Lesson 24-25: Reproductive System

Reproductive System - responsible for the formation of a new individual.

Gonad - body's reproductive glands plays an important role in the formation of gametes
or sex cells.

Reproduction - process by which parents produces new individual or offspring.

Fertilization - union of egg and sperm cell.

Hypothalamus - sends signal to pituitary gland to release the follicle-stimulating

hormone.

Parts and Function of Male Reproductive System

1. Testes - oval-shaped organ suspended within a sack.

-produces and release sperms.

2. Epididymis - long thin tube tightly coiled into a small mass.

-storage site of mature sperm cells where they finish their maturation.

3. Vas Deference - pair of ducts extended to the ejaculatory duct.

-carries and transport sperm cells from the epididymis to the abdominal cavity.

4. Seminal Vesicle - pair of lumpy exocrine glands located posterior to the urinary bladder.

-provides a fructose-rich fluid to the semen which provides energy to the sperm cell.

-secretes a thick fluid that nourishes the sperm cell.

5. Ejaculatory Duct - junction of vas deference and seminal vesicle.

-opens and expels sperm.

6. Prostate Glands - ductless exocrine glands.

-releases alkaline fluid which neutralizes the acidity of vagina during sperm cell transfer.

8. Bulbourethral Glands - an exocrine gland also known as Cowper's Gland.

-secretes mucus that lubricates the penis and the vagina.

9. Urethra - muscular tube that passes through the prostate and ends at the tip of the
penis.

-carries sperm cells and urine out of the body.

-passageway of both urine and semen.

10. Penis - composed of a root, body and head.

-responsible for the transfer or deposit of sperm cell.

11. Scrotum - sac-like structure made of skin and muscle.

-houses the testes

Semen - thick white fluid mainly composed of sugar, proteins, and other substances that
nourish and protect the sperm cell.

Erection - process that occurs when the penis becomes rigid.

-enables the penis to penetrate the reproductive tract of the female.

Ejaculation - release of semen from the penis.

Glands that Produce Fluid

1. Seminal Vesicle - secretes a thick fluid that nourishes the sperm cell.

2. Prostate Gland - secretes a milky alkaline fluid to neutralize the acidic environment of
the vagina and urethra.

3. Bulbourethral Gland - produces fluid for lubrication.

Three Parts of the Sperm Cell

1. Head - where the genetic material is stored.

Acrosome - tip that carries the enzymes that allow sperms to penetrates the outer layer of
the egg.

2. Neck or Middle Piece - contains mitochondria that provides the sperm energy.

3. Tail - responsible for the motility of the sperm enabling it to swim in the fluid.

Production of Sperm cell

Spermatogenesis - generation of sperm cells inside the testes and the epididymis.

-sperm formation usually begins when boys reach the at the age of 13.

Spermatogonia - special cell found within the seminiferous tubules.

Meiosis - type of division that reduces the number of chromosomes from the original 46.

Spermatids - immature sperm stored in the epididymis until they mature and gain their
streamlined shape.

Spermatogonium - specialized sperm that is found within a seminiferous tubules.

Spermatozoon - male sperm cell that is capable of moving with the help of its flagellum.

Oligospermia - low sperm count among men.

While the male reproductive system carries the sperm cell, the female reproductive system
is responsible for producing and storing the female reproductive cell called ovum or egg
cell.

Functions of the Female Reproductive System

1. Produce female sex hormone

2. Produce ova or egg cell

3. Receive the male copulatory organ for sperm transfer

4. Protect and nourish the developing embryo

Parts and Function of Female Reproductive System

1. Ovaries - almond-shaped organ located on both side of the female reproductive organ.

-produces the ovum or the egg cell each month.

2. Fimbriae - finger-like projection at the beginning of fallopian tube.

-creates a current that sweeps the egg cell into the fallopian tubes.

3. Fallopian tubes - also known as oviduct.

-passageway of egg cell once propelled from the ovary to the uterus.

4. Uterus - also known as womb.

-where the embryo attaches and develops.

5. Cervix - cylinder-shaped neck of the uterus.

-opens or dilates when the female delivers a baby.

