EFFL products in the survey related to their 20 s, 30 s, 40 s, and 50 s in this study. The majority of the
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H. J. Jung et al.
sample was collected purposefully from the residents of the Only one third of Chinese respondents (38 %) and 13 % of
metropolitan areas of Shanghai and Beijing in China and Korean respondents had purchased EFFL products, which
Seoul in South Korea. indicates a low level of product experience of EFFL in both
Participants were recruited through a professional survey countries. If respondents answered that they had had a
company, and they were informed in writing that complet- purchase experience of general EFFL products, most of the
ing the questionnaire was anonymous and voluntary and that respondents in both the Chinese (73.3 %) and Korean
there were no rewards for completing the questionnaire. (71.8 %) samples had bought a fashion item (Table 1).
Recently, the number of Internet users has grown explo- Thus, general EFFL products had entered the early adop-
sively; thus, an online survey was employed because of the tion stage of product diffusion in both countries.
fast and convenient sampling methods for both participants
and researchers. Even though participants were asked about
their awareness and previous experiences of ethical con- Results
sumption (i.e., EFFL product consumption), this survey
includes all respondents as potential ethical consumers The Measurement Model
regardless their previous knowledge of ethical consumption.
A total of 78 % of the respondents in China were mar- Employing the AMOS 18.0 program, Confirmatory Factor
ried, and 65 % of those in Korea; and the majority of Analysis (CFA) was performed to estimate the measure-
respondents in both the Chinese (78.4 %) and Korean ment modeluGw, following Anderson and Gerbing’s
(74.6 %) groups had a university education at the under- (1988) two-step approach. The initial measurement model
graduate level. The general awareness level regarding analysis including 34 items indicated that the model needed
EFFL products was not sufficiently matured: a total of improvement: v2 = 1,269.34, df = 472, v2/df = 2.69,
30 % of the respondents in China had no idea about them, p \ 0.001, CFI = 0.92, GFI = 0.88, NFI = 0.88,
and 42.3 % of those in Korea had never heard about them. RMSEA = 0.10. A series of scale purification processes
Table 1 Demographic Variable Chinese Korean Total

characteristics of Chinese and
Korean respondents Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Age
20 75 25.0 75 25.0 150 25.0
30 75 25.0 75 25.0 150 25.0
40 75 25.0 75 25.0 150 25.0
50 75 25.0 75 25.0 150 25.0
Marital status
Married 234 78.0 195 65.0 429 71.5
Single 66 22.0 105 35.0 171 27.8
Final educational level
Middle school 11 3.7 5 1.7 16 2.7
High school 54 18.0 71 23.7 125 20.8
Undergraduate 203 67.7 205 68.3 408 68.0
Graduate 32 10.7 19 6.3 51 8.5
Awareness of EFFL products
Familiar with them 35 11.7 22 7.3 57 9.5
Have heard about them 176 58.7 151 50.3 327 54.5
Have no idea about them 89 29.7 127 42.3 216 35.7
Purchase experience of EFFL products
Yes 115 38.3 39 13.0 154 25.7
No 185 61.7 261 87.0 446 74.3
Previous purchase items of EFFL products
Fashion products 85 73.3 28 71.8 113 72.9
Home furnishing(i.e., sofa) 16 13.8 9 23.1 25 16.1
Case cover for tablet PCs or 15 12.9 2 5.1 17 10.9
cellphones
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removed eleven items: five items for consumption value, cutoff of 0.5, also supporting the convergent validity of
three items for product attribute of esthetics, and three each scale (Fornell and Larcker 1981). In order to test the
items for brand. The final measurement model yielded an unidimensionality of the latent constructs, exploratory
acceptable fit: v2 = 670.88, df = 202, v2/df = 3.3, factor analysis (EFA) was conducted (Kumar and Dillon
p \ 0.001, CFI = 0.94, GFI = 0.91, NFI = 0.92, 1987). The EFA on each construct yielded a single
RMSEA = 0.06, and all coefficients were significant. underlying factor for each construct. In addition, Cron-
Convergent validity of the constructs was supported bach’s alpha (ranging from 0.69 to 0.91) was acceptable for
through significant t-values of each item’s estimated path construct reliability (Nunnally 1978). CFA factor loadings
coefficient on its posited latent construct (Lusch and Brown (all above 0.6) were all in an acceptable range, suggesting
1996; Steenkamp and Van Trijp 1991). All estimated path unidimensionality of each construct (Steenkamp and Van
coefficients had t-values that were significant at the Trijp 1991) (Table 2). As this study assumed that three
p \ 0.05 level. The AVE of each construct exceeded the dimensions of consumption value and three dimensions of
Table 2 Confirmatory factor analysis results of measures
Factors and items Factor loading t value
Consumption values
Conspicuous value (AVE = 0.62; CR = 0.68)
People can achieve recognition when they own high-end clothes and accessories. 0.86 –a
I think people who buy high-priced products seem to succeed socially. 0.82 20.66
I am envious of people who buy high-end brands. 0.74 18.82
Utilitarian value (AVE = 0.63; CR = 0.82)
When I choose products, I consider products’ value to price ratio important. 0.78 –
I consider how strong and safe products are when I choose products. 0.80 18.83
I think products’ utility is important. 0.80 18.79
Hedonic value (AVE = 0.53; CR = 0.71)
Shopping and looking around stores is an enjoyable pastime for me. 0.77 –
I spend much time researching new products because I am interested.. 0.72 13.51
When I purchase products, I like to fully look around various stores. 0.70 12.54
Pro-environmental beliefs (AVE = 0.58; CR = 0.73)
I decide to purchase products by considering the environmental consequence. 0.76 –
We should exercise restraint on spending to save animals that are near extinction nationwide. 0.82 17.96
I think that we should consume while considering our contribution to the public interest as a member of society. 0.70 15.86
Attributes of EFFL Products
Aesthetics (AVE = 0.77; CR = 0.91)
Design 0.90 –
A style of dressing 0.85 28.29
Color 0.87 29.57
Brand (AVE = 0.67; CR = 0.72)
Brand awareness 0.73 –
Brand image 0.89 15.99
Sustainability (AVE = 0.60; CR = 0.80)
Contribution to animal welfare 0.78 –
Non-harmful effects on nature 0.82 20.33
Non-harmful effects on our health 0.71 17.48
Attitudes toward EFFL Products (AVE = 0.81; CR = 0.90)
I have an interest in this product. 0.91 –
This product is favorable to me. 0.90 33.07
I have an intention to buy this product. 0.89 32.49
v2(df) = 670.88(202), CFI = 0.94, GFI = 0.91, NFI = 92, RMSEA = 0.06
AVE average variance extracted, CR composite reliability
a
Unstandardized estimates was fixed by value of one, so t value was not given
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H. J. Jung et al.
Table 3 Correlation of constructs

