Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Combustion and emission characteristics of a rapid compression-

expansion machine operated with N-heptanol-methyl oleate biodiesel
blends
Ahmed I. EL-Seesy a, b, *, Zafer Kayatas c, Meshack Hawi c, d, Hidenori Kosaka c,
Zhixia He a, *
a
Institute for Energy Research, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, 13512, Benha, Qalubia, Egypt
c
Department of Systems and Control Engineering, School of Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
d
Energy Resources Engineering Department, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST), P.O. Box 179-21934, New Borg El-Arab City,
Alexandria, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the current study, the n-heptanol is mixed with methyl oleate biodiesel fuel at different blends which
Received 25 May 2019 are 10%, 20% and 40% (by volume) n-heptanolþ90%, 80%, 60% methyl oleate fuel (H10B, H20B, and H40B)
Received in revised form to examine the combustion and exhaust emission characteristics of a rapid compression-expansion
18 August 2019
machine (RCEM). The RCEM is operated under diesel engine condition with fixed inlet air properties.
Accepted 29 September 2019
The findings for methyl oleate show that the peak pressure is slightly reduced, while soot and NOx
Available online 3 October 2019
emissions are reduced by about 60% and 3% respectively compared to pure diesel fuel. Furthermore, the
blending of n-heptanol with methyl oleate fuel leads to a considerable reduction in the soot emission by
Keywords:
Methyl oleate
about 75% and the NOx emission is reduced by 6% compared to pure methyl oleate fuel. The flame images
N-heptanol confirm that there is a reduction in flame temperatures for methyl oleate compared to pure diesel fuel.
Rapid compression-expansion machine Additionally, the combustion process is retarded with increasing the blending ratio of n-heptanol in the
Combustion and emission characteristics fuel mixture. Based on the combustion and emission characteristics, the recommended blending ratio of
Flame images n-heptanol and methyl oleate fuel is H20B.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction through advanced approaches advanced approaches such as Rapid

There are mainly two challenges facing transport and industrial
sectors which are fast depletion of fossil fuel and exhaust emission
issue. Biodiesels are considered one of the main promising and
prominent alternative fuel sources. Their feedstocks are edible,
non-edible, waste oil and animal fats which can be converted to
biodiesel products vis transesterification process. Biodiesel con-
tains mainly mono- and poly-unsaturated and saturated long chain
fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) such as methyl oleate (C18:1),
methyl linoleate (C18:2), methyl linolenate (C18:3) and methyl
stearate (C18:0) [1e3].
The benefits found in biodiesel operation can be investigated
* Corresponding author. Institute for Energy Research, Jiangsu University, No. 301,
Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang City, Jiangsu Province 212013, China.
E-mail addresses: ahmed.elsisi@ejust.edu.eg (A.I. EL-Seesy), zxhe@ujs.edu.cn
(Z. He).
compression-expansion machine (RCEM). Nevertheless, each bio-
diesel has unique physicochemical properties attributed to each
one having a varied fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) characteristics.
These characteristics are acceptable for investigation of the
behavior of biodiesels depending on their FAME trend. In order to
simplify the utilization of biodiesels and their combustion behavior,
a single component of FAME was considered as biodiesel surrogate.
Therefore, methyl oleate (MO) was chosen depending on its sus-
tainability and the fact that it can be produced from non-edible
feedstock and agricultural byproducts or waste sources [4].
Methyl oleate is one of the most common FAMEs that compose
biodiesel among others such as stearic, linoleic, linolenic, and pal-
mitic acid. It gives an appropriate cetane number in comparison to
the lower reactivity linoleic and linolenic methyl esters [5] and it is
considered as the backbone of some biodiesel [6].
Some previous studies have examined the combustion charac-
teristics of methyl oleate on its impact on combustion based on its

