Final Report Fem 3

A
Project Report
on
Plastic Injection Molding Machine
in
Partial fulfillment
of the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Submitted By Submitted to –
Ayush Singh Mr. Ravi Prakash Upadhyai
Enroll NO: - JNU-jpr-2019/00054
Chinmay Pandey
Enroll NO: -JNU-jpr-2019/00055
Om Sinha
Enroll No: -JNU-jpr-2019/01305
Rahul Kumar Yadav
Department of Mechanical Engineering
School of Engineering and Technology
Jaipur National University, Jaipur
December 2022
Department Of Mechanical Engineering (Jaipur National University) 1

Candidate’s Declaration
We hereby declare that the project, which is being presented in the Report, entitled “Plastic
Injection Molding Machine” in partial fulfillment for the award of Degree of “Bachelor of
Technology” in the Mechanical Engineering and submitted to the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Jaipur National
University, Jaipur is a record of our own project model created under the guidance of Mr.
Ravi Prakash Upadhyai (Assistant Professor).
Signature of Candidate:
Ayush Singh
JNU-jpr-2019/00054
Chinmay Pandey
JNU-jpr-2019/00055
Om Sinha
JNU-jpr-2019/01305
Rahul Kumar Yadav

JNU-jpr-2019/00389
Internal examiner External examiner

Acknowledgement
We feel extremely grateful that we have been given an opportunity to work under precious
people in JAIPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, JAIPUR. At the very out would like to
thank, we consented to the teaching and explaining provided to us with the golden
opportunity. In about different aim knowledge of "Plastic Injection Molding Machine”
without which the learning experience would not have been possible. Also render our sincere
thanks to all the workers at all units for providing us valuable technical assistance about all
the different kind of machines that proved not only necessary but also pivotal towards the
completion of our project. We express our wholehearted thanks to Mr. Ravi Prakash
Upadhyai for his efforts in guiding and accomplishment of this task.
Finally, we would like to express our solidarity towards the JAIPUR NATIONAL
UNIVERSITY, JAIPUR for providing us with such an opportunity to get an insight into the
system, the first experience of its kind for us, which all the way inculcated a technical
temperament in us.
Submitted By Submitted to –
Ayush Singh Mr. Ravi Prakash Upadhyai
Enroll NO: - JNU-jpr-2019/00054
Chinmay Pandey
Enroll NO: -JNU-jpr-2019/00055
Om Sinha
Rahul Kumar Yadav

Abstract
Injection molding machine, also known as injection machine, is a special machine for
manufacturing plastic products. Most injection molding machines are mainly composed of
two parts: injection device and clamping unit. The injection unit is responsible for heating the
poured plastic pellets into liquid. The clamping unit is used to carry the mold and provide the
force required for mold closing, mold clamping and other actions. In general, the injection
molding machine has the advantages of fast processing and fare economical cost.
Injection molding is the most universally used manufacturing process to produce plastic
parts. A large variety of plastic goods that greatly vary in their size, complexity, and
application are manufactured using injection molding. The injection molding course requires
the utilization of an injection molding machine, raw plastic material, and a mold. The
injection molding machine melts the plastic which is then injected into the mold. This molten
plastic is then cooled and solidified to take the shape of the final product.
The principle of injection molding is very simple. The plastic material is heated until it
becomes a viscous melt. It is then forced into a closed mold that defines the shape of the
article to be produced. There the material is cooled until it reverts to a solid, then the mold is
opened and the finished part is extracted. Although the principle may be simple, the practice
of injection molding is anything but simple. This is a consequence of the complex behavior of
plastics melts and the ability of the process to encompass complicated products. .

List of Figures
Figure1 Global Production Graph

Figure2 Types Of Plastic Logo
Figure3 PID Controller Circuit Diagram
Figure4 Proportional Control Diagram
Figure5 D Controller Response
Figure6 PID Structure
Figure7 PID Controller
Figure8 SSR
Figure9 Solid State Relay Circuit Diagram
Figure10 Solid State Relay Input Diagram
Figure11 Solid State Relay Output Circuit Diagram
Figure12 SSR Current Waveform
Figure13 Random Switch Waveform
Figure14 K Type Thermocouple
Figure15 Nickel Alloy Thermocouple
Figure16 Platinum Rhodium Alloy graph
Figure17 Band Heater
Figure18 Injection overview
Figure19 Framework
Figure20 Hopper Top View
Figure21 Hopper Cutting View
Figure22 Wooden Frame Work
Figure23 Pull Rod
Figure24 Plunger
Figure25 Lever
Figure26 Barrel
Figure27 Electronic Assembly Box
Figure28 Electronic Circuit Diagram
Figure29 Injection Machine full view

Components and Cost
S.no Name of components Cost

1. PID Controller Rs3799
2. SSR(Solid State Relay) Rs799
3. Thermocouple Rs450
4. Band Heater Rs950
5. Wooden Base Rs200
6. Rods Rs3000
7. Total Rs9200

Table of Contents
 Candidate Declaration
 Acknowledgement
 Abstract
 List Of Figures
 Components Cost
 Chapter-1 Introduction
1.1) Plastic
1.2) Recycling
1.3) Types Of Recycling
1.3.1) Closed loop recycling
1.3.2) Open loop recycling
1.3.3) Feed stock recycling
1.4) Types Of Plastic
1.4.1) PET (Polyethylene terephthalate):
1.4.2) HDPE (High-density polyethylene)
1.4.3) PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
1.4.4) LDPE (Low-density polyethylene)
1.4.5) PP (Polypropylene)
1.4.6) PS (Polystyrene)
1.4.7) MIX
 Chapter-2 Literature Review
2.1) Concept
 Chapter-3 Methodology
3.1) Components of Plastic Injection Machine
3.1.1) PID Controller:
3.1.2) Solid State Relay
3.1.3) Thermocouple

3.1.4) Band Heater
 Chapter-4 Design And Analysis

4.1) According to design
4.2) Hopper
4.3) Wooden Base
4.4) Pull Rod
4.5) Plunger
4.6) Lever
4.7) Barrel
4.8) Electronic Assembly Box
4.9) Electronic Circuit Diagram
4.10) Plastic Extrusion Machine
 Chapter-5 Result
5.1) Scope of Plastic Injection Machine
5.2) Merits and Demerits
5.3) Conclusion

Chapter-1
Introduction
1.1) Plastic
The word plastic itself is derived from the Greek Plastics meaning “capable of being shaped
or molded” and refers to their malleability during manufacture that allows plastic to be cast,
pressed or extruded into a variety of shapes—like films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and
much more. Plastics are synthetic chemicals extracted mainly from petroleum and made of
hydrocarbons (chains of hydrogen and carbon atoms).
• Most plastics are polymers, long molecules made up of many repetitions of a basic
molecule called a monomer and this structure makes plastic particularly durable and long
lasting. Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture and versatility, plastics are used
in an enormous and expanding range of products, from shampoo bottles to space rockets. The
sheer volume of plastic production (it’s everywhere!) is causing serious environmental
damage regarding its slow decomposition rate (recent studies say 500 years) due to its strong
bonding molecules. Think of it this way, all plastics ever used from your parents and
grandparents and great grandparents are still around today and will pollute the planet for
another four centuries.
• Most plastics contain other organic or inorganic compounds blended in called additives to
improve performance or reduce production costs. The amount of additives ranges widely
depending on the application and plastic type. Plastic are derived from a group of carbons
called polymers. Polymers are very long repetitive molecules made up of monomers: poly
meaning many, mers meaning parts, and mono meaning one. So polymers are many parts of
one, you can imagine them to be long repetitive chains and the difference is not how they are
formed, but where the polymers are derived from. This diagram a group of monomers create
polymers in a process called polymerization.
Plastic recycling is the reprocessing of plastic waste into new products. When performed
correctly, this can reduce dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect the
environment from plastic pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Although recycling rates

are increasing, they lag behind those of other recoverable materials, such as aluminum, glass
and paper.
1.2) Recycling
Recycling is necessary because almost all plastic is non-biodegradable and thus builds-up in
the environment, where it can cause harm. For example, approximately 8 million tons of
waste plastic enter the Earth's oceans every year, causing damage to the aquatic ecosystem
and forming large ocean garbage patches.
Presently, almost all recycling is performed by remelting and reforming used plastic into new
items; so-called mechanical recycling. This can cause polymer degradation at a chemical
level, and also requires that waste be sorted by both colour and polymer type before being
reprocessed, which is complicated and expensive. Failures in this can lead to material with
inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to industry. In an alternative approach
known as feedstock recycling, waste plastic is converted back into its starting chemicals,
which can then be reprocessed back into fresh plastic. This offers the hope of greater
recycling but suffers from higher energy and capital costs. Waste plastic can also be burnt in
place of fossil fuels as part of energy recovery. This is a controversial practice, but is
nonetheless performed on a large scale. In some countries, it is the dominant form of plastic
waste disposal, particularly where landfill diversion policies are in place.
The plastics industry has been criticized for lobbying for the expansion of recycling
programs, even while industry research showed that most plastic could not be economically
recycled and simultaneously increasing the amount of virgin plastic, or plastic that has not
been recycled, being produced. The total amount of plastic ever produced worldwide, until
2015, is estimated to be 8.3 billion tonnes. Approximately 6.3 billion tonnes of this has been
discarded as waste, of which around 79% has accumulated in landfills or the natural
environment, 12% was incinerated, and 9% has been recycled, although only ~1% of all
plastic has ever been recycled more than once.
By 2015 global production had reached some 381 Mt per year, greater than the combined
weight of everyone on Earth. The recycling rate in that year was 19.5%, while 25.5% was
incinerated and the remaining 55% disposed of, largely to landfill. These rates lag far behind
those of other recyclables, such as paper, metal and glass. Although the percentage of
material being recycled or incinerated is increasing each year, the tonnage of waste left-over

also continues to rise. This is because global plastic production is still increasing year-on-
year. Left unchecked, production could reach ~800 Mt per year by 2040, although
implementing all feasible interventions could reduce plastic pollution by 40% from 2016
rates.
A focus on global averages can disguise the fact that recycling rates also vary between types
of plastic. Several types are in common use, each having distinct chemical and physical
properties. This leads to differences in the ease with which they can be sorted and
reprocessed; which effects the value and market size for recovered materials. PET and HDPE
have the highest recycling rates, whereas polystyrene and polyurethane are often barely
recycled at all.
The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from
LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk
bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks).
Together these products account for around 36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them
(e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, and carrier bags) are used for only
a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction,
textiles, transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the
plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans than, for
example, plastic packaging. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years
(e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials,
industrial machinery.