Consumption values PEB Product attributes Attitudes
CV UV HV esthetics Brand Sustainability
CV 1.00
UV 0.10 1.00
HV 0.49 0.50 1.00
PEB 0.10 0.50 0.45 1.00
esthetics 0.17 0.53 0.43 0.35 1.00
Brand 0.38 0.38 0.46 0.45 0.53 1.00
Sustainability 0.12 0.54 0.40 0.60 0.63 0.61 1.00
Attitudes 0.12 0.41 0.37 0.51 0.51 0.34 0.63 1.00
CV consumption value, UV utilitarian value, HV hedonic value, PEB pro-environmental beliefs, Attitudes Attitude toward EFFL products
Table 4 Measurement Model fit measures Model differences

invariance test results
2
v df p RMSEA CFI Dv2(D df)
Configural invariance 1,013.99 404 0.00 0.05 0.93 –

Metric invariance 1,035.98 419 0.00 0.05 0.93 21.99(15)
Scalar invariance 1,143.11 455 0.00 0.05 0.92 135.75(51)***
Factor covariance invariance 1,196.75 478 0.00 0.05 0.92 189.39(74)***
*** p \ 0.001
EFFL product attributes were identified with each uni- attitudes toward EFFL products) were identified as
dimension of pro-environmental belief and ethical attitude endogenous constructs.
toward EFFL products. The hypothesized structural model generated a good fit
As this study assumed, three dimensions of consumption (v2(df) = 986.82(218), CFI = 0.90, GFI = 0.87,
values, a uni-dimension of pro-environmental belief, three NFI = 0.87, RMSEA = 0.07). H1 tested whether three
dimensions of EFFL attributes, and a uni-dimension of consumption values (conspicuous, H1a; utilitarian, H1b,
attitudes toward EFFL products were identified. Discrimi- hedonic, H1c) positively affected pro-environmental
nant validity was supported when the AVE between each beliefs. Utilitarian (b = 0.76, p \ 0.001) and hedonic
pair of constructs was greater than U2 (i.e., the squared (b = 0.30, p \ 0.001) values strongly affected pro-envi-
correlation between two constructs) (see Table 3). ronmental beliefs, while there was no significant relation-
The measurement invariance between the Chinese and ship between conspicuous value and pro-environmental
the Korean groups was examined by means of multigroup beliefs. Thus, H1b and H1c were supported, indicating that
CFA (Table 4). On observing the Chi-square difference consumers who valued utilitarian and hedonic consumption
between a constrained versus an unconstrained model, it highly tended to have positive pro-environmental beliefs. It
was found that the condition of metric variance (i.e., is interesting to see no significant impact of conspicuous
measurement weight invariance) was satisfied in all latent value on pro-environmental belief.
variables of the proposed model. Thus the two groups of H2 tested whether pro-environmental beliefs had posi-
the sample demonstrate invariance, which means the pro- tive influences on three attributes of EFFL products
posed model can test the hypothesized relationships, and (esthetics, H2a; brand, H2b, sustainability, H2c). The
the moderating role (country) can be proceeded (Hair et al. effects of pro-environmental beliefs on esthetics (b = 0.65,
2010). p \ 0.001), brand (b = 0.62, p \ 0.001), and sustainabil-
ity (b = 0.88, p \ 0.001) were significant; therefore, all of
The Structural Model H2a–c were supported. If pro-environmental belief was
strengthened by utilitarian and hedonic value, the belief
Structural equation modeling was conducted to assess the further progressed to become positive perception of spe-
hypothesized relationships. The structural model identified cific EFFL product information.
three variables (i.e., conspicuous, utilitarian, and hedonic) H3 examined the positive effect of EFFL product attri-
as exogenous latent constructs, while others (i.e., pro- butes (esthetics, H3a; brand, H3b; sustainability, H3c) on
environmental beliefs, esthetics, brand, sustainability, and attitudes toward EFFL products. All paths from the three
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Fig. 2 The proposed VBA

model for the Chinese group. Conspicuous Aesthetic
Value Attribute
***p \ .001. n.s. not significant n.s
n.s .71***
Pro- Brand Attitude

Utilitarian .49*** .68*** n.s towards EFFL
beliefs Products
.43*** .89*** .60***

Value Attribute
attributes to attitude toward EFFL products were signifi- through pro-environmental beliefs and then through sus-