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.09.132
0960-1481/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076
Nomenclature
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
B100 Pure Methyl oleate biodiesel
BDC Bottom Dead Center
D100 Pure Diesel Oil
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature,  C
FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Esters
H10B Fuel mixture containing 10%n-Heptanol þ 90% B100
H20B Fuel mixture containing 20%n-Heptanol þ 80% B100
H40D Fuel mixture containing 40% n-Heptanol þ 60% B100
HRR Heat Release Rise Rate Per Crank Angle, J/deg
KL K: the absorption coefficient; L: the geometric
thickness of the flame along the optical axis
composition in a biodiesel blend. Altaie et al. [1] examined the ef-
fects of blending palm oil methyl ester (PME) with methyl oleate on
the diesel engine performance. They found that the enrichment of
palm biodiesel was achieved by using methyl oleate and accom-
plished lower soot emissions as well as enhanced brake specific fuel
consumption. This result was attributed to the lower oxygen con-
centration and lower reactivity of neat PME. Additionally, they re-
ported that there was a significant reduction in exhaust gas
temperature and exhaust emissions with improved saturated
methyl esters, though with increased fuel consumption [1]. Like-
wise, an investigation has been reported on the effect of the addi-
tion of methyl esters to alcohol-diesel mixtures on a diesel engine
performance [4]. The study reported that the utilization of about
15% of FAME was satisfactory to achieve lubricity standards and
avoid phase separation of the mixtures. The study also stated that
the unsaturation degree of methyl oleate was advantageous for
decreasing UHC and CO compared to methyl stearate and methyl
esters with a comparable carbon chain. Additionally, soot levels and
lower NOx were achieved for C18:1 in contrast to rapeseed bio-
diesel. Soloiu et al. [4] examined the blending of methyl oleate with
diesel fuel in a compression ignition engine at different speeds.
They found that the methyl oleate mixtures had reduced the igni-
tion delay by 20% compared to diesel fuel, reducing peak pressures
and peak gross heat release. NOx emission was reduced by 20%
compared to diesel fuel whereas brake specific fuel consumption
was increased by about 10% for the methyl oleate mixture possibly
due to lower heating value. Moreover, the impacts of the addition of
methyl oleate to n-butanol on combustion characteristics of com-
mon rail engine run under reactivity controlled compression igni-
tion (RCCI) and conventional diesel combustion modes [7]. The
results showed that there was a significant reduction in NOx and
soot emission for RCCI mode compared to conventional combustion
mode. The utilization of methyl oleate was also studied in a diesel
engine and reported as a performance improver [8]. Bax et al. [9]
examined the oxidation of n-decane-methyl oleate blends using a
jet-stirred reactor at different temperatures. They reported that the
comparison of reactant mole fractions showed that methyl oleate
seems to be slightly less reactive than methyl palmitate in the low
temperature region while the opposite trend is noticed in the zone
following the negative temperature coefficient region. The impacts
of adding methyl oleate to engine oil were examined by Chen et al.
[10]. They reported that the oxidation stability of n-hexadecane and
the mineral base oil was significantly improved, and the viscosity
and acidity were appreciably increased, as well as detergency was
considerably reduced with the addition of methyl oleate.
Additionally, in the current examination, normal heptanol was
selected as oxygenated fuel due to its higher calorific value
2065
NOx Nitrogen oxides, ppm
MWCNTs Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
T Mean Gas Temperature, K
TDC Top Dead Center
p Instantaneous In-cylinder pressure, bar
dp/dq Pressure Rise Rate Per Crank Angle, bar/deg
dV/dq Volume Rise Rate Per Crank Angle, m3/deg
dQn/dq Net Heat Release Rate Per Crank Angle, J/deg
RCEM Rapid Compression-Expansion Machine
Greek symbols
q Crank angle, deg
compared to ethanol or methanol and also due to the fact that it can
be produced from common sources. Table 1 shows a comparison of
physicochemical properties of diesel, methanol, ethanol and some
type of higher alcohols. It can be concluded from the analysis of
these properties that higher alcohols have some interesting fea-
tures that indicate their potential to overcome some drawbacks of
lower alcohols used as fuel or fuel additives. The drawbacks include
ignition difficulties in cold weather, higher fuel consumption, low
lubricity, and corrosion. Those features of higher alcohols make
them promising fuels for compression ignition engines, for
example, their densities and boiling points are similar to diesel fuel
[11]. The longer chain alcohols have the benefit of a higher cetane
number compared to shorter chain alcohols such as methanol and
ethanol. The lower alcohols (C1eC3) have remarkable lower calo-
rific values than diesel fuel, owing to their higher oxygen contents
and consequently leads to a decrease in fuel economy [12e14]. On
the other hand, alcohols with four or more carbons have calorific
value comparable to that of diesel fuel and are therefore advanta-
geous for enhancing fuel economy [11]. The higher alcohols can also
be mixed with diesel fuels at greater concentrations with minimum
influence on the fuel distillation curve. The latent heat of vapor-
ization of lower alcohols is remarkably higher than those of diesel
fuel, which has negative influences on the capability of engine cold
start, especially in the cold regions. However, the higher alcohols
have the lower latent heat of vaporization compared to that lower
alcohols and therefore they have less struggle with a cold-start
operation. Meanwhile, cutting-edge technology in fuel delivery
systems is mostly able to deal with this issue.
Some earlier studies using higher alcohols blended with diesel
fuels showed that they can be utilized to reduce engine exhaust
emissions in diesel engines [11,17]. The comprehensive survey was
done by Kumar et al. [11], Zaharin et al. [16], and Vinod et al. [17] on
the use of higher alcohols as a new fuel in diesel engines. They
reported that higher alcohols are considered as promising fuels for
diesel engines due to their attractive futures such as high cetane
number, high heating value, high miscibility and low latent heat of
vaporization as compared to those of low alcohols. Table 2 sum-
marizes the impacts of the addition of alcohols to diesel fuel in
diesel engines on the engine performance and emissions. It can be
concluded that the peak cylinder pressure and maximum heat
release rate were increased with adding higher alcohols to diesel
fuel due to longer ignition delay. The brake specific consumption
was increased for alcohol-diesel blends, owing to lower heating
value. Soot emission was improved with diesel-alcohols blends due
to oxygen content of alcohols while NOx, CO, and UCH, as well as
thermal efficiency, depend also on the operating condition.
Recently, there are a number of studies that have investigated
2066 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076