6. Vagina - long elastic muscular canal that receives the penis.

-serves as the passageway of menstrual flow.

-also known as birth canal.

-receives the semen

Clitoris - tiny structure that is filled with nerve endings.

Labia - fold of skin that covers and protects the opening of the vagina.

Hymen - membrane that surrounds and partially covers the opening of the vagina.

Menarche - changes that happens in the body caused by puberty before the first
menstruation.

Production of Egg Cell

Oogenesis - formation and maturation of the egg or ova.

Primary Oocytes - egg cells that awaits development.

Ovarian Cycle - consists of follicular and luteal phases occurs in the ovary and takes about
28 days.

Uterine Cycle - series of changes that happens periodically and takes also 28 days.

-includes the thickening of the inner lining of the uterus or the endometrium in
preparation for the possible implantation by a fertilized egg.

Ovulation - process of releasing eggs

Embryo - developing zygote

Trophoblast - group of cells surrounding the developing embryo.

Placenta - spongy, flat and circular tissue with network of filled capillaries.

-serves as the organ of nutrition, respiration and excretion for the embryo.
-organ that connects the unborn baby to the uterus.

Umbilical Cord - attached to embryo to the placenta.

-life line between the mother and the developing embryo.

Fetus - developing embryo from the beginning until birth.

Amnion - transparent sac filled with fluid as a protective cushion.

-holds the amniotic fluids and the developing embryo.

Chorion - outer membrane that surrounds the embryo and supplies the blood vessels.

Amniotic Fluid - clear, slightly yellowish liquid that surrounds the unborn baby.

Amniotic Sac - thin-walled sac that surrounds the fetus during pregnancy.

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)

a. In male - stimulates the production of sperm cell in the seminiferous tubules.

b. In female - assists in the development of egg cells, secretion of estrogen and

progesterone, and process of ovulation.

(hCG) Human Chorionic Gonadotropin - hormone that commands the corpus luteum to
continue producing estrogen and progesterone.

Feedback Mechanism - looped reactions that control the output and the input of specific
glands, tissue or organ.

-responses that triggers the other activities.

Two Types of Feedback Mechanism

1. Positive Feedback Mechanism - cyclical system in which a stimulus increases or

amplifies the function of gland or organ.

-boosts the function of an organ or gland as a response to a particular stimulus.

Example:

a. Contraction in childbirth

b. Lactation
2. Negative Feedback Mechanism - decreases the deviation from an ideal normal value
and is important in maintaining homeostasis.

-limits the output of the function of glands and organ.

Example:

a. Regulation of body temperature

b. During menstruation

Lesson 26: How do we Take Care of the

Reproductive System?
Reproductive Conditions and Illnesses

1. Genetic or Congenital Abnormalities - differences in features that exists prior to or at

birth.

-due to some genetic changes, various environmental factors or simply of unknown

causes.

-pertains to certain abnormalities that would not allow reproduction to occur.

-includes intersexuality, androgen-sensitivity syndrome, and cryptorchidism, to name a

few.

a. Intersexuality - person's genitalia and/or sexual traits are not clearly male or female.

b. Androgen-sensitivity Syndrome - person who is genetically male develops as a female

due to the inability to utilize the hormone androgen.

c. Cryptorchidism - derived from the Greek words kryptos, meaning hidden and orchis
meaning testicles.

-characterized by the absence of one or both testes from their normal scrotal position.

2. Cancer - group of diseases that is characterized by uncontrol division and growth of

cells, that in many cases form lump of masses of tissues called tumors.

Tumor - invades other body parts and destroys healthy cells.

a. Cervical Cancer - growth of abnormal cells in the lining of the cervix.

-most common cervical cancer is squamous cell carcinoma, accounting for 70% of cases.
Adenocarcinoma is less common (about 25% of cases) and more difficult to diagnose.

-caused by human papillomavirus.

-can be diagnosed by regular pelvic examinations, pap tests, and biopsy.

-symptoms are pelvic pain and abnormal vaginal bleeding.

-treatment: vaccine therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, surgery.