Figure 1 Global Production Graph
The majority of plastic waste is made of thermosetting polymers, which can be re-melted and
reformed into new items in a practice known as mechanical recycling. Globally, this is by far
the most common form of recycling and in many countries it is effectively the only type
practiced. This predominance is due to it being the simplest and most economical form of
recycling, in addition to it having a lower carbon footprint than most other processes
however, several factors can lead to the quality of the polymer being reduced when it is
recycled this way, which limits its applicability and effectiveness. Thus, the limits of
mechanical recycling are in practice often the current limits of plastic recycling overall.
Plastics are reprocessed at anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F), depending on the
polymer type and this is sufficient to cause unwanted chemical reactions which result in
polymer degradation. This reduces the physical properties and overall quality of the plastic
and can produce volatile, low-molecular weight compounds, which may impart undesirable
taste or odor, as well as causing thermal discoloration. Additives present within the plastic
can accelerate this degradation. For instance, oxo-biodegradable additives, intended to
improve the biodegradability of plastic, also increase the degree of thermal degradation
similarly, flame retardants can have unwanted effects. The quality of the product also
depends strongly on how well the plastic was sorted. Many polymers are immiscible with one
another when molten and will phase separate (like oil and water) during reprocessing.
Products made from such blends contain many boundaries between the different polymer

types and cohesion across these boundaries is weak, leading to poor mechanical properties. In
more extreme cases the polymers may degrade one another, this is often the case with PVC,
as it can generate hydrogen chloride which strongly affects condensation polymers such as
PET.
Many of these problems have technological solutions, though they bear a financial cost.
Advanced polymer stabilizers and can be used to protect plastics from the rigors of thermal
reprocessing. Volatile degradation products can be removed by a range of DE volatilization
techniques. Flame retardants can be removed by chemical treatment, while damaging metallic
additives can be rendered inert with deactivators. Finally, the properties of mixed plastics can
be improved by using compatibilizers. These are compounds which improve miscibility
between polymer types to give a more homogeneous product, with better internal cohesion
and improved mechanical properties. They act at the boundary between different polymers
and are small-molecules possessing two different chemical regions, each of which is
compatible with a certain polymer. This allows them to act like molecular-nails or screws,
anchoring the areas of different polymer to one another. As a result, compatibilizers are
normally limited to systems dominated by two particular types of plastic and are not a cost-
effective option for unsorted mixtures of various polymer types. There is no one-size-fits-all
compatibilizer for all plastic combinations. Even with these technologies, it is particularly
challenging to recycle plastic so that it can meet food contact standards.
1.3) Types Of Recycling
1.3.1) Closed-Loop Recycling
In closed-loop, or primary recycling, used plastic is endlessly recycled back into new items of
the same quality and sort. For instance, turning drinks bottles back into drinks bottles. It can
be considered an example of a circular economy. The continual mechanical recycling of
plastic without reduction in quality is very challenging due to cumulative polymer
degradation, and risk of contaminant build-up. In 2013 only 2% of plastic packaging was
recycled in a closed loop. Although closed-loop recycling has been investigated for many
polymers, to-date the only industrial successes have been with PET bottle recycling. The
reason for this is that polymer degradation in PET is often repairable. PET's polymer chains
tend to cleave at their ester groups and the alcohol and carboxyl groups left by this can be

joined back together by the use of chemical agents called chain extenders. Pyromellitic
dianhydride is one such compound
1.3.2) Open-loop recycling
In open-loop recycling, also known as secondary recycling, or down cycling, the quality of
the plastic is reduced each time it is recycled, so that the material is not recycled indefinitely
and eventually becomes waste. It is the most common type of plastic recycling. The recycling
of PET bottles into fleece or other fibers is a common example, and accounts for the majority
of PET recycling. Although this approach only delays material from heading to landfill or
incineration, life-cycle assessment shows it to be of ecological benefit. Environmentally
successful recycling displaces demand for fresh plastic production and if open-loop recycling
achieves this then its benefits are indistinguishable from closed-loop recycling. If instead, it is
used to produce new cheap and low-quality items which would not otherwise have been
made, then it is not displacing current production and is of little or no benefit to the
environment.
The reduction in polymer quality can be offset by mixing recycled plastic with material when
making a new product. Compatibilized plastics can be used as a replacement for virgin
material, as it is possible to produce them with the right melt flow index needed for good
processing. Low quality mixed plastics can also be recycled in an open-loop, although there
is limited demand for such products, as in addition to poor mechanical properties,
incompletely sorted waste often contains a wide range of dyes and colorants. When these are
mixed during reprocessing the result is usually a dark-brown product which is unappealing
for many applications. These blends find use as outdoor furniture or plastic lumber. As the
material is weak, but of low cost it is produced in thick planks so as to be sturdy. Although
thermoset polymers do not melt, technologies have been developed for their mechanical
recycling. This usually involves breaking the material down to a crumb, which can then be
mixed with some sort of binding agent to form a new composite material. For instance,
polyurethanes can be recycled as reconstituted crumb foam. Tire recycling similarly produces
crumb rubber, which can be used as aggregate. Various devulcanization technologies have
also been developed to allow the recycling of rubber wastes, though few of these are
commercially important.
1.3.3) Feed Stock Recycling

In feedstock recycling, also called chemical recycling or tertiary recycling, polymers are
reduced to their chemical building-blocks (monomers), which can then be polymerized back
into fresh plastic In theory, this allows for near infinite recycling; as impurities, additives,
dyes and chemical defects are completely removed with each cycle. In practice, chemical
recycling is far less common than mechanical recycling. Implementation is limited because
technologies do not yet exist to depolymerize all polymers reliably on an industrial scale and
also because the equipment and operating costs are much higher. In 2018 Japan had one of
the highest rates in the world at ~4%, compared to 23% mechanical recycling, in the same
period Germany, another major recycler, reported a feedstock recycling rate of
0.2%Depolymerising, purifying and re-polymerizing the plastic can also be energy intensive,
leading to the carbon footprint of feedstock recycling normally being higher than that of
mechanical recycling. PET, PU and PS are depolymerized commercially to varying extents,
but the feedstock recycling of polyolefin, which make-up nearly half of all plastics, is much
more limited. Energy recovery, also called energy recycling or quaternary recycling, involves
burning waste plastic in place of fossil fuels for energy production. Its inclusion as a type of
recycling can be controversial, but it is nonetheless included in the recycling rates reported by
many countries, although it is not considered recycling by the EU. Care should be taken not
to conflate it with incineration without energy recovery, which is historically more common,
but which does not offset either future plastic production or fossil fuel use.
Plastic waste may be simply burnt as refuse-derived fuel (RDF) in a waste-to-energy process,
or it may be chemically converted to a synthetic fuel first. In either approach PVC must be
excluded or compensated for by installing dichlorination technologies, as it generates large
amounts of hydrogen chloride (HCl) when burnt. This can corrode equipment and cause
undesirable chlorination of the fuel products. The burning of plastics has long been associated
with the release of harmful dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, however these hazards can be
abated by the use of advanced combustors and emission control systems. Incineration with
energy recovery remains the most common method, with more advanced waste-to-fuel
technologies, such as pyrolysis, being hindered by technical and cost hurdles.
Waste-to-fuel
Mixed plastic waste can be depolymerized to give a synthetic fuel. This has a higher heating
value than the starting plastic and can be burnt more efficiently, although it remains less
efficient than fossil fuels. Various conversion technologies have been investigated, of which

pyrolysis is the most common. Conversion can take place as part of incineration in an IGC
cycle, but often the aim is to collect the fuel so that it may be sold. Pyrolysis of mixed
plastics can give a fairly broad mix of chemical products (between about 1 and 15 carbon
atoms) including gases and aromatic liquids. Catalysts can give a better defined product with
a higher value. The liquid products can be used as synthetic diesel fuel, with some
commercial production taking place in several countries. Life-cycle analysis shows that
plastic-to-fuel can displace the production of fossil fuels and result in lower net greenhouse
gas emissions (~15% reduction).
Compared to the widespread use of incineration, plastic-to-fuel technologies have historically

struggled to be economically viable because of the costs of collecting and sorting the plastic
and the relatively low value of the fuel produced. Large plants are seen as being more
economical than smaller ones but require more investment to build.
1.3Types Of Plastic
Figure 2 Types of Plastic Logo
1.3.1) PET (Polyethylene terephthalate):