Table 1
Properties of some alcohols and conventional fossil fuels [15,16].

Diesel Methanol Ethanol n-Butanol 1-Heptanol 1-Octanol

Molecular formula C12C25 CH3OH C2H5OH C4H9OH C6H13OH C8H18O

Molecular weight 198.4 32.04 46.06 74.11 116.19 130.21
Cetane number 40e55 3 8 25 23 39
Oxygen content (% weight) e 50 34.8 21.6 15.7 15.7
Density (g/mL) at 20  C 0.82e0.86 0.796 0.79 0.808 0.822 0.827
Autoignition temperature ( C) 210 470 434 385 e e
Flash point ( C) at closed cup 65e88 12 8 35 100 59
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 42.5 19.9 26.8 33.1 34.65 52.94
Boiling point ( C) 180e370 64.5 78.4 117.7 175 195
Latent heating (kJ/kg) at 25  C 270 1109 904 582 575 486
Viscosity (mm2/s) at 40  C 1.9e4.1 0.59 1.08 2.63 3.32 5.8

the influences of the blending of higher alcohols with diesel-
biodiesel mixtures, for example, Preub et al. [24] examined the
engine performance and emissions characteristics of a diesel en-
gine operated with long-chain alcohols (n-octanol, 2-ethyl-hex-
anol, 2-propyl-heptanol, and n-decanol) with diesel and biodiesel
fuels. The findings for alcohols/diesel/biodiesel mixtures exhibited
that the soot and CO emissions were considerably decreased by
about 47% and 40% respectively compared to those achieved with
pure diesel fuel. While UHC and NOx, emissions did not change for
the numerous fuel mixtures. The specific fuel consumption of the
mixtures was increased by about 6% compared to diesel fuel. Nour
et al. [25,26] and Damodharan et al. [27], Ghadikolaei et al. [28],
Yesilyurt et al. [29], Goga et al. [30], Pan et al. [31] and Yusri et al.
[32] also examined the impacts of the addition of n-butanol, n-
heptanol, n-pentanol, n-hexanol and n-octanol with diesel and
biodiesel mixtures on the diesel engine performance and emis-
sions. They reported that there was a significant reduction in the
soot and NOx formation, as well as brake specific fuel consumption,
where they were reduced by approximately 77%, 10%, and 18%,
respectively. Imdadul et al. [33] examined the impacts of blending
n-pentanol with Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel on the engine
performance and emissions. They found that there was a significant
enhancement in engine emission, brake thermal efficiency and
brake power.
Modern diesel engines demand higher supercharging, exhaust
gas recirculation, higher temperature of combustion chamber sur-
faces and the use of various types of fuels. In experiments of these
subjects using practical engines, durability and optical access for
the observation of the combustion phenomena is required to test
engines. But it is generally difficult to realize these targets. Thus, the
rapid compression-expansion machine is commonly used to
simulate intake, compression, expansion and exhaust strokes in a
single diesel cycle by an electrically controlled and hydraulically
actuated driving system [34]. Its features include precise control of
piston position at TDC, no influence of lubricant on UHC emission
due to the utilization of dry piston rings, independent control of
local wall temperature, and high-power output to drive heavy
piston at high frequency [34]. Furthermore, the in-cylinder gas
condition at TDC can be changed widely by varying temperature,
pressure, density and gas composition in the gas reservoir which is

Table 2
Performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of diesel engines fueled with higher alcohols-diesel blends.