Human Papillomavirus - sexually transmitted organism

b. Prostate Cancer - cancer that occurs in the prostate.

-disease may be detected after routine check-ups and blood tests.

-symptoms are frequent urination especially at night, difficult painful urination, and
presence of blood in the urine.

-disease that many men reaches old age, some even die, without knowing they had the
disease.

-treatment: surgery, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy, chemotherapy.

3. Infections - which are often sexually transmitted disease.

a. Gonorrhea - caused by the gram-negative diplococcus Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

If not treated, the infections may rapidly spread throughout the reproductive tract and the
pathway of gametes, resulting to sterility.

-could prevent the passageway of sperm cell through men's epididymis.

-could form a scar tissue that blocks the passage of the egg cell.

-women may suffer from painful pelvic inflammatory disease, an inflammation of the pelvic
organs. On the other hand, men may exhibit extensive symptoms of painful urination and a
whitish discharge.

-treatment: tetracycline, penicilin, and other antibiotics.

Both cases of scarring and blocking of passage of gametes are a major cause of infertility.

Urethritis - inflammation of the urethra, caused by an infection.

The term non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) is used when the condition is not caused by
the sexually transmitted infection gonorrhoea.

Ophthalmia Neonatorum - babies who acquired the disease at birth during the passage
through the birth canal of an infected mother.

b. Syphilis - caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum.

-diagnosed through blood tests and biopsies of the affected areas.

-ultimately causes sterility, and even death.

Chancre - happens after the bacterium has penetrated the skin or mucous membrane of
the external reproductive areas of both male and female.

-at this primary stage, penicillin therapy may be successful.

4. Functional problems

Basic Steps in Human Reproduction

1. Ovulation - egg is released to the fallopian tube.

2. Fertilization - sperm unites with the egg to form a fertilized egg or zygote.

3. Implantation - developing embryo attaches itself to the soft thickened walls of the
uterus.

Infertility - inability to produce a child

Infertility in Women - due to ovulation disorder

Ovulation Disorder - inability of the egg to move from the ovary to the uterus.

Possible Root Causes of Infertility in Women

1. Life style - such as eating disorder or poor nutrition

2. Health-related causes - such as obesity, diabetes

3. Older age

Infertility in Men - may be congenital or acquired later in life.

Common Causes of Infertility in Men

1. Low sperm count

2. Poor sperm quality

3. Testicular malfunctions

4. Hormonal imbalance

5. Blockage of sperm passage

Possible Root Causes of Infertility in Men

1. Infection

2. Poor diet

3. Severe physical and mental stress

4. Exposure to radiation

5. Overuse of alcohol

6. Tobacco and drugs

7. Environmental factors - such as pollution, toxic chemicals

Methods of Treatment

1. Pap Test - procedure in which cells are scraped from the tissue being studied.

2. Biopsy - procedure in which applying only anesthesia: tissue is removed and scrutinized
by a pathologist.

3. CT Scan - short computed tomography scan

-imaging method that creates cross pictures of the body.

4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - medical technique that uses magnetic field and
pulses to produce highly refined images of the body's interior.

Treatment for Infertility in Men and Women

Vitro Fertilization - egg is fertilized by the sperm outside the body.

-removal of a selected ovum or egg from the woman's ovary to have it fertilized by a
sperm.
-major treatment to overcome female infertility.

Stem Cell Therapy - intervention strategy for treating diseases or injuries by introducing
new adults stem.

-as regenerative therapy has been found effective in the treatment of human infertility.

Care of the Reproductive System

1. Practice good hygiene - keeping the genital area clean to prevent germs

2. Eat a balanced diet - a good diet is high in fiber and low in fat

3. Drink good quality water - helps clear away bacteria

4. Maintain a healthy weight

5. Stay away from smoking, alcohol and drugs

6. Reduce stress levels

7. Have a regular reproductive health check up

Lesson 27: How are Endocrine Glands Designed

to Perform their Functions?
Exocrine Glands - have ducts or tubes that deliver their secretions into external or internal
surface.

-secretions include mucus, saliva, tears, digestive enzymes, breast milk, and venom.

Endocrine Glands - does not have ducts.