PET is a very strong plastic that can be easily recognised for its transparent look - all water
and soda bottles are made from PET as well as some jars, combs, bags, tote bags, carpets and
ropes, and is recycled more commonly. Recently, PET has been recycled into yarns and made
into clothes. This plastic is a bit more complex to work with, we advise to start with other
plastics.
Properties: lightweight, impact resistant, rigid/semi-rigid

Pros: strong and stiff, water and oxide barrier, good electrical properties
Cons: high mold shrinkage, heat degradation, harmful fumes
Safety: Medium
Warning: harmful fumes during processing, some research suggesting harmful materials
seeping through long term use
Common uses: blow molded bottles (water bottles, soda/juice bottles), wrapping, film,
electrical fittings
Best ways to use with PP machines: we're working on that
1.3.2) HDPE (High-density polyethylene)
HDPE is often used for food and drink containers, as well as milk bottles, motor oil, shampoo
bottles, soap bottles, detergents, bleaches, toys and bottle caps. Products of this plastic types
are often easier to collect sorted and clean. HDPE works very well with Precious Plastic
machines and is great to start with!
Properties: inert, thermally stable, tough and high tensile strength

Pros: cheap, high chemical resistance, electrical properties, waxy feel, good friction behavior
Cons: less stiff than PP, easy to burn, poor UV resistance, high mold shrinkage
Safety: Good
Warning: HDPE itself (when not burning) is not dangerous to use, however additives can be
dangerous. It’s not possible to see what kind of additives are used in products.
Common uses: pipes, toys, bowls, crates, packing film
Best ways to use with PP machines: HDPE works very similar to PP, low melting
temperature and easy to mold. Great material to use
1.3.3) PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)

PVC is toxic and we do not work with it. It is most commonly found in plumbing pipes and
releases chloride when heated up - we do not recommend using with Precious Plastic
machines!
Properties: insulating, chemically inert

Pros: cheap, acid and alkali resistance, flame retardant, stiff and strong
Cons: overheating causes degradation, brittle below 0°C, discolour in strong UV light, high
density for thermoplastic, HCL and dioxins when burned
Safety: Not safe - do not use
Warning: dangerous fillers and release of HCL and dioxins during degradation or burning.
Common uses: Flexible: fake leather, seals, cable covers, tape. Rigid: pipes, building
products, bottes, film, soles, heat-shrinking tubes
Best ways to use with PP machines: don't use it
1.3.4) LDPE (Low-density polyethylene)
LDPE is largely used for plastic wrap, sandwich bags, squeezable bottles, and plastic grocery
bags. Usually LDPE is not commonly recycled, as it is often not labeled, it’s too light and
tends to be more difficult to clean, but works rather well with Precious Plastic techniques. A
popular recycling technique for plastic bags is ironing them into a more durable textile.
Properties: chemically inert, flexible, insulating

Pros: cheap, chemical and hydrolysis resistance, high impact strength (low temp), good
processability.
Cons: low tensile strength, low stiffness, low max temp, burns easily, poor UV resistance,
high mold shrinkage.
Safety: Good
Warning: LDPE itself (when not burning) is not dangerous to use, however additives can be
Common uses: bowls, lids, toys, containers, film, squeeze bottles, pipes, bags, sheets
Best ways to use with PP machines: LDPE is often a foil and not ideal to shred. But it’s good
to fuse together with iron or used to create marble.
1.3.5) PP (Polypropylene)
PP is one of the most commonly available plastics on the market, it is strong and can usually
withstand higher temperatures. PP has a wide variety of uses but is consistently used for

products that get in contact with food and drink - Tupperware, yoghurt boxes, syrup bottles
etc. PP works very well with Precious Plastic.
Properties: some properties here

Pros: like PE but stronger, stuffer and higher temp and lower density, mechanical, thermal
and electrical performance result in a low cost engineering plastic
Cons: higher cost than PE, brittle below 0°C, high permeability to gases, poor resistance to
fuels, poor UV resistance, keeps burning
Safety: Good
Warning: PP itself (when not burning) is not dangerous to use, however additives can be
Common uses: structural parts, pipes, toys, chairs, kitchenware, DVD cases, packaging,
films, textile, carpets, rope, netting
Best ways to use with PP machines: Works well with all machines
1.3.6) PS (Polystyrene)
PS is most commonly known as Styrofoam, but also appears in many more products. PS can
be recycled, but not efficiently - recycling it takes a lot of energy which means that few
places accept it. Disposable coffee cups, plastic food boxes, plastic cutlery and packing foam
are made from PS - it works very well with Precious Plastic. It is one of the more toxic plastic
types (so special attention please!), but at the same time offers great aesthetic and haptic
properties as it is comparable with glass and can be polished. Properties: clear, glossy, hard,
stiff
Properties: clear, glossy, hard, stiff

Pros: cheap, low mold shrinkage, good insulator, good on low temp
Cons: Brittle, poor wear resistance, poor chemical resistance
Safety: Medium
Warning: While burning PS, styrene can be released (toxic)
Common uses: Toys, CD cases, light diffusers, electric housings, cutlery
Best ways to use with PP machines: extrusion, sheets, polishing (glasslike material)
1.3.7) MIX

This code is used to identify other types of plastic that are not defined by the other six plastic
types. Plastics such as. ABS, Acrylic or Polycarbonate are included in this category and can
be difficult to recycle, however Precious Plastic can work with some of this.
Properties: As this includes a lot of different plastic types, the properties can vary a lot. So, it
depends which type of plastic it is. If you can identify then you can reuse it but if it's mixed,
it's chaos
Pros: There are some good plastics in here to work with. ABS, PLA, Nylon.
Cons: Hard to identify since they often don’t have their own label. So it gets mixed and is
chaotic
Safety: Hard to find the melting temperature, especially if it's mixed. So you can easily end
up burning it. So, not that safe.
Warning: Some of the plastic types included here (like PC) release very toxic fumes. Make
sure to inform yourself about the plastic type you want to work with, and test its properties
before processing it in masses.
Common uses: PC (CDs & DVDs…), PLA (bioplastics), ABS (3D-printing filament, toys,
electronic products…), PMMA (acrylic glass)
Chapter-2
Literature Review
2.1) Concept:
Injection molding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals (for
which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly
thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel,
mixed (using a helical screw), and injected into a mold cavity, where it cools and hardens to
the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer
or an engineer, molds are made by a mold-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either
steel or aluminum, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection
molding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to
entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers that do

not melt during the injection molding of some lower-temperature thermoplastics, can be used
for some simple injection molds.
Injection molding uses a special-purpose machine that has three parts: the injection unit, the
mold and the clamp. Parts to be injection-molded must be very carefully designed to facilitate
the molding process; the material used for the part, the desired shape and features of the part,
the material of the mold, and the properties of the molding machine must all be taken into
account. The versatility of injection molding is facilitated by this breadth of design
considerations and possibilities.
Injection molding uses a ram or screw-type plunger to force molten plastic or rubber material
into a mold cavity; this solidifies into a shape that has conformed to the contour of the mold.
It is most commonly used to process both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, with the
volume used of the former being considerably higher. Thermoplastics are prevalent due to
characteristics that make them highly suitable for injection molding, such as ease of
recycling, versatility for a wide variety of applications, and ability to soften and flow on
heating. Thermoplastics also have an element of safety over thermosets; if a thermosetting
polymer is not ejected from the injection barrel in a timely manner, chemical crosslinking
may occur causing the screw and check valves to seize and potentially damaging the injection
molding machine. Injection molding consists of the high pressure injection of the raw
material into a mold, which shapes the polymer into the desired form. Molds can be of a
single cavity or multiple cavities. In multiple cavity molds, each cavity can be identical and
form the same parts or can be unique and form multiple different geometries during a single
cycle. Molds are generally made from tool steels, but stainless steels and aluminum molds are
suitable for certain applications. Aluminum molds are typically ill-suited for high volume
production or parts with narrow dimensional tolerances, as they have inferior mechanical
properties and are more prone to wear, damage, and deformation during the injection and
clamping cycles; however, aluminum molds are cost-effective in low-volume applications, as
mold fabrication costs and time are considerably reduced. Many steel molds are designed to
process well over a million parts during their lifetime and can cost hundreds of thousands of
dollars to fabricate.
When thermoplastics are molded, typically pelletized raw material is fed through a hopper
into a heated barrel with a reciprocating screw. Upon entrance to the barrel, the temperature