Engine Base Operating condition Alcohol type Percentage Performance Combustion results Emission results Reference
fuel results

Single Diesel Common rail with Butanol and ethanol 15% and Increasing
Increased cylinder pressure (p), Reduced NOx, and CO [18]
cylinder, fuel 160 MPa, EGR, Constant 40% vol. BTE Heat release rate (HRR) and
1080 cc speed with high load ignition delay (ID)
Single Diesel Constant speed with butanol, ethanol, and 10% vol. Reduced BTE Increased cylinder pressure (p), Reduced smoke opacity [19]
cylinder, fuel different loads methanol and Increased Heat release rate (HRR) and and CO, Increased NOx
349 cc bsfc ignition delay (ID)
Single Diesel Constant speed with 1-pentanol 5, 10, 20, Increased e Increased NOx, UHC and [20]
cylinder, fuel different loads 25 and 35% bsfc CO
661.5 cc vol.
Single Diesel different speed and loads iso-butanol 10, 20, Decreased e e [21]
cylinder, fuel 30 and 40% BTE and
1433 cc vol. Increased
bsfc
Six-cylinder, Diesel Common rail with n-butanol 40% vol. Decreased Increased cylinder pressure (p), Increased NOx, CO, [22]
1080 cc fuel 140 MPa, EGR, constant BTE Heat release rate (HRR) and Decreased Smoke
speed and load ignition delay (ID) opacity
Six-cylinder, Diesel Constant speed and load n-butanol, 10 and 20% Increased BTE Constant cylinder pressure, Reduced the total [23]
6500 cc fuel isobutanol, 2- HHR, and ID particulate matter and
ethylhexanol, and n- soot, Increased NOx.
octanol
Single Diesel Constant speed with Butanol and pentanol Different Increased BTE Increased cylinder pressure (p), Increased NOx, Reduced [17]
cylinder fuel different loads blends Heat release rate (HRR) and UHC, CO, and smoke
and multi- ignition delay (ID) opacity
cylinder
Single Diesel Constant speed with Butanol Different Increased BTE Increased cylinder pressure (p), Reduced NOx, UHC, CO, [15]
cylinder fuel different loads blends and bsfc Heat release rate (HRR) and and smoke opacity
and multi- ignition delay (ID)
cylinder
A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076 2067

Fig. 1. A Schematic diagram of the RCEM.

2068 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076
Fig. 2. A pictorial view of the RCEM.
Table 3
RCEM chamber specifications and experimental conditions.
Bore [mm]
Stroke [mm]
Combustion chamber size [cm3]
Compression ratio []
Fuel injection pressure, [MPa]
Fuel injection amount, [mg/cycle]
Injection duration, [ms]