cant. esthetics (b = 0.19, p \ 0.001) and sustainability tainability to attitude toward EFFL products, with a total
(b = 0.60, p \ 0.001) positively affected attitudes toward effect of .29; and from hedonic consumption value through
EFFL products, while brand (b = -0.10, p \ 0.05) had a pro-environmental beliefs and then through sustainability
negative effect on attitude. While H3a and H3c were to attitude toward EFFL products, with a total effect of .25
supported, surprisingly H3b was not supported due to the (see Fig. 2; Table 5).
negative effect of brand on attitude. To achieve favorable Chinese consumers evinced the pro-environmental
attitudes toward EFFL products, both esthetics and sus- belief stemming from utilitarian and hedonic consumption
tainability are pertinent regarding the EFFL product pur- value. While the mediation of pro-environmental belief
chase. In sum, a total of six hypotheses out of nine were leads to the positive perception of EFFL product attributes,
supported, which implies that the Value-Belief-Attitude this attribute knowledge does not fully mediate positive
model would facilitate consumers’ ethical consumption. attitude on the part of customers. If only the perception of
the sustainability attribute enhanced the positive attitude in
Moderating the Effects of Country the Chinese VBA framework, other product attributes such
as esthetics and brand may not be determinants for the
To investigate the moderating effect of country of resi- marketing of EFFL products in the Chinese market.
dence between China and Korea, multigroup structural Contrary to Levy’s (1996) indication that Chinese con-
equation modeling (SEM) was conducted. Testing for the sumers think functional benefits more important than
invariant structure between two groups was necessary hedonic ones during the making of buying decisions, they
before testing for multigroup SEM. The unconstrained in fact tended to depend on both utilitarian and hedonic
model assumed that the invariance had the same factors values in regard to ethical consumption. While China has
and path pattern in the two country estimations. The shown speedy economic development since its proclama-
fit of the unconstrained model was satisfactory tion, in 1978, of the open door policy, it has nonetheless
(v2(df) = 1156.05 (354), GFI = 0.85, IFI = 0.90, been paying a high ecological price for this remarkable
TLI = 0.89, CFI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.06), with statisti- economic performance (Chan et al. 2008). Chan and Lau
cally significant t-value with regard to factor loadings (2000) found that Chinese people appear to exhibit stronger
exceeding 0.60. The full invariance model was tested by affective responses to ethical and ecological issues
constraining the metric of factor loading (measurement although they are not as environmentally knowledgeable as
weight) to be invariant across the two countries. Westerners. Consistent with this previous research, Chi-
There were no significant differences in the Chi square nese respondents in this study tended to consider pro-
(Dv2(Ddf) = 16.76(13), p [ 0.05) between the unconstrained environmental belief and sustainable criteria of a product
model and the measurement weight-constrained model critical in terms of ethical consumption, and those ante-
(v2(df) = 1169.80(367), CFI = 0.90, GFI = 0.86, cedents played a more important role in their purchase
NFI = 0.86, RMSEA = 0.06). Hence, the metric invari- intention toward EFFL products rather than general prod-
ance was supported, and the two countries’ structural uct cues.
models were assumed to be invariant. The Korean ethical consumption behavior was devel-
On validation of the invariance of the SEM, multigroup oped through three paths with a total effect of .34 (see
SEM was performed to compare the hypothesized rela- Fig. 3; Table 5). The first route was derived from utilitar-
tionships between Chinese and Korean consumer groups. ian consumption value through pro-environmental beliefs
The Chinese ethical consumption behavior was realized and then through esthetics to attitude toward EFFL pro-
through two paths: from utilitarian consumption value ducts; the second from utilitarian through pro-
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H. J. Jung et al.