increases and the Van der Waals forces that resist relative flow of individual chains are
weakened as a result of increased space between molecules at higher thermal energy states.
This process reduces its viscosity, which enables the polymer to flow with the driving force
of the injection unit. The screw delivers the raw material forward, mixes and homogenizes
the thermal and viscous distributions of the polymer, and reduces the required heating time
by mechanically shearing the material and adding a significant amount of frictional heating to
the polymer. The material feeds forward through a check valve and collects at the front of the
screw into a volume known as a shot. A shot is the volume of material that is used to fill the
mold cavity, compensate for shrinkage, and provide a cushion (approximately 10% of the
total shot volume, which remains in the barrel and prevents the screw from bottoming out) to
transfer pressure from the screw to the mold cavity. When enough material has gathered, the
material is forced at high pressure and velocity into the part forming cavity. The exact
amount of shrinkage is a function of the resin being used, and can be relatively predictable.
To prevent spikes in pressure, the process normally uses a transfer position corresponding to
a 95–98% full cavity where the screw shifts from a constant velocity to a constant pressure
control. Often injection times are well under 1 second. Once the screw reaches the transfer
position the packing pressure is applied, which completes mold filling and compensates for
thermal shrinkage, which is quite high for thermoplastics relative to many other materials.
The packing pressure is applied until the gate (cavity entrance) solidifies. Due to its small
size, the gate is normally the first place to solidify through its entire thickness. Once the gate
solidifies, no more material can enter the cavity; accordingly, the screw reciprocates and
acquires material for the next cycle while the material within the mold cools so that it can be
ejected and be dimensionally stable. This cooling duration is dramatically reduced by the use
of cooling lines circulating water or oil from an external temperature controller. Once the
required temperature has been achieved, the mold opens and an array of pins, sleeves,
strippers, etc. are driven forward to demold the article. Then, the mold closes and the process
is repeated.
For a two-shot mold, two separate materials are incorporated into one part. This type of
injection molding is used to add a soft touch to knobs, to give a product multiple colors, or to
produce a part with multiple performance characteristics.
For thermosets, typically two different chemical components are injected into the barrel.
These components immediately begin irreversible chemical reactions that eventually

crosslinks the material into a single connected network of molecules. As the chemical
reaction occurs, the two fluid components permanently transform into a viscoelastic solid.
Solidification in the injection barrel and screw can be problematic and have financial
repercussions; therefore, minimizing the thermoset curing within the barrel is vital. This
typically means that the residence time and temperature of the chemical precursors are
minimized in the injection unit. The residence time can be reduced by minimizing the barrel's
volume capacity and by maximizing the cycle times. These factors have led to the use of a
thermally isolated, cold injection unit that injects the reacting chemicals into a thermally
isolated hot mold, which increases the rate of chemical reactions and results in shorter time
required to achieve a solidified thermoset component. After the part has solidified, valves
close to isolate the injection system and chemical precursors, and the mold opens to eject the
molded parts. Then, the mold closes and the process repeats.
Pre-molded or machined components can be inserted into the cavity while the mold is open,
allowing the material injected in the next cycle to form and solidify around them. This
process is known as Insert molding and allows single parts to contain multiple materials. This
process is often used to create plastic parts with protruding metal screws so they can be
fastened and unfastened repeatedly. This technique can also be used for In-mold labelling and
film lids may also be attached to molded plastic containers.
A parting line, sprue, gate marks, and ejector pin marks are usually present on the final part.
None of these features are typically desired, but are unavoidable due to the nature of the
process. Gate marks occur at the gate that joins the melt-delivery channels (sprue and runner)
to the part forming cavity. Parting line and ejector pin marks result from minute
misalignments, wear, gaseous vents, clearances for adjacent parts in relative motion, and/or
dimensional differences of the melting surfaces contacting the injected polymer. Dimensional
differences can be attributed to non-uniform, pressure-induced deformation during injection,
machining tolerances, and non-uniform thermal expansion and contraction of mold
components, which experience rapid cycling during the injection, packing, cooling, and
ejection phases of the process. Mold components are often designed with materials of various
coefficients of thermal expansion. These factors cannot be simultaneously accounted for
without astronomical increases in the cost of design, fabrication, processing, and quality
monitoring. The skillful mold and part designer positions these aesthetic detriments in hidden
areas if feasible.

Injection molding machine offers many advantages to alternatives manufacturing methods,
including minimal losses from scrap (since scrap pieces can be melted and recycled), and
minimal finishing requirements. Injection molding machine differs from metal die casting, in
that molten metals can simply be poured, and plastic resins must be injected with force. It is
most common used method for mass production of plastic articles of a heated cylinder,
heating the materials in the heating chamber, and forcing the molten metal into a closed
mold, where the final solidification of the molten metal in form of the configuration of the
mold cavity takes. The intending injection machine will be made from mild steel and medium
carbon steel. It can only be used for the production of small components such as key holder,
bottle cap, tally, ruler, and clothes peg. The mild steel is used for the construction of
supporting plates, hopper, mainframe, mold, and platens, handle, and tie bars. This is
because; they are not subjected to constant heat. It is easily weldable, and has good
workability but show poor response to heat treatment. An injection molding machine is a
piece of equipment consists of two basic elements, the injection unit and the clamping unit.
Injection molding can be used with a variety of plastic resins. The chosen resins for this
process are polyethylene; polypropylene, ABS, and fluorocarbons, because of characteristics
of intricate shapes can easily be produced. The advantages of small injection molding process
include good surface finish of the product can be produced, less scrap and flashes are
produced, and the process has relatively low labor costs. Plastic melts when you heat it to a
certain temperature. The shape of the plastic then changes, and it becomes soft when you heat
it. However, this depends on the type of plastic you use. Some plastics become soft when you
heat them, while others become liquid when you heat them.
Chapter-3
Methodology
3.1) Components of Plastic Injection Machine

3.1.1) PID Controller:
The term PID stands for proportional integral derivative and it is one kind of device used to
control different process variables like pressure, flow, temperature, and speed in industrial
applications. In this controller, a control loop feedback device is used to regulate all the
process variables.

This type of control is used to drive a system in the direction of an objective location
otherwise level. It is almost everywhere for temperature control and used in scientific
processes, automation & myriad chemical. In this controller, closed-loop feedback is used to
maintain the real output from a method like close to the objective otherwise output at the fixe
point if possible. In this article, the PID controller design with control modes used in them
like P, I & D are discussed
Figure 3 PID Controller Circuit Diagram
A closed-loop system like a PID controller includes a feedback control system. This system
evaluates the feedback variable using a fixed point to generate an error signal. Based on that,
it alters the system output. This procedure will continue till the error reaches Zero otherwise
the value of the feedback variable becomes equivalent to a fixed point.
This controller provides good results as compared with the ON/OFF type controller. In the
ON/OFF type controller, simply two conditions are obtainable to manage the system. Once
the process value is lower than the fixed point, then it will turn ON. Similarly, it will turn
OFF once the value is higher than a fixed value. The output is not stable in this kind of
controller and it will swing frequently in the region of the fixed point. However, this
controller is more steady & accurate as compared to the ON/OFF type controller.
1) Working of PID Controller

With the use of a low cost simple ON-OFF controller, only two control states are possible,
like fully ON or fully OFF. It is used for a limited control application where these two control
states are enough for the control objective. However oscillating nature of this control limits
its usage and hence it is being replaced by PID controllers.
PID controller maintains the output such that there is zero error between the process variable
and set point/ desired output by closed-loop operations. PID uses three basic control
behaviors that are explained below.
2) P- Controller
Proportional or P- controller gives an output that is proportional to current error e (t). It
compares the desired or set point with the actual value or feedback process value. The
resulting error is multiplied with a proportional constant to get the output. If the error value is
zero, then this controller output is zero.
Figure 4 Proportional Control Diagram
This controller requires biasing or manual reset when used alone. This is because it never
reaches the steady-state condition. It provides stable operation but always maintains the
steady-state error. The speed of the response is increased when the proportional constant Kc
increases.
3) I Controller
Due to the limitation of p-controller where there always exists an offset between the process
variable and set point, I-controller is needed, which provides necessary action to eliminate the
steady-state error. It integrates the error over a period of time until the error value reaches
zero. It holds the value to the final control device at which error becomes zero.

Integral control decreases its output when a negative error takes place. It limits the speed of
response and affects the stability of the system. The speed of the response is increased by
decreasing integral gain, Ki.
4) D-Controller
I-controller doesn’t have the capability to predict the future behavior of error. So it reacts
normally once the set point is changed. D-controller overcomes this problem by anticipating
the future behavior of the error. Its output depends on the rate of change of error with respect
to time, multiplied by derivative constant. It gives the kick start for the output thereby
increasing system response. It improves the stability of the system by compensating for phase
lag caused by I-controller. Increasing the derivative gain increases the speed of response.
Figure 5 D Controller Response
5) Types of PID Controller
PID controllers are classified into three types like ON/OFF, proportional, and standard type
controllers. These controllers are used based on the control system, the user can be used the
controller to regulate the method.