-releases signaling molecules called hormones into some body fluids.

-term endocrine was derived from the Greek words endo meaning within and crinis
meaning secrete.

-produces hormones that diffuse from the secreting cells through the walls of blood
vessels.

Major Endocrine Glands and their Hormones

1. Pineal Glands
a. Melatonin - helps regulate daily sleep-wake cycle or seasonal rhythms.

2. Hypothalamus

a. Releasing and Inhibiting Hormones - affects the functions of the anterior pituitary
gland.

b. Oxytocin and Vasopressin - transported to the posterior pituitary for temporary storage.

3. Pituitary Gland - knows as the "master gland" because it secretes quite a number of
hormones that influence many other glands.

4. Anterior Lobe

a. Somatotropin - growth hormone that regulates metabolic functions.

b. Thyroid-stimulating Hormone - regulates activity of the thyroid gland.

c. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone - stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete its own

hormone.

d. Follicle-stimulating Hormone - stimulate gametes formation.

e. Luteinizing Hormone - stimulates ovaries and testes to produce sex hormone.

f. Prolactin - stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.

5. Middle Lobe

a. Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone - enhances production of melanin pigment.

6. Posterior Lobe - releases hormone secreted by the hypothalamus

Oxytocin - regulates uterine contraction during childbirth.

Vasopressin - antidiuretic hormone, prevents water loss from the body.

7. Thyroid

Thyroxin and Triiodothyronine - regulates the body's mental and physical growth.

Calcitonin - decreases calcium level in the blood.

8. Parathyroid

Parathormone - controls calcium level within the bones and blood, raises the blood
calcium level.
9. Adrenal Glands and Adrenal Cortex

a. Glucocorticoids - breakdown of proteins and increase of blood sugar.

b. Mineral Corticoids - helps regulate concentration of minerals such as sodium, calcium,

and water balance in the blood.

c. Androgens such as testosterone - influences the development of male secondary

characteristics.

10. Adrenal Medulla

Adrenaline - trigger physiological changes to improve the fight or flight response to stress
or emergencies.

11. Pancreas - considered a heterocrine gland because it can function as both an

endocrine as well as an exocrine gland.

a. Insulin - secreted by beta cells, lowers the blood glucose level.

b. Glucagon - produced by alpha cells, raises the blood sugar level.

12. Testes

a. Androgen Testosterone - controls growth and development of male sex and secondary
sex characteristics.

13. Ovaries

Progesterone and Estrogen - stimulates the growth of uterine lining.

Estrogen - controls developments of female secondary characteristics.

Hormones - special protein substances which are present in small quantities in the body.

-brings about changes in cells or tissues, which are referred to as their " targets".

-effect may be an increased activity or a decreased activity of the target cells.

-mostly proteins

Proteins - used in building and repairing of body tissues.

-constitute about 20% of the cell mass.

Enzymes - regulates the rate of chemical reactions in the body.

Hemoglobin - protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to all body
parts.

Antibodies - proteins for body defense.

Endocrine System - controls and regulates body processes chemically through its
hormonal secretion.

a. Metabolic function

b. Growth and development

c. Reproduction

d. Immunity

e. Homeostasis - tendency for the conditions inside the body of an animal to stay pretty
much the same even when outside environmental conditions change.

-secreted by the ductless glands directly into the bloodstream.

Adrenaline - known as the emergency hormone because it is released by the adrenal

glands under the conditions of stress or excitement.

-part of the body's stress response called the fight or flight response.

-dynamic equilibrium in the body's internal environment.

Menstrual Cycle Stages

1. Follicle Stage - pituitary gland secretes the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

FSH - causes one follicle in the ovary to grow and reach maturity.

-thickening of the uterine walls.

2. Ovulation Stage - pituitary gland produces the luteinizing hormone (LH).

LH - brings changes in the ripe follicle.

-leads to the release of the egg or ovum.

3. Corpus Luteum Stage - produces progesterone

Progesterone - prepares the uterus for reception and implantation of the embryo.
4. Menstrual Flow Stage - tissues, blood, and mucus are discharged from the uterus.