model for the Korean group Conspicuous Aesthetic
Value Attribute
n.s .64*** .21**
Brand Attitude
Utilitarian .54*** Pro- 55*** ᪫.15* towards EFFL
beliefs Products
n.s 90*** .64***

Value Attribute
Table 5 The group comparisons of path coefficients

Hypothesized relationships Chinese Korean
b SE CR b SE CR
H1a: conspicuous value ? pro-environmental beliefs -0.08 0.04 n.s 0.08 0.05 n.s
H1b: utilitarian value ? pro-environmental beliefs 0.49 0.07 6.65*** 0.54 0.09 5.53***
H1c: hedonic value ? pro-environmental beliefs 0.43 0.07 4.73*** 0.13 0.11 n.s
H2a: pro-environmental beliefs ? esthetic 0.71 0.08 9.77*** 0.64 0.10 7.33***
H2b: pro-environmental beliefs ? brand 0.68 0.09 6.87*** 0.55 0.13 5.30***
H2c: pro-environmental beliefs ? sustainability 0.89 0.09 10.43*** 0.90 0.14 8.03***
H3a: esthetic ? attitude toward EFFL products 0.13 0.08 n.s 0.21 0.09 3.12**
H3b: brand ? attitude toward EFFL products –0.04 0.09 n.s –0.15 0.07 –2.20*
H3c: sustainability ? attitude toward EFFL products 0.60 0.11 6.71*** 0.64 0.10 7.73***
Metric invariant structural model fit indices: v2(df) = 1169.80(367), CFI = 0.90, GFI = 0.86, NFI = 0.86, RMSEA = 0.06
b the path coefficient, SE standard error, CR critical ratio, n.s not significant
*p \ 0.05, **p \ 0.01, ***p \ 0.001
environmental beliefs and then through brand to attitude The findings of the current study might be a result of
toward EFFL products; and the third from utilitarian Koreans’ greater uncertainty regarding the newly devel-
through pro-environmental beliefs and then through sus- oped EFFL products, this leading them to evaluate ethical
tainability to attitude toward EFFL products. The Korean products carefully.
group had a positive belief only when they perceived In sum, the country cohort significantly moderates VBA
utilitarian value not derived from conspicuous and hedonic logic, in which the Chinese group has advanced the ethical
values. The robust mediation of information about EFFL consumption attitudes through mediation of pro-environ-
products leads to positive ethical consumption attitude, in mental belief by means of the systemic route of decision-
which are emphasized the esthetics, brand, and sustain- making process, whereas the Korean group reveals a robust
ability attributes relating to the marketing or manufacturing mediation of product attributes through the heuristic route.
of EFFL products. As a result, the Korean consumers sig-
nificantly rely on the heuristic process of attitude devel- Moderating the Effects of Age Cohorts
opment; the negative effect of brand attribute remains as a
challenge for the understanding of practitioners and Several previous studies (De Pelsmacker et al. 2005;
researchers. Dickson and Littrell 1997; Roberts 1995) found a positive
Korean people showed dissimilar patterns from Chinese association between ethical consumer behaviors and the
people in relation to VBA logic; that is, Koreans empha- age factor. For the purpose of examining the moderating
sized only the utilitarian motive among the three con- effect of age between younger respondents in their 20–30 s
sumption values, but they took account of all three EFFL (n = 300) and older respondents in their 40–50 s
product attributes when they shopped for ethical products. (n = 300), multigroup SEM was conducted. Testing for the
Counter to these results, Jeong and Lee (2014) reported that invariant structure between the two age groups was
Korean apparel consumers tend to be satisfied after carry- required before the conducting of the multigroup SEM. The
ing out an evaluation of intrinsic criteria such as design, unconstrained model assumed that the invariance had the
color, and workmanship, not considering social criteria. same factors and path pattern in the two country
123

model for the younger group Conspicuous Aesthetic
Value Attribute
n.s .80*** .29***
Pro- Brand Attitude