1) ON/OFF Control
An on-off control method is the simplest type of device used for temperature control. The
device output may be ON/OFF through no center state. This controller will turn ON the
output simply once the temperature crosses the fixed point. A limit controller is one particular
kind of ON/OFF controller that uses a latching relay. This relay is reset manually and used to
turn off a method once a certain temperature is attained.
2) Proportional Control
This kind of controller is designed to remove the cycling which is connected through
ON/OFF control. This PID controller will reduce the normal power which is supplied toward
the heater once the temperature reaches the fixed point.
This controller has one feature to control the heater so that it will not exceed the fixed point
however it will reach the fixed point to maintain a steady temperature.
This proportioning act can be achieved through switching ON & OFF the output for small
time periods. This time proportioning will change the ratio from ON time to OFF time for
controlling the temperature.
3) Standard Type PID Controller
This kind of PID controller will merge proportional control through integral & derivative
control to automatically assist the unit to compensate modifications within the system. These
modifications, integral & derivative are expressed in time-based units.
These controllers are also referred through their reciprocals, RATE & RESET
correspondingly. The terms of PID must be adjusted separately otherwise tuned to a specific
system with the trial as well as error. These controllers will offer the most precise and steady
control of the 3 types of controller.
4) Real-Time PID Controllers
At present, there are various kinds of PID controllers are available in the market. These
controllers are used for industrial control requirements like pressure, temperature, level, and
flow. These separate controllers are employed wherever one otherwise two loops are required

to be checked as well as controlled otherwise in the conditions wherever it is complex to the
right of entry through larger systems.
These control devices provide different choices for solo & twin loop control. The standalone
type PID controllers provide several fixed-point configurations to produce the autonomous
alarms. These standalone controllers mainly comprise PID controllers from Honeywell,
temperature controllers from Yokogawa, autotune controllers from OMEGA, Siemens, and
ABB controllers. PLCs are used like PID controllers in most of the industrial control
applications .The arrangement of PID blocks can be done within PACs or PLCs to give
superior choices for an exact PLC control. These controllers are smarter as well as powerful
as compared with separate controllers. Each PLC includes the PID block within the software
programming.
A) Tuning Methods
Before the working of the PID controller takes place, it must be tuned to suit with dynamics
of the process to be controlled. Designers give the default values for P, I, and D terms, and
these values couldn’t give the desired performance and sometimes leads to instability and
slow control performances. Different types of tuning methods are developed to tune the PID
controllers and require much attention from the operator to select the best values of
proportional, integral, and derivative gains. Some of these are given below.
PID controllers are used in most industrial applications but one should know the settings of
this controller to adjust it correctly to generate the preferred output. Here, tuning is nothing
but the procedure of receiving an ideal reply from the controller through setting best
proportional gains, integral & derivative factors.
The desired output of the PID controller can be obtained by tuning the controller. There are
different techniques available to get the required output from the controller like trial &error,
Zeigler-Nichols & process reaction curve. The most frequently used methods are trial &
error, Zeigler-Nichols, etc.
Trial and Error Method: It is a simple method of PID controller tuning. While the system
or controller is working, we can tune the controller. In this method, first, we have to set Ki
and Kd values to zero and increase the proportional term (Kp) until the system reaches

oscillating behavior. Once it is oscillating, adjust Ki (Integral term) so that oscillations stop
and finally adjust D to get a fast response.
B) Zeigler-Nichols method: Zeigler-Nichols proposed closed-loop methods for tuning the

PID controller. Those are the continuous cycling method and damped oscillation method.
Procedures for both methods are the same but oscillation behavior is different. In this,
first, we have to set the p-controller constant, Kp to a particular value while Ki and Kd
values are zero. Proportional gain is increased till the system oscillates at a constant
amplitude.
Gain at which system produces constant oscillations is called ultimate gain (Ku) and the
period of oscillations is called the ultimate period (Pc). Once it is reached, we can enter the
values of P, I, and D in the PID controller by Zeigler-Nichols table depends on the controller
used like P, PI or PID, as shown below.
C) PID Controller Structure
PID controller consists of three terms, namely proportional, integral, and derivative control.
The combined operation of these three controllers gives a control strategy for process control.
PID controller manipulates the process variables like pressure, speed, temperature, flow, etc.
Some of the applications use PID controllers in cascade networks where two or more PID’s
are used to achieve control.
Figure 6 PID Structure

Structure of PID Controller
The above figure shows the structure of the PID controller. It consists of a PID block which
gives its output to the process block. Process/plant consists of final control devices like
actuators, control valves, and other control devices to control various processes of
industry/plant.
A feedback signal from the process plant is compared with a set point or reference signal u(t)
and the corresponding error signal e(t) is fed to the PID algorithm. According to the
proportional, integral, and derivative control calculations in the algorithm, the controller
produces a combined response or controlled output which is applied to plant control devices.
All control applications don’t need all three control elements. Combinations like PI and PD
controls are very often used in practical applications.
D) Applications
The PID controller applications include the following.
The best PID controller application is temperature control where the controller uses an input
of a temperature sensor & its output can be allied to a control element like a fan or heater.
Generally, this controller is simply one element in a temperature control system. The entire
system must be examined as well as considered while choosing the right controller.
1) Temperature Control of Furnace
Generally, furnaces are used to include heating as well as holds a huge amount of raw
material at huge temperatures. It is usual for the material occupied to include a huge mass.
Consequently, it takes a high quantity of inertia & the temperature of the material doesn’t
modify rapidly even when huge heat is applied. This feature results in a moderately stable
PV signal & permits the Derivative period to efficiently correct for fault without extreme
changes to either the FCE or the CO.

2) MPPT Charge Controller
The V-I characteristic of a photovoltaic cell mainly depends on the range of temperature as
well as irradiance. Based on the weather conditions, the current and operating voltage will
change constantly. So, it is extremely significant to track the highest PowerPoint of an
efficient photovoltaic system. PID controller is used to finding MPPT by giving fixed voltage
and current points to the PID controller. Once the weather condition is changed then the
tracker maintains current and voltage stable.
3) The Converter of Power Electronics
We know that converter is an application of power electronics, so a PID controller is mostly

used in converters. Whenever a converter is allied through a system based on the change
within the load, then the converter’s output will be changed. For instance, an inverter is allied
with load; the huge current is supplied once loads are increased. Thus, the parameter of
voltage as well as the current is not stable, but it will alter based on the requirement.
In this state, this controller will generate PWM signals to activate the IGBTs of the inverter.
Based on the change within the load, the response signal is provided to the PID controller so
that it will produce n error. These signals are generated based on the fault signal. In this state,
we can obtain changeable input & output through a similar inverter

Figure 7 PID Controller
3.1.2) Solid State Relay
The solid state relay and electro-mechanical relay are fundamentally similar in that their low
voltage input is electrically isolated from the output that switches and controls a load, electro-
mechanical relays have a limited contact life cycle, can take up a lot of room and have slower
switch speeds, especially large power relays and contactors. Solid state relays have no such
limitations.
Figure 8 SSR
Thus the main advantages solid state relays have over conventional electro-mechanical relays
is that they have no moving parts to wear out, and therefore no contact bounce issues, are
able to switch both “ON” and “OFF” much faster than a mechanical relays armature can
move, as well as zero voltage turn-on and zero current turn-off eliminating electrical noise
and transients.
Solid state relays can be bought in standard off-the-shelf packages ranging from just a few
volts or amperes to many hundreds of volts and amperes of output switching capability.

However, solid state relays with very high current ratings (150A plus) are still too expensive
to buy due to their power semiconductor and heat sinking requirements, and as such, cheaper
electro-mechanical contactors are still used.
Similar to an electro-mechanical relay, a small input voltage, typically 3 to 32 volts DC, can
be used to control a much large output voltage, or current. For example 240V, 10Amps. This
makes them ideal for microcontroller, PIC and Arduino interfacing as a low-current, 5-volt
signal from say a micro-controller or logic gate can be used to control a particular circuit
load, and this is achieved with the use of opto-isolators.
1) Solid State Relay Input
One of the main components of a solid state relay (SSR) is an opto-isolator (also called an
optocoupler) which contains one (or more) infra-red light-emitting diode, or LED light
source, and a photo sensitive device within a single case. The opto-isolator isolates the input
from the output.
The LED light source is connected to the SSR’s input drive section and provides optical
coupling through a gap to an adjacent photo sensitive transistor, Darlington pair or trial.
When a current passes through the LED, it illuminates and its light is focused across the gap
to a photo-transistor/photo-trial.
Thus the output of an opto-coupled SSR is turned “ON” by energizing this LED, usually with
low-voltage signal. As the only connection between the input and output is a beam of light,
high voltage isolation (usually several thousand volts) is achieved by means of this internal
opto-isolation.
Not only does the opto-isolator provide a higher degree of input/output isolation, it can also
transmit dc and low-frequency signals. Also, the LED and photo-sensitive device could be
totally separate from each other and optically coupled by means of an optical fiber.
The input circuitry of an SSR may consist of just a single current limiting resistor in series
with the LED of the opto-isolator, or of a more complex circuit with rectification, current
regulation, reverse polarity protection, filtering, etc.
To activate or turn “ON” a solid state relay into conduction, a voltage greater than its
minimum value (usually 3 volts DC) must be applied to its input terminals (equivalent to the

electro-mechanical relay coil). This DC signal may be derived from a mechanical switch, a
logic gate or micro-controller, as shown.
Solid State Relay DC Input Circuit
Figure 9 Solid State Relay Circuit Diagram

When using mechanical contacts, switches, push-buttons, other relay contacts, etc, as the
activating signal, the supply voltage used can be equal to the SSR’s minimum input voltage
value, whereas when using solid state devices such as transistors, gates and micro-controllers,
the minimum supply voltage needs to be one or two volts above the SSR’s turn-on voltage to
account for the switching devices internal voltage drop.
But as well as using a DC voltage, either sinking or sourcing, to switch the solid state relay
into conduction, we can also use a sinusoidal waveform as well by adding a bridge rectifier
for full-wave rectification and a filter circuit to the DC input as shown
2) Solid State Relay AC Input Circuit