Temperature at TDC, [ K]
Pressure at TDC, [MPa]
Equivalence ratio
Fuel injection timing [ms]
Injection nozzle diameter [mm]
connected to the intake line. Therefore, the fuel combustion char-
acteristics can be investigated under a wide range of operating
conditions and easy access for optical diagnostics with a minimized
amount of test fuel.
Rapid compression-expansion machine (RCEMs) are extensively
utilized to obtain experimental insights into fuel combustion and
emission formation characteristics, especially at conditions related
to present and upcoming combustion technologies [35]. A
comprehensive survey wa conducted by Goldsborough et al. [35]
on the use of RCEM to examine the autoignition phenomena,
combustion and emission formations using different fuel blends
such as n-butanol/n-propanol/diesel blends. They reported that
RCEM is essential to understand the fundamentals of fuel economy,
performance and emission formations of new fuels that will help in
improving the future of internal combustion engines. Also, RCEM is
widely used to investigate the new combustion modes, such as
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition, Premixed Charge
Compression Ignition and others based on Low Temperature
Combustion. For example, Desantes et al. [36] examined the igni-
tion delay and autoignition for n-heptane and iso-octane fuel in the
RCEM under Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition mode.
Nour et al. [37] and EL-Seesy et al. [38e41] examined the effects of
the addition of n-butanol, n-heptanol, and ethanol to diesel/bio-
diesel blends on combustion and emission characteristics of diesel
86 engine and RCEM. They found that there was a considerable
151.5
enhancement in combustion and emission parameters with adding
119.08 higher alcohols to diesel/biodiesel mixtures.
8.39 In addition to studies on combustion and emission character-
150 istics, a number of other studies have examined spray character-
38.09
istics of diesel, higher alcohols, and methyl oleate, for example,
6960
760.45 Hawi et al. [42] investigated the impact of changing injection
3.517 pressure and ambient density on spray characteristics of diesel,
0.3 tetradecane (as a diesel surrogate) and methyl oleate (as a biodiesel
43000
surrogate) fuels. They reported that there was a significant
0.125
enhancement in spray behavior when changing injection pressure
and ambient density. The vapor penetration was increased by about
33%, 21% and 24% for diesel, tetradecane, and methyl oleate,
respectively when the injection pressure was increased from
50 MPa to 150 MPa. Additionally, increasing the ambient density
from 15 kg/m3 to 25 kg/m3 led to an increase in spray cone angle by
approximately 9%, 11% and 13%, for diesel, tetradecane and methyl
oleate, respectively and a reduction in vapor penetration by around
9%, 11% and 13%, respectively. Li et al. [43], Pan et al. [31], Algayyim
et al. [44], and Fu et al. [45] examined the influences of the blending
of n-butanol, n-pentanol, acetone, and di-n-butyl ether with diesel
on the spray characteristics of the fuel mixture. They reported that
there was a significant improvement in spray behavior with adding
higher alcohols. They stated that the atomization characteristics
and mixing process of diesel/higher alcohols blends were improved
considerably compared to pure diesel. The cold flow and physico-
chemical properties of methyl oleate and palm-oil methyl ester
blends were examined by Altaie et al. [46]. They cited that there
was a considerable improvement in cloud point and cold filter
plugging point. Additionally, the viscosity and density did not
change with the addition of methyl oleate while cetane number
was slightly reduced.
Regarding the above literature review, it can be concluded that
methyl oleate biodiesel and higher alcohols blended with diesel
 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076 2069

Table 4
Properties of D100, Methyl oleate, n-heptanol,H10B, H20B, and H40B samples.

Property Testing Method D100 Methyl oleate n-heptanol H10B H20B H40B

Molecular formula C12eC25 C19H36O2 C7H16O e e e

Molecular weight (g/mol) 170 296.5a 116.2 e e e
Calorific value, kJ/kg ASTM D-240 45590 37100a 34650a 37085 36885 36551
Kinematic viscosity at 40  C, mm2/s ASTM D-445 3.35 4.51a 3.32a 4.24 3.94 3.73
Specific gravity at 15.56  C ASTM D-1298 0.8421 0.87a 0.821a 0.8685 0.8595 0.8581
Cetane index ASTM D-976 50 56a ~23a 51.5 49.5 47.5
Enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg) e 270 260a 574.95a e e e
Auto Ignition Temperature ( C) 210 340a 350a e e e
a
data have been provided by the supplier.

fuel are considered as a promising alternative fuel for diesel engines

ascribed to their interesting characteristics. It can be observed that
there are limited studies that have examined the impacts of using
methyl oleate biodiesel in diesel engines. Furthermore, there is no
previous study that has investigated the influence of the addition of
n-heptanol to methyl oleate biodiesel on the combustion and
emission characteristics of rapid compression-expansion machine
(RCEM) with the associated available data, mainly the appropriate
blending percentage being unknown yet. Moreover, there is no
earlier investigation on flame temperature of diesel fuel and methyl
oleate-n-heptanol blends using RCEM with full access of optical
diagnosis. In the current study different blending ratios of n-hep-
tanol and methyl oleate are used to obtain their appropriate ratio.
Concerning this research gap, the goal of this study is to investigate
the combustion and exhaust emissions characteristics of the RCEM
operated with pure diesel fuel, pure methyl oleate (B100), 10% by
volume n-heptanol and 90% methyl oleate (H10B), 20% by volume
n-heptanol and 80% methyl oleate (H20B) and 40% by volume n-
heptanol and 60% methyl oleate (H40B). Fig. 3. Variation of pressure with time for tested fuels.