Utilitarian .49*** .53*** towards EFFL
beliefs Products
-.22***
.36*** .84*** .59***

Value Attribute

model for the older group Conspicuous Aesthetic
Value Attribute
n.s .63*** n.s
Pro- Brand Attitude

Utilitarian .47*** n.s
Value environmental .57***. Attribute towards EFFL
beliefs Products Attitude
towards EFFL
Products
.35*** .76***. .60* **

ValueHedonic Attribute
Value
estimations. The fit of the unconstrained model was total effect of 0.25; from hedonic consumption value
acceptable (v2(df) = 804.85(410), GFI = 0.90, IFI = through pro-environmental beliefs and through brand to
0.95, TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04), with attitude toward EFFL products, with a total effect of 0.30;
statistically significant t value with regard to factor load- and from hedonic consumption value through pro-envi-
ings exceeding 0.60. The full invariance model was tested ronmental beliefs and through sustainability to attitude
by constraining the metric of factor loading (measurement toward EFFL products, with a total effect of 0.26 (see
weight) to be invariant across the two countries. There Fig. 4; Table 6).
were no significant differences in the Chi square (Dv2 The younger cohort in their 20–30 s demonstrated
(D df) = 11.99(15), p [ 0.05) between the unconstrained strong mediation of both pro-environmental beliefs and
model and the measurement weight-constrained EFFL product attributes, in which is emphasized the heu-
model (v2(df) = 816.85(425), GFI = 0.90, IFI = 0.95, ristic process of VBA logic through the esthetics, brand,
TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04). Consequently, and sustainability attributes relating to the marketing or
the metric invariance was supported, and the two age manufacturing of EFFL products. The negative influence of
groups’ structural models were supposed to be invariant. brand attribute is intriguing for future study and marketing
Upon validation of the invariance of the SEM, multi- implications.
group SEM was conducted to compare the hypothesized The older cohort, in their 40–50 s, demonstrated two
relationships between younger and older consumer groups. significant paths in VBA logic, differing from the younger
The younger generation’s ethical consumption behavior cohort: from utilitarian through pro-environmental beliefs
was recognized through six paths: from utilitarian con- and then through sustainability to attitude toward EFFL
sumption value through pro-environmental beliefs and products, with a total effect of .30; and from hedonic
through esthetic to attitude toward EFFL products, with a through pro-environmental beliefs and then through sus-
total effect of 0.30; from utilitarian consumption value tainability to attitude toward EFFL products, with a total
through pro-environmental beliefs and through brand to effect of .31 (see Fig. 5; Table 6). The pro-environmental
attitude toward EFFL products, with a total effect of 0.28; belief stemmed from both utilitarian and hedonic con-
from utilitarian consumption value through pro-environ- sumption values, which emphasizes the systemic process of
mental beliefs and through sustainability to attitude toward the cognitive VBA logic. While the mediation of pro-
EFFL products, with a total effect of 0.24; from hedonic environmental belief leads to the positive perception of
consumption value through pro-environmental beliefs and EFFL product attributes, attribute awareness dimensions do
through esthetic to attitude toward EFFL products, with a not fully mediate positive attitude on the part of customers.
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H. J. Jung et al.
Table 6 The group comparisons of path coefficients

Hypothesized relationships Younger group Older group
b SE CR b SE CR
H1a: conspicuous value ? pro-environmental beliefs 0.01 0.04 n.s -0.10 0.04 n.s
H1c: hedonic value ? pro-environmental beliefs 0.36 0.08 4.42*** 0.35 0.08 4.21***
H3a: esthetic ? attitude toward EFFL products 0.29 0.09 3.98*** 0.10 0.07 n.s
H3b: brand ? attitude toward EFFL products -0.22 0.08 -3.30*** -0.03 0.10 n.s
2
Metric invariant structural model fit indices: v (df) = 816.85(425), GFI = 0.90, IFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04
b the path coefficient; SE, standard error; CR, critical ratio; n.s, not significant
***p \ 0.001
If only the perception of the sustainability attribute Discussion and Implications