Figure 10 Solid State Relay Input Diagram

Bridge rectifiers convert a sinusoidal voltage into full-wave rectified pulses at twice the input
frequency. The problem here is that these voltage pulses start and end from zero volts which
means that they will fall below the minimum turn-on voltage requirements of the SSR’s input
threshold causing the output to turn “on” and “off” every half cycle.
To overcome this erratic firing of the output, we can smooth out the rectified ripples by using
a smoothing capacitor, (C1) on the output of the bridge rectifier. The charging and
discharging effect of the capacitor will raise the DC component of the rectified signal above
the maximum turn-on voltage value of the solid state relays input. Then even though a
constantly changing sinusoidal voltage waveform is used, the input of the SSR sees a
constant DC voltage.
The values of the voltage dropping resistor, R1 and the smoothing capacitor, C1 are chosen to
suit the supply voltage, 120 volts AC or 240 volts AC as well as the input impedance of the
solid state relay. But something around 40kΩ and 10uF would do.
Then with this bridge rectifier and smoothing capacitor circuit added, a standard DC solid
state relay can be controlled using either an AC or non-polarized DC supply. Of course,
manufacturers produce and sell AC input solid state relays (usually 90 to 280 volts AC)
already.
3) Solid State Relay Output
The output switching capabilities of a solid state relay can be either AC or DC similar to its
input voltage requirements. The output circuit of most standard solid state relays are

configured to perform only one type of switching action giving the equivalent of a normally-
open, single-pole, single-throw (SPST-NO) operation of an electro-mechanical relay.
For most DC SSR’s the solid state switching device commonly used are power transistors,
Darlington’s and MOSFETs, whereas for an AC SSR, the switching device is either a triac or
back-to-back thermistors. Thyristors are preferred due to their high voltage and current
capabilities. A single thyristor can also be used within a bridge rectifier circuit as shown.
Solid State Relay Output Circuit
Figure 11 Solid state Relay Output Circuit Diagram

The most common application of solid state relays is in the switching of an AC load, whether
that is to control the AC power for ON/OFF switching, light dimming, motor speed control or
other such applications where power control is needed, these AC loads can be easily
controlled with a low current DC voltage using a solid state relay providing long life and high
switching speeds.
One of the biggest advantages of solid state relays over an electromechanical relay is its
ability to switch “OFF” AC loads at the point of zero load current, thereby completely
eliminating the arcing, electrical noise and contact bounce associated with conventional
mechanical relays and inductive loads.
This is because AC switching solid state relays use SCR’s and TRIAC’s as their output
switching device which continues conducting, once the input signal is removed, until the AC

current flowing through the device falls below its threshold or holding current value. Then
the output of an SSR can never switch OFF in the middle of a sine wave peak.
Zero current turn-off is a major advantage for using a solid state relay as it reduces electrical
noise and the back-emf associated with the switching of inductive loads as seen as arcing by
the contacts of an electro-mechanical relay. Consider the output waveform diagram below of
a typical AC solid state relay.
Solid State Relay Output Waveform
Figure 12 SSR Current Waveform

With no input signal applied, no load current flows through the SSR as it is effectively OFF
(open-circuited) and the output terminals see the full AC supply voltage. With the application
of a DC input signal, no matter which part of the sinusoidal waveform, either positive or
negative the cycle is going through, due to zero-voltage switching characteristics of the SSR,
the output only turns-on when the waveform crosses over the zero point.
As the supply voltage increases in either a positive or negative direction, it reaches the
minimum value required to turn the output thermistors or triac fully ON (usually less than
about 15 volts). The voltage drop across the SSR’s output terminals is that of the switching
devices on-state voltage drop, VT (usually less than 2 volts). Thus any high inrush currents
associated with reactive or lamp loads are greatly reduced.
When the DC input voltage signal is removed, the output does not suddenly turn-off as once
triggered into conduction, the thermistor or triac used as the switching device stays ON for
the remainder of the half cycle until the load currents drops below the devices holding

current, at which point it switches OFF. Thus the high dv/dt back emf’s associated with
switching inductive loads in the middle of a sine wave is greatly reduced.
Then the main advantages of the AC solid state relay over the electro-mechanical relay are its
zero crossing function which turns ON the SSR when the AC load voltage is close to zero
volts, thus suppressing any high inrush currents as the load current will always start from a
point close to 0V, and the inherent zero current turn-off characteristic of the thyristor or triac.
Therefore there is a maximum possible turn-off delay (between the removal of the input
signal and the removal of load current) of one half cycle.
4) Phase Dimming Solid State Relay
While solid state relays can perform straight forward zero-crossing switching of a load, they
can also perform much more complicated functions by means of digital logic circuits,
microprocessors and memories. Another excellent application of a solid state relay is in lamp
dimming applications, whether in the home or for a show or concert.
Non-zero (instant-on) switching solid state relays turn-on immediately after the application of
the input control signal as opposed to the zero crossing SSR above which waits until the next
zero-crossing point of the AC sine-wave. This random-fire switching is used in resistive
applications such as lamp dimming and applications that require the load only to be energized
for a small portion of the AC cycle.

Random Switching Output Waveform
Figure 13 Random Switch Waveform

While this allows for the phase control of the load waveform, the main problem random turn-
on SSR’s is that the initial load surge current at the instant the relay turns-on, may be high
due to the SSR switching power when the supply voltage is close to its peak value (90 o).
When the input signal is removed, it stops conducting when the load current falls below the
thermistors or triacs holding current as shown. Obviously for a DC SSR, the ON-OFF
switching action is instant.
The solid state relay is ideal for a wide range of ON/OFF switching applications as they have
no moving parts or contacts unlike an electro-mechanical relay (EMR). There are many
different commercial types to choose from for both AC and DC input control signals as well
as AC and DC output switching as they employ semiconductor switching elements, such as
thermistors, triacs and transistors.
But by using a combination of a good opt-isolator and a triac, we can make our own
inexpensive and simple solid state relay to control an AC load such as a heater, lamp or
solenoid. As an opto-isolator only needs a small amount of input/control power to operate,
the control signal could be from a PIC, Arduino, Raspberry PI, or any other such micro-
controller.

3.1.3) Thermocouple
Principle of operation
In 1821, the German physicist Thomas Johann See beck discovered that a magnetic needle
held near a circuit made up of two dissimilar metals got deflected when one of the dissimilar
metal junctions was heated. At the time, See beck referred to this consequence as thermo-
magnetism. The magnetic field he observed was later shown to be due to thermo-electric
current. In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two different types of
wire is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high and low
temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire being used.
Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain a usable
measurement. Although very little current flows, power can be generated by a single
thermocouple junction. Power generation using multiple thermocouples, as in a thermopile, is
common.
Figure 14 K Type Thermocouple
The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the figure. Briefly, the
desired temperature Tsense is obtained using three inputs—the characteristic function E(T) of
the thermocouple, the measured voltage V, and the reference junctions' temperature Tref. The
solution to the equation E (Tsense) = V + E (Tref) yields Tsense. These details are often hidden
from the user since the reference junction block (with Tref thermometer), voltmeter, and
equation solver are combined into a single product.
1) See beck effect

The See beck effect refers to the development of an electromotive force across two points of an
electrically conducting material when there is a temperature difference between those two points.

Under open-circuit conditions where there is no internal current flow, the gradient of voltage is
directly proportional to the gradient in temperature.
Characteristic function
The thermocouple's behavior is captured by a characteristic function, which needs only to be
consulted at two arguments. In terms of the See beck coefficients, the characteristic function
is defined by the constant of integration in this indefinite integral has no significance, but is
conventionally chosen such that thermocouple manufacturers and metrology standards
organizations such as NIST provide tables of the function that have been measured and
interpolated over a range of temperatures, for particular thermocouple types.
 "Ice bath" method: The reference junction block is immersed in a semi-frozen bath of
distilled water at atmospheric pressure. The precise temperature of the melting
point phase transition acts as a natural thermostat, fixing to 0 °C.
 Reference junction sensor (known as "cold junction compensation"): The reference

junction block is allowed to vary in temperature, but the temperature is measured at this
block using a separate temperature sensor. This secondary measurement is used to
compensate for temperature variation at the junction block. The thermocouple junction is
often exposed to extreme environments, while the reference junction is often mounted
near the instrument's location. Semiconductor thermometer devices are often used in
modern thermocouple instruments.
Thermocouples ideally should be very simple measurement devices, with each type being
characterized by a precise curve, independent of any other details. In reality, thermocouples
are affected by issues such as alloy manufacturing uncertainties, aging effects, and circuit
design mistakes/misunderstandings.
2) Circuit construction
A common error in thermocouple construction is related to cold junction compensation. If an

error is made on the estimation of, an error will appear in the temperature measurement. For
the simplest measurements, thermocouple wires are connected to copper far away from the
hot or cold point whose temperature is measured; this reference junction is then assumed to
be at room temperature, but that temperature can vary. Because of the nonlinearity in the

thermocouple voltage curve, the errors in and are generally unequal values. Some
thermocouples, such as Type B, have a relatively flat voltage curve near room temperature,
meaning that a large uncertainty in a room-temperature translates to only a small error
in Junctions should be made in a reliable manner, but there are many possible approaches to
accomplish this. For low temperatures, junctions can be brazed or soldered; however, it may
be difficult to find a suitable flux and this may not be suitable at the sensing junction due to
the solder's low melting point. Reference and extension junctions are therefore usually made
with screw terminal blocks. For high temperatures, the most common approach is the spot
weld or crimp using a durable material.
One common myth regarding thermocouples is that junctions must be made cleanly without
involving a third metal, to avoid unwanted added EMFs. This may result from another
common misunderstanding that the voltage is generated at the junction. In fact, the junctions
should in principle have uniform internal temperature; therefore, no voltage is generated at
the junction. The voltage is generated in the thermal gradient, along the wire.
A thermocouple produces small signals, often microvolts in magnitude. Precise

measurements of this signal require an amplifier with low input offset voltage and with care
taken to avoid thermal EMFs from self-heating within the voltmeter itself. If the
thermocouple wire has a high resistance for some reason (poor contact at junctions, or very
thin wires used for fast thermal response), the measuring instrument should have high input
impedance to prevent an offset in the measured voltage. A useful feature in thermocouple
instrumentation will simultaneously measure resistance and detect faulty connections in the
wiring or at thermocouple junctions.
3) Metallurgical grades
While a thermocouple wire type is often described by its chemical composition, the actual
aim is to produce a pair of wires that follow a standardized curve. Impurities affect each
batch of metal differently, producing variable See beck coefficients. To match the standard
behavior, thermocouple wire manufacturers will deliberately mix in additional impurities to
"dope" the alloy, compensating for uncontrolled variations in source material. As a result,
there are standard and specialized grades of thermocouple wire, depending on the level of
precision demanded in the thermocouple behavior. Precision grades may only be available in
matched pairs, where one wire is modified to compensate for deficiencies in the other wire.