2. Experimental set-up and procedures data were recorded and displayed using an oscilloscope, Model
MEMORY HiCORDER, MR8827 with a sampling rate of 0.5  106
The rapid compression-expansion machine was used to study sample/s.
the combustion and emission characteristics of diesel fuel and The high-speed camera, Model NAC GX-1, was used to capture
methyl oleate-n-heptanol blends. the flame image at 10,000 frames per second (fps) at an exposure
time of 3 ms and a resolution of 464  464 pixels. The high-speed
camera was fitted with a lens, Model Nikkor 55 mm f/2.8, and an
2.1. Rapid compression-expansion machine
infrared filter, Model SIGMA KOKI-HAF-50Se15H. Before starting
the flame temperature measurements, it is essential to calibrate the
The schematic diagram of the RCEM is illustrated in Fig. 1 and its
high-speed camera for flame brightness measurement and
actual photo is shown in Fig. 2. The RCEM chamber specifications
and experimental conditions are shown in Table 3. The experi-
mental test steps began first by heating up the RCEM for approxi-
mately 60 min using a system of electrical heaters and
thermocouples with a control unit to adjust the heating rate. The air
was provided from the air-cylinder into the tank and heated up to
453 K, followed by filling the combustion chamber with the heated
air until the pressure inside it reached 2.5 bar. The air was com-
pressed by the piston from BDC to TDC within 30 ms and kept at
TDC for 150 ms to provide constant volume conditions, then the
tested fuel was injected according to the experimental program.
The combustion experiments were repeated twelve times in order
to increase confidence in measurements of combustion character-
istics, flame temperature, and exhaust gas emissions and averaged
values are reported in this study. All the results are compared with
those of the diesel base fuel. Additionally, for each test condition,
the polytropic index was calculated before the shot, and the initial
temperature was kept at 453 K the same as the wall temperature. A
static pressure transducer was installed to measure combustion
chamber pressure at BDC. The combustion pressure behavior was
measured using piezoelectric pressure transducer, Model AVL GU
22CK and amplifier Model Kistler 5010. The combustion pressure Fig. 4. Variation of the heat release rate with time for tested fuels.
2070 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076

   
dQnet gT dV 1 dp
¼ xpx þ xVx (1)
dq gT  1 dq gT  1 dq

2.2. Flame temperature using two-color method

The flame temperature was determined using the two-color

method based on thermal radiation of soot particles in two
different wave lengths [48]. Monochromatic radiation from the
non-black body is given by Equation (2) where ε is the emissivity, l
is the wavelength, C1 is the first Planck constant, C2 is the second
Planck constant and T flame is the flame temperature.
 
C1 C2=
lT
Iðl;TÞ ¼ εl exp (2)
pl5
Fig. 5. Variation of the ignition delay for tested fuels. The monochromatic radiant intensity can also be explained in
terms of the apparent temperature (Ta), as shown in Equation (3).
determine the two wavelengths. Black body furnace and pyrometer  
were used to determine the reference temperature accurately. The C1 C2=
lTa
distance between the black body furnace and the high-speed Iðl;TÞ ¼ εl exp (3)
pl5
camera was set same as the measurement distance used in the
experiment between the high-speed camera lens and the injector Monochromatic radiant intensity in Equations (2) and (3) are
in the RCEM combustion chamber. There are two wavelengths used equal. By replacing eʎ from Equation (2) with Equation (3), Equation
in this study which are 528 nm (the green band) and 637 nm (the (4) is obtained.
red band). The NOx gas analyzer, Model SHIMADZU NAO-7000, was
KL=
used to measure NOx emission. The soot emission was collected εl ¼ 1  exp l (4)
from RCEM combustion chamber using filter paper and a vacuum
The measurement of soot particle radiations at two wavelengths
pump, and it was then measured using a Bosch smoke meter, Model
enables a solution for KL and T, based on Equation (5) where K is the
SOKKEN GSM-3.
absorption coefficient and L is the path.
In this study, the single-zone combustion model was utilized to
evaluate the phenomenon that takes place during a combustion
   
C2 1 1
cycle, from the start of fuel injection to the end of the exhaust KL ¼  la ln 1  exp  (5)
l Ta T
process. The net heat release rate was calculated using the first law
single-zone model equation as follows [47]. A MATLAB program was developed based on the above equa-
tions, where all parameters needed for this program are obtained
from the black body calibration test. The following characteristics
were calculated: the flame temperature from flame image at each
frame, flame temperature through the combustion process and the

Fig. 6. Variation of NOx and soot for tested fuels.

A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076 2071

Fig. 7. The flame temperature images for tested fuels.