enhanced the positive attitude in the older VBA frame-
work, other product attributes such as esthetics and brand Using the advancements of Bio-based Polyurethane and
may not drive positive attitude to EFFL products in the Nanocellulose technique, EFFL has been newly developed
older market. as a green leather alternative for the Chinese and Korean
As a result, both younger and older consumers markets. This study examines ethical consumption attitudes
showed a strong effect of utilitarian and hedonic values toward EFFL products by proposing VBA logic, in which
and pro-environmental beliefs on ethical consumption ethical consumers perceive value, gather information, and
behavior; however, they were dissimilar with regard to set this information within their attitudes. The two theo-
evaluating ethical apparel product attributes. That is, retical perspectives of the heuristic-systemic model and
younger consumers tended to consider all three attributes VBN theory support VBA logic, and the moderating effects
of EFFL carefully compared to older consumers, who of demographic variables (i.e., age and country) justify the
focused on only sustainability criteria of ethical apparel theoretical relevancy of this logic.
products. McEachern and McClean (2002) identified The dimensionality of the VBA framework is identified
three distinct consumer groups, complacents, conceiv- with three dimensions of consumption value, three
ables, and committed, based on their investigation of the dimensions of EFFL product attributes, and the uni-
degree to which ethical belief influenced consumer per- dimension of pro-environmental belief and ethical con-
ceptions, belief, attitudes, and purchasing decision with sumption attitude. It indicates that conspicuous, hedonic,
regard to organic dairy products. In their study, younger and utilitarian consumption values directly motivate the
consumers belong to the group of complacents, who positive perception of pro-environmental belief and com-
possess a strong focus on price and never purchase mitted attitude in relation to EFFL product consumption
ethical products, whereas older consumers were descri- through the cognitive systemic route of VBA logic. Spe-
bed as belonging to the groups of conceivables or cifically, when esthetics, brand, and sustainability infor-
committed, who occasionally buy or always buy organic mation regarding products is provided to pro-
ethical products. Contrary to the findings of McEachern environmentally conscious consumers, they are willing to
and McClean’s (2002) study, more recent research indi- engage in a positive attitude toward these products by
cated that there were no significant differences in ethical means of the heuristic route. This has been witnessed in the
consumption (i.e., fair trade) between consumers in terms TOMS brand case in which the brand, sustainability, and
of age (Doran 2009). esthetic drives of TOMS have generated great popularity,
In current study, the age factor shows a significant appealing to many ethical consumers who are searching for
moderating effect in VBA logic, in which the younger more value in their purchases (Binkley 2010).
group has advanced their attitudes through mediation of the The results support most of the postulated hypotheses.
product attributes of EFFL; whereas the older group shows Hedonic and utilitarian values lead to positive pro-envi-
a robust mediation of pro-environmental belief to develop ronmental belief, while there was no significant impact of
the ethical consumption attitude. conspicuous value. Ethical products such as EFFL may
123
possess both benefits that are hedonic and those that are (Chatterjee and Pearson 2003; Chung et al. 2008) that
utilitarian in nature. That is, when consumers buy ethical indicated ethical perception and behavior could be different
products, they consider both sensory pleasure and prag- across countries even though the participants belong to the
matic benefit. Carrigan et al. (2004) argue that ethical same culture (i.e., in the case of Asian collectivism). The
purchasing will take place only if there are no costs to the findings in this study offer some insights about the differ-
consumer in terms of higher price, loss of quality, or dis- ences in ethical consumption that may exist between dif-
comfort in shopping. In this survey, the same tendency can ferent countries although they are in the same region (Asia)
be seen: all consumers want high quality and durable and may help global companies in implementing ethical
clothes. Consumers desire to acquire both utilitarian and apparel business across nations. When communicating with
hedonic benefits and are not willing to give up either value consumers in different countries, marketing managers
when they intend to buy ethical apparel products as well as should also take into account the differences in consump-
when they buy other fashion product categories. Although tion values and product attribute evaluation as they play a
conspicuous value motivates a desire for pro-environmen- role in ethical consumption in those countries.
tal or pro-social behavior particularly if eco-friendly pro- The age cohort significantly moderated VBA logic,
ducts are expensive (Griskevicius et al. 2010), the nature of such that the younger consumers have their positive
the EFFL products might have connotations of being attitudes toward EFFL products through mediation of
cheaper or lower in quality than natural leather products. information about the product attributes of EFFL, whereas
From the other perspective in the ethical consumption the older cohort shows a significant mediation of pro-
context, consumers advance their belief based on the environmental belief. Previous studies (De Pelsmacker
intrinsic perspective rather than on the social context. Vi- et al. 2005; Dickson and Littrell 1997; Roberts 1995)
tell et al. (2001) found that consumers are guided more by support these findings in concluding that ethical con-
values than by consequences when making ethical deci- sumption behavior varies depending on the age factor.
sions. Values are considered as the one of the most abstract Managerially, through a focus on the heuristic route of
forms of individual knowledge; therefore, tying a specific decision-making process for a younger target market,
product, service, or idea to value increases the ease with EFFL products should be promoted based on competent
which the specific item can be stored in the memory and and differential product attributes using eco-labels/indices