A special case of thermocouple wire is known as "extension grade", designed to carry the
thermoelectric circuit over a longer distance. Extension wires follow the stated curve but for
various reasons they are not designed to be used in extreme environments and so they cannot
be used at the sensing junction in some applications. For example, an extension wire may be
in a different form, such as highly flexible with stranded construction and plastic insulation,
or be part of a multi-wire cable for carrying many thermocouple circuits. With expensive
noble metal thermocouples, the extension wires may even be made of a completely different,
cheaper material that mimics the standard type over a reduced temperature range.
Thermocouples are often used at high temperatures and in reactive furnace atmospheres. In
this case, the practical lifetime is limited by thermocouple aging. The thermoelectric
coefficients of the wires in a thermocouple that is used to measure very high temperatures
may change with time, and the measurement voltage accordingly drops. The simple
relationship between the temperature difference of the junctions and the measurement voltage
is only correct if each wire is homogeneous (uniform in composition). As thermocouples age
in a process, their conductors can lose homogeneity due to chemical and metallurgical
changes caused by extreme or prolonged exposure to high temperatures. If the aged section of
the thermocouple circuit is exposed to a temperature gradient, the measured voltage will
differ, resulting in error.
Aged thermocouples are only partly modified; for example, being unaffected in the parts
outside the furnace. For this reason, aged thermocouples cannot be taken out of their installed
location and recalibrated in a bath or test furnace to determine error. This also explains why
error can sometimes be observed when an aged thermocouple is pulled partly out of a furnace
—as the sensor is pulled back, aged sections may see exposure to increased temperature
gradients from hot to cold as the aged section now passes through the cooler refractory area,
contributing significant error to the measurement. Likewise, an aged thermocouple that is
pushed deeper into the furnace might sometimes provide a more accurate reading if being
pushed further into the furnace causes the temperature gradient to occur only in a fresh
section.
4) Types
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection of the
combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties,
stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different applications. They are

usually selected on the basis of the temperature range and sensitivity needed. Thermocouples
with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower resolutions. Other
selection criteria include the chemical inertness of the thermocouple material and whether it
is magnetic or not. Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the
positive electrode (assuming) first, followed by the negative electrode.
A) Nickel-alloy thermocouples
Figure 15 Nickel Alloy Thermocouple Graph
Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach intermediate temperatures, as covered

by nickel-alloy thermocouple types E, J, K, M, N, T. Also shown are the noble-metal alloy
type P and the pure noble-metal combinations gold–platinum and platinum–palladium.
1) Type E
Type E (chromel–constantan) has a high output (68 µV/°C), which makes it well suited
to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic. Wide range is −270 °C to +740 °C and
narrow range is −110 °C to +140 °C.
2) Type J
Type J (iron–constantan) has a more restricted range (−40 °C to +750 °C) than type K but
higher sensitivity of about 50 µV/°C. The Curie point of the iron (770 °C) causes a smooth
change in the characteristic, which determines the upper temperature limit. Note, the
European/German Type L is a variant of the type J, with a different specification for the EMF
output.

3) Type K
Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most common general-purpose thermocouple with a

sensitivity of approximately 41 µV/°C. It is inexpensive, and a wide variety of probes are
available in its −200 °C to +1350 °C (−330 °F to +2460 °F) range. Type K was specified at a
time when metallurgy was less advanced than it is today, and consequently characteristics
may vary considerably between samples. One of the constituent metals, nickel, is magnetic; a
characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material is that they undergo a deviation
in output when the material reaches its Curie point, which occurs for type K thermocouples at
around 185 °C.
They operate very well in oxidizing atmospheres. If, however, a mostly reducing atmosphere
(such as hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen) comes into contact with the wires, the
chromium in the chromel alloy oxidizes. This reduces the emf output, and the thermocouple
reads low. This phenomenon is known as green rot, due to the color of the affected alloy.
Although not always distinctively green, the chromel wire will develop a mottled silvery skin
and become magnetic. An easy way to check for this problem is to see whether the two wires
are magnetic (normally, chromel is non-magnetic).
Hydrogen in the atmosphere is the usual cause of green rot. At high temperatures, it can
diffuse through solid metals or an intact metal thermowell. Even a sheath of magnesium
oxide insulating the thermocouple will not keep the hydrogen out.
Green rot does not occur in atmospheres sufficiently rich in oxygen, or oxygen-free. A sealed
thermowell can be filled with inert gas, or an oxygen scavenger (e.g. a sacrificial titanium
wire) can be added. Alternatively, additional oxygen can be introduced into the thermowell.
Another option is using a different thermocouple type for the low-oxygen atmospheres where
green rot can occur; a type N thermocouple is a suitable alternative.
4) Type M
Type M (82%Ni/18%Mo–99.2%Ni/0.8%Co, by weight) are used in vacuum furnaces for the

same reasons as with type C (described below). Upper temperature is limited to 1400 °C. It is
less commonly used than other types.

5) Type N
Type N (Necrosol–Nisil) thermocouples are suitable for use between −270 °C and +1300 °C,
owing to its stability and oxidation resistance. Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C at 900 °C,
slightly lower compared to type K.
Designed at the Defense Science and Technology Organization (DSTO) of Australia, by Noel

A. Burley, type-N thermocouples overcome the three principal characteristic types and causes
of thermoelectric instability in the standard base-metal thermoelement materials:
1. A gradual and generally cumulative drift in thermal EMF on long exposure at elevated
temperatures. This is observed in all base-metal thermoelement materials and is mainly
due to compositional changes caused by oxidation, carburization, or neutron
irradiation that can produce transmutation in nuclear reactor environments. In the case of
type-K thermocouples, manganese and aluminum atoms from the KN (negative) wire
migrate to the KP (positive) wire, resulting in a down-scale drift due to chemical
contamination. This effect is cumulative and irreversible.
2. A short-term cyclic change in thermal EMF on heating in the temperature range about
250–650 °C, which occurs in thermocouples of types K, J, T, and E. This kind of EMF
instability is associated with structural changes such as magnetic short-range order in the
metallurgical composition.
3. A time-independent perturbation in thermal EMF in specific temperature ranges. This is
due to composition-dependent magnetic transformations that perturb the thermal EMFs
in type-K thermocouples in the range about 25–225 °C, and in type J above 730 °C.
The Necrosol and Nisil thermocouple alloys show greatly enhanced thermoelectric
stability relative to the other standard base-metal thermocouple alloys because their
compositions substantially reduce the thermoelectric instabilities described above. This is
achieved primarily by increasing component solute concentrations (chromium and
silicon) in a base of nickel above those required to cause a transition from internal to
external modes of oxidation, and by selecting solutes (silicon and magnesium) that
preferentially oxidize to form a diffusion-barrier, and hence oxidation-inhibiting films.
Type N thermocouples are suitable alternative to type K for low-oxygen conditions

where type K is prone to green rot. They are suitable for use in vacuum, inert

atmospheres, oxidizing atmospheres, or dry reducing atmospheres. They do not tolerate
the presence of sulfur.
6) Type T
Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to

350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement, since only copper wire touches the
probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no Curie point and thus no abrupt
change in characteristics. Type-T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C. Note
that copper has a much higher thermal conductivity than the alloys generally used in
thermocouple constructions, and so it is necessary to exercise extra care with thermally
anchoring type-T thermocouples. A similar composition is found in the obsolete Type U in
the German specification
B) Platinum/rhodium-alloy thermocouples
Figure 16 Platinum Rhodium Alloy Graph

Characteristic functions for high-temperature thermocouple types, showing Pt/Rh, W/Re,
Pt/Mo, and Ir/Rh-alloy thermocouples. Also shown is the Pt–Pd pure-metal thermocouple.
Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum/rhodium alloy for each

conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity than
other types, approximately 10 µV/°C. Type B, R, and S thermocouples are usually used only
for high-temperature measurements due to their high cost and low sensitivity. For type R and
S thermocouples, HTX platinum wire can be used in place of the pure platinum leg to
strengthen the thermocouple and prevent failures from grain growth that can occur in high
temperature and harsh conditions.
1) Type B
Type B (70%Pt/30%Rh–94%Pt/6%Rh, by weight) thermocouples are suited for use at up to

1800 °C. Type-B thermocouples produce the same output at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their
use below about 50 °C. The emf function has a minimum around 21 °C, meaning that cold-
junction compensation is easily performed, since the compensation voltage is essentially a
constant for a reference at typical room temperatures.
2) Type R
Type R (87%Pt/13%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples are used 0 to 1600 °C. Type R

Thermocouples are quite stable and capable of long operating life when used in clean,
favorable conditions. When used above 1100 °C ( 2000 °F), these thermocouples must be
protected from exposure to metallic and non-metallic vapors. Type R is not suitable for direct
insertion into metallic protecting tubes. Long term high temperature exposure causes grain
growth which can lead to mechanical failure and a negative calibration drift caused by
Rhodium diffusion to pure platinum leg as well as from Rhodium volatilization. This type has
the same uses as type S, but is not interchangeable with it.
3) Type S
Type S (90%Pt/10%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples, similar to type R, are used up to

1600 °C. Before the introduction of the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90),
precision type-S thermocouples were used as the practical standard thermometers for the
range of 630 °C to 1064 °C, based on an interpolation between the freezing points
of antimony, silver, and gold. Starting with ITS-90, platinum resistance thermometers have
taken over this range as standard thermometers.