2072 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076
absorption coefficient (KL).
3. Results and discussion
The effect of different blending ratios of n-heptanol and methyl
oleate is examined using the rapid compression-expansion ma-
chine. The rapid compression-expansion machine is mainly used to
study the flame temperature using the two-color method.
Furthermore, the cylinder pressure, heat release rate, and ignition
delay, as well as soot and NOx emissions are investigated.
3.1. Fuel specification
The methyl oleate and n-heptanol were obtained from a local
company for chemical supplies, Japan with specification as given in
Table 4. This table illustrates the properties of diesel, n-heptanol,
Methyl oleate (B100), H10B, H20B, and H40B blends which are
measured according to ASTM standards. Compared to diesel fuel,
Methyl oleate has higher kinematic viscosity and lower calorific
value while it has a higher cetane number. It can be noticed that the
blending of n-heptanol with Methyl oleate fuel decreases the
heating value and kinematic viscosity. The cetane number reduces
for Methyl oleate-n-heptanol mixtures compared to diesel fuel.
These results are similar to those obtained by Altaie et al. [46].
3.2. Combustion characteristics
Figs. 3 and 4 show the peak cylinder pressure and heat release
rate with time after the start of injection for the tested fuels. From
Fig. 3, it can be observed that the peak pressure for methyl oleate is
lower than diesel fuel, owing to its lower heating value compared to
diesel fuel. The maximum pressure for H10B, H20B, and H40B are
higher than methyl oleate fuel. This is due to the accumulated fuel
in the ignition delay period which leads to an increase in peak
pressure while retarding its position. The same behavior can be
noticed for the heat release rate (HRR) as given in Fig. 4. This could
be attributed to the heating value for B100, H10B, H20B and H40B
blends being lower than for diesel fuel. Compared to diesel fuel, the
peak pressure for methyl oleate is reduced by 1% while it is
increased by 2% for methyl oleate-n-heptanol blends compared to
pure methyl oleate. These results are similar to those obtained by
Yusri et al. [32] and Algayyim et al. [44].
Ignition-delay is one of the main combustion characteristics in
defining engine efficiency, emission characteristics, and smooth-
ness of engine operation. It is influenced by the physical processes
(e.g., fuel jet droplet breakup rate, vaporization rate, spray pene-
tration, and fuel-air mixing) and chemical processes (e.g., a pre-
combustion reaction of the fuel, air, and residual gases) [47]. It is
commonly known that fuels with higher cetane number corre-
spond to shorter ignition-delay. Fig. 5 illustrates the ignition delay
for diesel, methyl oleate (B100), H10B, H20B, and H40B blends. It
can be noticed that the ignition delay for methyl oleate is lower
than diesel fuel. This is due to the methyl oleate having higher
cetane number compared to diesel fuel. Compared to methyl oleate,
however, the ignition delay for H10B, H20B, and H40B blends is
increased gradually with the increase in the heptanol percentage in
the fuel mixture. This is ascribed to lower cetane number and
higher heat of vaporization of n-heptanol that prolonged the igni-
tion delay. These results are comparable to those obtained by Altaie
et al. [46].
Fig. 6 (a) shows the NOx emission for diesel, methyl oleate
(B100), H10B, H20B, and H40B blends. It can be seen that NOx
Fig. 8. The avarege flame temperature for tested fuels.
emission for B100 is lower for diesel fuel. However, compared to
methyl oleate, the NOx emission for H10B, H20B, and H40B is
progressively increased. The NOx formation is mainly dependent on
flame temperature, oxygen content, and residence time. Methyl
oleate has lower heating value and higher cetane number result in
lowering peak pressure and consequently reducing NOx formation.
N-heptanol has low heating value, low cetane number and high
latent heat of vaporization which increases the ignition delay and
consequently increasing the chance for NOx formation. Fig. 6 (b)
shows the soot concentration for diesel, B100, H10B, H20B, and
H40B blends. It can be noticed that there is a significant reduction
in soot level for methyl oleate and n-heptanol- methyl oleate
blends compared to pure diesel fuel. This can be explained by the
availability of oxygen in these mixtures which improves the com-
bustion process and subsequently reducing soot concentration.
These results are comparable to those obtained by Pan et al. [31].
The flame images for diesel, methyl oleate (B100), H10B, H20B,
and H40B are taken using a high-speed camera for flame temper-
ature measurement, as presented in Fig. 7. The flame images are
captured at 5, 7.5, 10 and 11.5 ms after of the start of energization of
the fuel injector. It can be emphasized that from the flame tem-
perature images in Fig. 7 the ignition delay for H10B, H20B, and
H40B blends is higher than methyl oleate fuel as mentioned in the
previous section. Likewise, the flame temperature for methyl oleate
is lower than diesel fuel, owing to its lower heating value, as stated
before in Fig. 4. Additionally, the flame temperatures for H10B,
H20B, and H40B are lower than diesel fuel and consequently, this
reflected on their HRR as given in Fig. 4. Furthermore, the average
flame temperature for D100, methyl oleate, H10B, H20B, and H40B
are 2133.45, 2051.3, 2061.44, 2105.73 and 2046.52 K respectively, as
given in Fig. 8.
Fig. 9 illustrates the distribution of the KL factor value as the
index of the soot concentration calculated utilizing the two-color
technique. From the trend of the KL values, it can be observed
that the soot concentration for methyl oleate (B100), H10B, H20B,
and H40B blends is lower that pure diesel fuel. Additionally, it is
noticed that the smallest amount of KL value belongs to H20B and
H40B blends, as reported in Fig. 6 (b). Additionally, the average KL
values for D100, B100, H10B, H20B, and H40B blends is 0.888, 0.666,
0.528, 0.253, and 0.465 respectively, as shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 11 shows the summary of the reduction percentages in
A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076 2073