recalled (Kahle and Kennedy 1988). or informative promotion. For an older market, promotion
The EFFL product attribute of esthetics and sustain- of EFFL products needs to augment consumers’ pro-
ability information positively mediate pro-environmental environmental beliefs, employing socially and environ-
belief and consumer attitude, while the brand attribute mentally responsible advertisement.
negatively mediates this relationship. The negative influ- Given the growing interest from societies, industries,
ence of brand is intriguing in regard to creating a marketing and consumers in ethical consumption, comprehending
strategy for EFFL products. In the ethical consumption these dynamics can empower researchers and marketers to
context, consumers are not much interested in the named devise pertinent notional ideas and practical applications
brand or conspicuous effect, perhaps due to their voluntary regarding EFFL product stewardship and to present them to
participation in social responsibility or to the lack of past academia and to the industries. In the academic perspec-
marketing efforts of the well-known brand. However, the tive, by the void in current literature related to ethical
EFFL product attributes of esthetics, sustainability, and consumption practices in the fashion arena, the findings
brand are significant mediators for creating ethical con- presented here provide a theoretical foundation that serves
sumption attitudes toward EFFL products, which thus as a systemic approach to analyzing people’s consumption
suggests a competitive business model for EFFL products process by applying the heuristic-systemic model (Zuck-
in Chinese and Korean markets. erman and Chaiken 1998) and VBN theory (Stern et al.
This study reveals the cultural disparities in the VBA 1995). Therefore, this study suggests the relevance and
framework between China and Korea, suggesting the need usefulness of the VBA logic in examining ethical con-
for further marketing research relating to these two coun- sumption within fashion discipline. In the industrial per-
tries. The discrepancies between the two countries are spective, this cross-cultural study focusing on ethical
founded in the emphasis in each country with regard to consumption behavior, particularly of Chinese and Korean
VBA logic. The Chinese consumers are actively motivated consumers, demonstrates the current understanding, eval-
by pro-environmental belief to advance their positive atti- uation, and potential appropriation of alternative con-
tude through the systemic route of VBA logic, while the sumption practices; a industrial review of ethical
Korean consumers employ information on EFFL product consumption within the wider concept of consumer culture
attributes to avoid uncertainty in their heuristic decision- and segmentation; and the move from a merely individu-
making process. This finding is supported by earlier studies alized concept of the ethical consumer toward a more
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H. J. Jung et al.
collectivized dynamics (Newholm and Shaw 2007). Spe- worlds, such as universalism, achievement, altruism,
cific market segmentation strategies considering nationality openness to change, or sense of belongingness (Davidov
or age cohorts can be beneficial in the organization of et al. 2008; Doran 2009). Fourth, although this study
ethical products in the global market. Customization of provides a VBA model pertaining to customers and their
VBA logic according to various nationality or age groups, connected perceptions, other business dimensions such as
as proposed in this study, enhances firm revenue through fair-trade resources, pricing components, implementation,
increased positive purchase intention toward EFFL. In capabilities, and sustainability can be examined to
addition, the results of this study indicate that particular measure business performance. Lastly, cultural and case-
types of product attributes, including esthetic attributes, specific discrepancies need to be considered when the
brand attributes, and information regarding the sustainable study result is extended to other cultural and industry
characteristics of EFFL, lead to a change in the personal contexts.
consumption values and beliefs of consumers in the Beyond these limitations, directions for future research
direction of an attitude of commitment toward EFFL pro- are suggested. Doran (2009) assumed significant relation-
ducts. As consumers may hesitate to buy EFFL products ships between ethical consumption (e.g., fair trade) and
which have not yet been introduced into the market, the demographics such as marital status, race, and educational
fashion industry can attain consumers’ positive responses level as well as age. Further study needs to explore inter-
to EFFL products with emphasizing the consumer-centric actions between ethical consumption and other demo-
attribute of EFFL products, such as esthetic attributes and graphic factors or consumer characteristics (i.e., prior
information about their sustainable characteristics, in knowledge of ethical consumption, ethical consumption
marketing and retailing strategies. experience) or marketing perspectives (i.e., information
It needs to be stated that the study has several limita- about faux-leather products such as eco-labels). Testing for
tions. First, the purposive sampling limits the generaliza- the moderating effects of educational level, marital status,
tion of the research as this study restricted the sample and occupation may reveal noteworthy disparities with
frame to specific residence areas and even age sampling. implications for a competent market segmentation strategy
The sample may not be representative of the whole popu- (see Appendix 1).
lation of ethical product users. Second, pro-environmental
belief and ethical consumption attitude were represented as Acknowledgment This work was supported by the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea
uni-dimensions. Other dimensions of these constructs may government (MEST) (No. 20110028966).
better capture the multifaceted relationship in which they
occur in the ethical community. Third, this study focuses
on consumption oriented values; however, original VBN Appendix 1
theory needs further testing for the purpose of identifying
the personal values through which all consumers see the See the Tables 7, 8 and 9
Table 7 The educational level group comparisons of path coefficients