C) Tungsten/rhenium-alloy thermocouples
These thermocouples are well suited for measuring extremely high temperatures. Typical
uses are hydrogen and inert atmospheres, as well as vacuum furnaces. They are not used in
oxidizing environments at high temperatures because of embrittlement . A typical range is 0
to 2315 °C, which can be extended to 2760 °C in inert atmosphere and to 3000 °C for brief
measurements.
Pure tungsten at high temperatures undergoes recrystallization and becomes brittle.

Therefore, types C and D are preferred over type G in some applications.
In presence of water vapor at high temperature, tungsten reacts to tungsten oxide, which
volatilizes away, and hydrogen. Hydrogen then reacts with tungsten oxide, water is formed
again. Such "water cycle" can lead to erosion of the thermocouple and eventual failure. In
high temperature vacuum applications it is therefore desirable to avoid presence of traces of
water.
An alternative to tungsten/rhenium is tungsten/molybdenum, but the voltage-temperature

response is weaker and has minimum at around 1000 K.
The thermocouple temperature is limited also by other materials used. For example beryllium
oxide, a popular material for high temperature applications, tends to gain conductivity with
temperature; a particular configuration of sensor had the insulation resistance dropping from
a mega ohm at 1000 K to 200 ohms at 2200 K. At high temperatures, the materials undergo
chemical reaction. At 2700 K beryllium oxide slightly reacts with tungsten, tungsten-rhenium
alloy, and tantalum; at 2600 K molybdenum reacts with BeO, tungsten does not react. BeO
begins melting at about 2820 K, magnesium oxide at about 3020 K.
3.1.4) Band Heater
Band heaters are ring-shaped heating devices that clamp around a cylindrical element. Heat
transfer from band heaters occurs via the conductive method. Most band heaters clamp
around the outer diameter of a cylindrical element and heat the element from the outside.
Some products clamp around the inner diameter of a pipe. Typically, band heaters are
quipped with ceramic or mineral insulation to reduce heat loss to the environment

Selecting band heaters requires an analysis of performance specifications and features.
Parameters to consider include: maximum operating or sheath temperature, AC voltage
required, and watts.
Maximum operating temperature is the maximum temperature that the sheath covering the
heater may reach. Note that maximum sheath temperature is not the maximum temperature
that a heated substance may reach.
AC voltage required is the minimum alternating current (AC) voltage required for band
heater operation.
Figure 17 Band Heater
Insulation
Typically, insulation is used to reduce heat loss to the environment. Choices include: no
insulation, ceramic insulation, mica insulation, mineral insulation, and fiberglass insulation.
Products with more than one type of insulation are commonly available.
 An uninsulated band heater has a lower profile and is useful in areas where space is at a
premium; however, an uninsulated band heater is not particularly energy efficient.

 Band heaters that are equipped with a layer of ceramic insulation can resist both heat and
chemicals. Ceramics are made of nonmetallic minerals, such as clay, that are permanently
hardened by high-temperature firing.
 Mica is valued for its electrical insulating properties and high resistance to heat and acids.
Features
Features for band heaters are cooling options, probe holes or cutouts on the band, insulated
shrouds, and expandable heaters
Chapter-4

Design And Result Analysis
4.1) According to design
Figure 18 Injection Overview
Figure 19 Framework
4.2)
Hopper

Figure 20 Hopper Top View
Figure 21 Hopper Cutting View
4.3) Wooden Base

Figure 22 Wooden Frame
4.4) Pull Rod

Figure 23 Pull Rod
4.5) Plunger

Figure 24 Plunger

Figure 25 Lever
4.6) Lever

4.7) Barrel
Figure 26 Barrel

4.8) Electronic Assembly Box

Figure 27 Electronic Assembly Box

4.9) Electronic Circuit Diagram
Figure 28 Electronic Circuit Diagram
4.10) Extrusion Machine

Figure 29 Injection Machine Full View

Chapter-5
Result
5.1) Scope of Plastic Injection Machine:

Injection molding machines are also known as injection molding machines or injection machines.
Many factories are called beer machines, and injection molding products are called beer pieces. It is
the main molding equipment for making thermoplastic or thermosetting materials into plastic products
of various shapes by using plastic molding dies. The injection molding machine can be divided into
vertical, horizontal and vertical composite according to the arrangement of the injection device and
the clamping device.
First, the granular or powdered plastic is added into the barrel, and the plastic is melted by the
rotation of the screw and the outer wall of the barrel, and then the machine performs the mold
clamping and the injection seat to move forward, so that the nozzle is in close contact with
the gate of the mold, and then Pressure oil is supplied to the injection cylinder to advance the
screw to inject the melt into the lower temperature closed mold at a high pressure and a high
speed, and maintain it after a certain period of time and pressure (also referred to as holding
pressure). After cooling, it is solidified and molded, and the product can be opened by mold
opening (the purpose of holding pressure is to prevent backflow of the melt in the cavity,
replenish the material into the cavity, and ensure that the product has a certain density and
dimensional tolerance). The basic requirements for injection molding are plasticization,
injection and molding. Plasticization is the premise to achieve and ensure the quality of
molded products, and in order to meet the molding requirements, injection must ensure
sufficient pressure and speed. At the same time, due to the high injection pressure, a
correspondingly high pressure is generated in the cavity (the average pressure in the cavity is
generally between 20 and 45 MPa), so a sufficient clamping force must be obtained. It can be
seen that the injection device and the clamping device are the key components of the
injection molding machine.
 Injection molding is used for making complex shape parts of various sizes having less wall
thickness.
 Typical parts like cup, containers, toys, plumbing fittings, electrical components, telephones
receivers, bottle caps, automotive parts and components.
5.2Merits and Demerits:
Merits:
 The main advantage of this process is that complex shapes components having small
wall thickness (5-15 mm) can be easily molded and removed from the die without
damage.
 Parts which are made by injection molding have good dimensional tolerance.
 The major advantage of this technique is that the scrap produced by this is very less as
compare to some other processes.
 Parts made by injection molding process are competing with parts made by investment
casting and complex machining parts.
 This process is having high production rate as compare to other techniques.
Demerits:
 Initial cost/ setup cost of this process is very high due to design, testing and tooling of the
whole equipment.
 Investment molding is generally limited to some special kind of materials like
thermoplastic materials or some polymers only.
 High tooling cost i.e. the mold used is made by several processes and testing the overall
cost of making a single mold is very high.



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A

Department Of Mechanical Engineering (Jaipur National University) 1

Rahul Kumar Yadav

Internal examiner External examiner

Department Of Mechanical Engineering (Jaipur National University) 2

Department Of Mechanical Engineering (Jaipur National University) 3

Department Of Mechanical Engineering (Jaipur National University) 4

Figure1 Global Production Graph

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S.no Name of components Cost

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 Chapter-4 Design And Analysis

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1.3) Types Of Recycling

1.3.1) Closed-Loop Recycling

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1.3.2) Open-loop recycling

1.3.3) Feed Stock Recycling

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Compared to the widespread use of incineration, plastic-to-fuel technologies have historically

Figure 2 Types of Plastic Logo

1.3.1) PET (Polyethylene terephthalate):

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Properties: lightweight, impact resistant, rigid/semi-rigid

Best ways to use with PP machines: we're working on that

1.3.2) HDPE (High-density polyethylene)

Properties: inert, thermally stable, tough and high tensile strength

1.3.3) PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)

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Properties: insulating, chemically inert

Properties: chemically inert, flexible, insulating

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Properties: some properties here

Properties: clear, glossy, hard, stiff

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3.1) Components of Plastic Injection Machine

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Figure 3 PID Controller Circuit Diagram

1) Working of PID Controller

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Figure 4 Proportional Control Diagram

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Figure 5 D Controller Response

5) Types of PID Controller

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3) Standard Type PID Controller

4) Real-Time PID Controllers

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B) Zeigler-Nichols method: Zeigler-Nichols proposed closed-loop methods for tuning the

C) PID Controller Structure

Figure 6 PID Structure

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