Fig. 9. The distribution of KL factor values for tested fuels.

2074 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076
Fig. 10. The avarege of KL factor values for tested fuels.
engine emissions of methyl oleate and n-heptanol -methyl oleate
blends. Compared to diesel fuel, it can be concluded that the NOx
and soot formation are reduced by up to 8% and 80% respectively,
while they are decreased by up to 5% and 70% respectively for n-
heptanol-methyl oleate mixtures compared to pure methyl oleate.
Among the n-heptanol-methyl oleate mixtures, H40B blend has the
highest reduction percentages in soot formation, whereas the H20B
blend has the maximum reduction proportion in NOx emission
compared to other fuel mixtures.
4. Conclusion
The combustion and emission characteristics of the RCEM were
studied using diesel, methyl oleate, H10B, H20B, and H40B mix-
tures. From this study, the following findings can be pointed out:
Fig. 11. The reduction percentage of NOx and soot formation for different tested fuels.
 The peak pressure and HRR for methyl oleate are both reduced
by 1% compared to diesel fuel possibly due to its lower heating
value. However, the peak pressure and HRR for methyl oleate-n-
heptanol blends are both increased by 2% compared to pure
methyl oleate, owing to their lower heating value and higher
latent heat of vaporization.
 Soot and NOx emissions are reduced by about 60% and 3%,
respectively, for pure methyl oleate compared to diesel fuel
while they are decreased by 75% and 6% when using n-heptanol-
methyl oleate mixtures compared to pure methyl oleate, owing
to their high oxygen content and high cetane number.
 The ignition delayed for methyl oleate is lower than diesel fuel,
owing to its higher cetane number while the addition of n-
heptanol to methyl oleate leads to an increase in the ignition
delay.
 The addition of n-heptanol to methyl oleate with high fuel in-
jection pressure leads to a significant improvement in the
combustion characteristics.
 Combustion characteristics and flame images findings
confirmed that the blending of n-heptanol with methyl oleate
fuel increased the HRR and retarded its position.
 The recommended methyl oleate-n-heptanol mixture to ach-
ieve the maximum considerable enhancement in combustion
and emission characteristics is H20B.
Using n-heptanol-methyl oleate blends as a renewable fuel
showed that there are significant enhancements in combustion and
emission characteristics. We postulate that these enhancements
will also be achieved when using n-heptanol-methyl oleate blends
in diesel engines. However, before commercial application of these
fuels, the following investigations are needed to ensure their im-
pacts on the diesel engine operation:
 Investigation of the influence of n-heptanol-methyl oleate
blends on engine performance.
 Study of the effect of variation of injection pressure and timing
with the n-heptanol-methyl oleate mixtures.
 A.I. EL-Seesy et al. / Renewable Energy 147 (2020) 2064e2076
 Investigation of the spray characteristics of n-heptanol-methyl
oleate mixtures under variables conditions.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Kosaka-Sato Lab, Tokyo Institute
of Technology for offering the funding and facilities used in this
research work. The author would also like to thank Dr. Susumu
Sato, Dr. Tsuyoshi Nagasawa and all Kosaka-Sato Lab members for
their immense technical support this study.
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