Hypothesized relationships Lower educational level group (n = 141) Higher educational level group (n = 459)
b SE CR b SE CR
H1a: conspicuous value ? pro-environmental beliefs -0.13 0.06 n.s -0.01 0.03 n.s
H1c: hedonic value ? pro-environmental beliefs 0.36 0.10 3.49*** 0.31 0.06 4.58***
H3a: esthetic ? attitude toward EFFL products 0.04 0.09 n.s 0.28 0.07 4.68***
H3b: brand ? attitude toward EFFL products -0.09 0.10 n.s -0.16 0.08 -2.60**
Lower educational level, below high school graduation. Higher educational level, above undergraduate
Metric invariant structural model fit indices: v2(df) = 855.92 (425), GFI = 0.90, IFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04
b the path coefficient, SE standard error, CR critical ratio; n.s not significant
**p \ 0.01, ***p \ 0.001
123
Table 8 The marital status group comparisons of path coefficients

Hypothesized relationships Married group (n = 429) Single group (n = 171)
b SE CR b SE CR
H1c: hedonic value ? pro-environmental beliefs 0.38 0.06 5.48*** 0.25 0.09 2.41*
H2b: pro-environmental beliefs ? brand 0.65 0.08 7.89*** 0.36 0.11 2.89**
H3a: esthetic ? attitude toward EFFL products 0.11 0.07 n.s 0.33 0.10 3.66***
H3b: brand ? attitude toward EFFL products -0.10 0.09 n.s -0.09 0.09 n.s
b the path coefficient, SE standard error, CR critical ratio, n.s not significant
Metric invariant structural model fit indices: v2(df) = 832.65(425), GFI = 0.90, IFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04
*p \ 0.05, **p \ 0.01, ***p \ 0.001
Table 9 The occupation group comparisons of path coefficients

Hypothesized relationships Housewife (n = 145) Working woman (n = 416)
b SE CR b SE CR
H1c: hedonic value ? pro-environmental beliefs 0.38 0.17 2.73* 0.35 0.06 5.38***
H3a: esthetic ? attitude toward EFFL products 0.18 0.11 2.13* 0.17 0.07 2.61*
H3b: brand ? attitude toward EFFL products -0.08 0.10 n.s -0.16 0.09 -2.54*
2
Metric invariant structural model fit indices: v (df) = 814.06(425), GFI = 0.90, IFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04
The metric invariance was supported for educational level, marital status, and occupation groups, and all each of the two demographic groups’
structural models were supposed to be invariant
b the path coefficient, SE standard error, CR critical ratio; n.s, not significant
*p \ .05, ***p \ 0.001
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Green Leather For Ethical Consumers in China and Korea

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J Bus Ethics

Green Leather for Ethical Consumers in China and Korea:

Received: 6 March 2014 / Accepted: 14 November 2014

Fig. 1 The research model

Pro- H2b Brand Attitude

H1c H2c H3c

Methods biodegradability and to problems of animal abuse and

Table 1 Demographic Variable Chinese Korean Total

Table 3 Correlation of constructs

Table 4 Measurement Model fit measures Model differences

Configural invariance 1,013.99 404 0.00 0.05 0.93 –

Fig. 2 The proposed VBA

Pro- Brand Attitude

.43*** .89*** .60***

Fig. 3 The proposed VBA

n.s 90*** .64***

Table 5 The group comparisons of path coefficients

Fig. 4 The proposed VBA

Pro- Brand Attitude

.36*** .84*** .59***

Fig. 5 The proposed VBA

Pro- Brand Attitude

.35*** .76***. .60* **

Table 6 The group comparisons of path coefficients

If only the perception of the sustainability attribute Discussion and Implications

Table 7 The educational level group comparisons of path coefficients

Table 8 The marital status group comparisons of path coefficients

Table 9 The occupation group comparisons of path coefficients

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.43* .89* .60***

n.s 90* .64*

.36* .84* .59***

.35* .76. .60 **